Yilmaz2015 773 965 (121 140) PDF

882 Engineering Seismology
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FIG. 8.2-52. (a) A 3-D view of top-coal-sequence surface corresponding to the depth-structure map in Figure 8.2-51a, and (b) a 3-D
view of base-coal-sequence surface corresponding to the depth structure map in Figure 8.2-51b.(Interpretation courtesy Atila Sefunc.)
Exploration of Earth Resources 883
8.3 MINERAL EXPLORATION Table 8-4. Acquisition parameters for the 3-D seismic
survey for the mineral-exploration case study.
A 3-D seismic survey was conducted at the Kazan Trona
Mining Site in Central Anatolia, formerly owned by Rio Number of receiver lines per shot 12
Number of receiver groups per line 60
Tinto and now operated by Eti Soda. The objectives were

Number of receiver groups per shot 720
(a) Delineation of the geometry of the trona seams within Receiver line interval 80{150 m
the depth interval of 350{950 m, Receiver group interval 25 m
(b) Mapping structural elements including faults within Geophone type 14 Hz, vertical
the project area, Shot line interval 50{220 m
(c) Inferring depositional history of the mineral deposit, Shot interval 25 m
and Bin size 12.5 12.5 m
(d) Establishing an economically optimum, long-term Nominal fold of coverage 45
mining development program. Specifically, the struc- Source-receiver oﬁset range 10{645 m
ture maps based on the 3-D seismic survey will enable Source-receiver elevation range 875{1090 m
the operator to decide locations, depths, and azi- Total number of shots 5310
muths of the future wells for in-situ mining. Total number of traces 3,254,052
Charge size 1 kg
Charge depth 10 m
Seismic Data Acquisition Sampling rate 2 ms
Record length 3s
Figure 8.3-1a shows the source-receiver map for the 3-D
seismic survey for the mineral-exploration case study.
Data acquisition parameters for the 3-D survey are listed
in Table 8-4. The size of the survey area is approxima- Next, a near-surface modeling was performed by analyzing
tely 18.5 km2 . The extent of the survey area is 5400 m the refraction traveltimes to compute the shot-receiver
in the NE direction (the inline direction) and 3450 m statics. Subsequently, residual statics corrections greatly
in the SE direction (the crossline direction). Elevations improved the continuity of reflections as shown in Figure
over the survey area vary between 875 and 1090 m | 8.3-2. Three-dimensional prestack time migration was
generally increasing from southeast to northwest performed using the 3-D stacking velocity field.
(Figure 8.3-1b).
An explosive seismic source was used with a charge
depth of 10 m and charge size of 1 kg. For a given shot, Interpretation
the number of receiver lines is 12, each comprising 60
receiver groups at an interval of 25 m. The receiver Figure 8.3-3 shows an inline and a crossline section from
line interval is 80 m in the NW segment of the survey the 3-D PSTM volume with structural interpretation of
area and 150 m in the remaining part. The source-station key geological markers and faults. Figure 8.3-4 shows the
interval is 50 m in the NW segment of the survey area time and depth structure maps of the target horizon |
and 220 m in the remaining part. The bin size is 12.5 Base Trona seam. This horizon dips down from northwest
12.5 m (inline crossline) with the nominal average fold to southeast and is intersected by a series of faults with a
of 45 (Figure 8.3-1c). general orientation in the NNW-SSE and N-S directions.
These faults have been generated by extensional tectonism
in the area.
Seismic Data Analysis The structural maps can be used to plan for an econ-
omically optimum, long-term mining development pro-
The signal processing sequence includes bandpass filter- gram. Specifically, the structure maps based on the 3-D
ing (3{250 Hz), spherical divergence correction, and spik- seismic survey enable engineers to decide on locations,
ing deconvolution with an operator length of 60 ms. depths, and azimuths of the future wells for in-situ mining.
FIG. 8.3-1. (a) Source-receiver map for the 3-D seismic survey for the mineral-exploration case study. The size of the survey area is
approximately 18.5 km2 . The extent of the survey area is 5400 m in the NE direction (the inline direction) and 3450 m in the SE direc-
tion (the crossline direction). Red asterisks represent the source locations and the blue lines represent the receiver locations. For a
given shot, the number of receiver lines is 12, each comprising 60 receiver groups at an interval of 25 m. The receiver line interval
is 80 m in the NW segment of the survey area and 150 m in the remaining part. The source-station interval is 50 m in the NW
segment of the survey area and 220 m in the remaining part. (b) Source-receiver elevation map. Elevations over the survey area
vary between 875 and 1090 m | generally increasing from southeast to northwest. (c) The fold of coverage map for the 3-D
seismic survey for the mineral-exploration case study. The nominal average fold is 45. (Figure courtesy Eti Soda Kazan Mining.)
FIG. 8.3-2. (a) A portion of an unmigrated crossline section before, and (b) after residual-statics corrections. (c) A portion of an
unmigrated inline section before, and (d) after residual-statics corrections. (Figure courtesy Eti Soda Kazan Mining.)
FIG. 8.3-3. Structural interpretation of (a) an inline section, and (b) a crossline section. Note the intensive faulting associated with
extensional tectonism. The Base Trona Seam horizon was picked and the time- and depth-structure maps shown in Figure 8.3-4 were
generated. The datum for display is at 900 m above sea level. (Figure and interpretation courtesy Eti Soda Kazan Mining.)
FIG. 8.3-4. (a) Time-structure map, and (b) depth-structure map of Base Trona horizon indicated in Figure 8.3-3. The latter was
generated by time-to-depth conversion of the time-structure map using available borehole velocities. (Figure and interpretation cour-
tesy Eti Soda Kazan Mining.)
8.4 GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION Figure 8.4-1 shows a seismic section from a sedimentary
basin along the dominant dip direction, perpendicular to
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy generated and the basin axis. Geothermal reservoirs usually are found in
stored within the Earth primarily as a result of convection sedimentary basins with narrow spatial extent in the dip
in the Mantle. In areas with active tectonism, the tempera- direction and long basin axis. Therefore, 2-D lines in a
ture at depths between 2000 and 4000 m can reach up seismic survey should be oriented parallel to each other
to 2508 C. The hot water at such depths can be pumped in the dip direction, perpendicular to the basin axis. The
up to the surface and used in generating electricity. highly faulted sedimentary sequence in Figure 8.4-1
Geothermal energy is renewable and theoretically is supplies water to the geothermal furnace at the bottom
abundant. Nevertheless, the cost of drilling through hard of the basin. To verify the presence of a geothermal reser-
crystalline rocks to a depth of 2000 to 4000 m can be voir, the seismic method may be complemented by the
high. Additionally, necessary measures need to be taken deep magnetotelluric (MT) method.
to reduce pipe corrosion by the mineral-rich deep water. Within the context of depth of interest, and acquisi-
The seismic method yields the geometry of the sedi- tion and processing of seismic data, geothermal exploration
mentary basin and the geometry of the interface between is where engineering seismology ends and exploration seis-
the sedimentary sequence and the crystalline basement. mology begins. And that is why this book ends here.
FIG. 8.4-1. A time-migrated seismic section in the dominant dip direction. The transition from the sedimentary sequence above
and the crystalline basement below is indicated by A, and the sediment-basement interface is indicated by B.Yellow curve segments
represent faults. Vertical depth scale is approximate. (Figure courtesy Turkish Petroleum Corporation.)
FIG. A-1. Stress components acting on an infinitesimally small volume surrounding a point within an
elastic solid.
FIG. A-2. Two points P and Q within a solid body subject to a stress field. The solid is deformed in some
manner and the particles at points P and Q are displaced to new locations P 0 and Q0 . If we define u, v, and w as
the components of displacement for point P , then the components of displacement for point Q are u þ u,
v þ v, and w þ w. The quantities u, v, and w are given by equation (A-2).
Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

891
FIG. A-3. Deformations caused by stress acting on one surface of the volume in Figure A-1: (a) linear
0
deformation that results in extension of the side AB in the x direction by an amount BB ; (b) shearing
only; (c) rotation only; (d) combined angular deformation ðÞ and rotation ðÞ. See text for details.

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Engineering Seismology

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882 Engineering Seismology

Tinto and now operated by Eti Soda. The objectives were

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation

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