TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

CE 533 Transportation Engineering

GROUP 2
Ansherina Shyla A. Bermudez
Jimmy C. Gallegos Jr.
Kenji Clyde N. Repuyan
Raffy Terence F. Malacura
Michael A. Marange

Ms. Jenny Siva

Submitted to
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway

transportation agency to improved roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for bot
providers and consumers of transportation services. There are two distinct types of traffic
management. The first one utilizes traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to
regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on advanced technology through the use of
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) advanced of ITS has been primary goal of many
developed countries. However, it is not uncommon in both developed and developing countries
to have a combination of conventional methods and ITS applications. An introduction to ITS is
provided in chapter 9.

2.2 TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Many individuals feel that traffic control measures are an encroachment on their individual
driving right. It must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right but a privilege. It is
therefore necessary to show that restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must be
demonstrated that regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.

Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration,
ownership, mechanical fitness, accessories, size, weight) and driver (age, ability to operate
specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility).

Traffic regulation must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through
careful study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis,
keeping driver record and other data.

All traffic regulation are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind
that unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.
2.2.1 Effective Traffic Regulation

There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be effective. These are as
follows:

a. Regulation should be rational.

Irrational regulations cannot be enforced except by tremendous effort and expense. Social,
economic, and human problems must be considered. If the habits of a community are greatly at
variance with the regulations, success cannot be attained for any substantial period of time.

b. Regulation should be developed progressively.

Regulations must be planned over a long period of time, and the effect must be carefully
observed so that alterations can be made as experience dictates, experience shows that abrupt
changes in regulation often lead to increase in the occurrence of traffic accidents.

c. Regulations alone often are not enough.

Regulation constitute but one approach to the overall traffic problem. When public acceptance is
poor and enforcement is lax, regulation may be totally ineffective. They must be used in
conjunction with control devices, overall highway planning and design, and administrative
policies.

2.2.2 Three Element of Road System

The road system consist of the following:

a. The road
b. The vehicle
c. The driver
Figure 2.1 suggests a balance among the three elements, i.e., a breakdown or deficiency
in one can lead to the failure of the entire system

Figure 2.1
Interaction of the three elements of the road system

The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and improvement. However, in a given
period of time, they may be considered inflexible. The major portion of existing regulations are
therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has become the most effective way of
controlling the number of drivers on the road. It should be used, therefore, to influence drivers to
become familiar with the rules of the road. This is especially true for the Filipino drivers,
considering the most accidents have been attribute to them.

For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which is vehicle registration.
Others are checks on equipment and accessories (lights, bells, mirrors, helmets, etc.), and
vehicle’s
dimensions and weight. Currently, the Motor Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS) is being
revitalized and expanded to cover the whole country.
2.3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed requirements or
conditions affecting road use at specific places and times so that proper action may be taken, and accident
or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:
a. Regulatory devices

These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the actions
of the road user.
b. Warning devices
These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions or
unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
c. Guiding devices
These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and other pertinent information.

2.3.1 Four Elementary Requirements of Every Traffic Control Device

To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet the following requirements (FHWA
1988):

a. It should compel attention.

b. It should convey a clear meaning at a glance.
c. It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d. It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended.

Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The effectiveness of a sign or
marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple, regular shapes), relative position,
and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear meaning, the shape, color, and message must
be well understood. The message should be kept as short as practicable because not more than three
familiar words can be conveyed at a glance. After capturing the clear meaning of the device, it should
provide adequate time for response. Simpler message like STOP or YIELD requires only a second, while
multiple choice (as in destination or guide sign) may require three to four seconds. Finally, all these
requirements –the design features of size and brightness, position allowing time for response, properly
maintained control device – should command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, ill-kept sign must
be discarded and replaced.

2.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS

Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or guide road
users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. they may be
considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in contrast with the color and
brightness of the pavement or other background.
 Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on Road
Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. their function
becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any prohibitive action at
specific places and/or at specified times.

To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorized public body or official
for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary construction work,
however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to install signs to protect the
public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.

Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been employed
and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often change.

Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:

a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they are traveling.
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions,
or prohibitions with which they must comply.
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature.

2.4.1 Elements of Design

Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and illumination or
reflectorization.

Shapes
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a. Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning signs.
b. Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.c. Rectangular shape shall be used for informative
signs.
d. Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e. Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.

Color
Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red borders.
Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols and red border.
Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue background and white
symbols.
STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols.
YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border.
Informative sign shall have a white or light-colored symbols on a dark-colored (blue or black)
background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored background.
 Size
The minimum dimension of signs depends upon the intended applications. Large sizes are necessary at
wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of the DPWH Highway Safety
Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement
Markings Manual, regulatory signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads
b. B for rural roads with speed limit between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressway

In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example,below should be followed: (Source: DPWH 2004)
Size Dimension (mm)
A. 600 x 600
B. 750 x 750
C. 900 x 900

The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the dimensions of various traffic signs and for
other details – letter, symbol, border, bar sizes, etc.

Illumination and reflectorization

Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and nighttime. During hours of darkness, this
can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.

Placement and height of signs

In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the directions, and facing the traffic
they intend to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially on roads following
the east and west directions as the sun’s brightness reflecting on the signs will be too glaring for the
drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each location must be carefully
studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs are generally placed in the right side of the
roadway.
On wider roads, overhead signs are often necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both
sides. Signs may also be placed on channelized islands.

a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the outer edge of the
road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance should not be less than 2 m nor
more than 5 m from the edge of the traveled way, except for large guide signs on expressways where
ample clearance may be required. (see figure 2.2).
In urban areas, signs soul be located away from the face of the curb not less than 30 cm but not more
than 1 m. if curb is mountable or semimountable, the minimum clearance should be 50 cm. On uncurbed
roads, the distance given for rural areas shall be used.
b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m above the nearest edge
of traveled way. For intersection direction signs, the height should be increased to 2 m. Final height is
dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly
visible under headlight illumination at night (see figure 2.2).
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a minimum of 2 m above the
top of the curb to prevent obstruction to the pedestrians.

c. Location of advance warning signs

In urban areas, warning signs should be placed no less than 30 m but no more than 100 m in advanced of
the hazardous area, while in rural areas they should be placed no less than 75 m but no more than 225 m
ahead of the hazardous area. The final location shall be determined based on the nature of the hazard,
reaction time, and operating speed in the area.
2.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS

2.5.1 Warning Signs

The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign – one is triangular in shape with a
red border and the other is diamond in shape (table 2.2). Upon signing the convention, the
signatory has to state which shape should be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the one
being used although the second may still be found in the rural areas. The coloring may also differ
in each form. However, the choice of color is left to the discretion of the signing body. Examples
of warning signs are shown in table 2.3.

Table 2.2
Shapes and colors of warning signs
 Table 2.3
Examples of Warning signs

2.5.2 Priority sign

Priority sign have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP and
Yield sign (table 2.4).

Table 2.4
Example of priority signs
2.5.3 Prohibition Signs
Prohibition signs are round with a red border and either a white or a yellow background. Access
restrictions signs can have a red bar from low right to top left. Parking prohibitions have a blue
background. The signs that signal the end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small black
border and a black bar from left below to right top. The bar can be replaced by a series of small
bars. In addition the symbol for which the end of prohibition is intended is given in gray.
Examples of prohibition signs are shown in table 2.5.

Table 2.5
Examples of prohibition signs
2.5.4 Obligatory Signs
The obligatory signs are round and in blue color. Examples are shown in table 2.6.

Table 2.6
Examples of obligatory signs

2.5.5 Other Prescription Signs

These signs are, in general, rectangular with either blue base with a white foreground, or with a
light base with a dark foreground.
These signs give prohibitions, obligations, or danger messages for particular lanes on a multilane
road. Each lane is represented by an arrow, to which the appropriate sign is affixed. Table 2.7
shows some examples. The background color blue is used for major roads, white for minor roads
and within built-up areas, and yellow for road works.
 Table 2.7
Examples of prescription signs
2.5.6 Information Signs
These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with the symbol that stands for the
serviced involved, the signs can be either blue or green. Examples are shown in table 2.8.

Table 2.8
Examples of information signs.

2.5.7 Direction Signs

A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general the forms shown must be adopted, and in
some cases even the color shown must be used and not be changed.
Table 2.9
Examples of directional signs
2.5.8 Additional Information
These signs are small and rectangular; they supplement the information on the main sign (table
2.10).
Table 2.10
Examples of supplemental signs

The meaning of the shape of road signs

• An octagon road sign conveys the need to stop. A stop sign is the only sign that uses this
shape.
• An upside down triangle road sign always means “yield.”
• Diamond-shaped road signs always warn of possible hazards ahead. These are traffic
signs, temporary traffic control signs, and some pedestrian and bicycle signs.
• Pennant-shaped road signs warn drivers of no passing zones.
• Round-shaped road signs are used for railroad signs. When you see a round traffic sign,
you will likely see a railroad crossing or light rail transit crossing signs ahead.
• A pentagon-shaped road signs provides warning that a school zone is ahead or school
crossing zone is approaching.
• A horizontal rectangle-shaped road signs usually provides guidance to drivers but can be
used for a variety of needs.
• Vertical rectangle road signs are typically used to inform drivers of regulatory notices,
such as speed limits.

The meaning of colors on road signs

• Red: Red generally means stop.

• Yellow: Yellow conveys a general caution message.
• Green: Green shows permitted traffic movements or directional guidance.
• Blue: Blue indicates road user services, tourist information, and evacuation routes.
2.6 PAVEMENT MARKINGS

used to convey messages to roadway users. They indicate which part of the road to use, provide
information about conditions ahead, and indicate where passing is allowed.

2.6.1 Functions and Limitations

- They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may be set into the surface
of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement markings are used as a
supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road signs.

Limitations of pavement markings

a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.

b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or
median).

c. They may be obscured by traffic.

d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials.

e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.

Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable conditions of conveying
warning message or information to drivers without diverting their attention from the road.

2.6.2 Legal Authority

Markings shall only be applied and/or removed by the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH).
An authority to which these powers are delegated (Municipal Ordinance).
All line-marking plans must be approved by the DPWH before installation.
2.6.3 Standardization

Standardization of the design does not preclude further improvement by minor changes in the
proportion of symbols, stroke width and height of letters, width of borders, or layout of word
messages. However, all shapes and colors must be indicated, all symbols musts be unmistakably
similar to those shown and all text must be specified – includes colour, shape, relative
dimensions, message, and illumination or reflectorizing

It also includes:

Warranted
Uniformed (Dimensions & Texture)
Specific Direction for all situations
Function of every symbols

2.6.4 Types of markings

Markings are classified into the following groups:

Pavement and curb markings

a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center line, Lane
Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity
Lines, and Transition Line.

b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line, Yield
(Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.

c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus & PUJ
Lane Lines.

d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands and Obstruction, Chevron
Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb Markings for
Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages and Symbols and Pavement
Arrows.

Object Markings

a. Object within the roadway

b. Object adjacent to the roadway

Reflector Makings

a. Retroreflector raised pavement markers

b. Hazard markers
c. Delineators
2.6.5 Materials

Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm above
the level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15
mm above the level of the carriageway.

The following are the commonly used material for road markings:

Paint - with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied

either by hand or with lie marking machines. For proper reflectorization at
night, the amount of glass beads used should be no less than 0.45 kg and
no more than 0.50 kg per liter mixed paint.

Thermoplastic materials - Use of thermoplastic materials with or without

reflective properties is recommended at location subject to extreme traffic
wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been
experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
- It also called hot melt marking paint. 200°C (392°F) to melt the powder

Glass Beads – Additives for Thermoplastic Road Paint to produce

Reflector and glossy effect. It also gives anti-skid performance even its
moisturized.

Precut sheeting - Precut materials both with or without reflective

properties are used. It is usually in adhesive tape form, with aggregate,
pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on the
other side.

Raised pavement markers - These are studs of plastic,

ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embedded into
the carriageway or attached to the road surface with
adhesive. They may be reflective or nonreflective.
2.6.6 Color

The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in the
following cases:

a. Double yellow “no-passing” lines

b. Unbroken portion of “no-parking” lines

c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking

d. On islands in line of traffic e. Bus and PUJ lanes (yellow)

e. Motorcycle Lane (Cloud blue)

Black - may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other permanent
objects – on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard
color for pavement marking.
2.6.7 Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be longitudinal, transverse, or oblique.
And depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they are either broken or solid lines. A broken line shall
consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps. The speed of vehicles on the section of road or
in the area in question should be taken into account in determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between
them. A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited. It is generally
used to replace or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier lines, center lines, etc. Solid lines may be
either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line is legally prohibited or not.

1. Solid white shoulder line. This denotes the edge

of the roadway. Any asphalt or concrete surface

5. Solid white double center line. You are forbidden
beyond this line should not be used during the normal from overtaking over this line, but you may make left
turns over it, provided the way is clear. Remember,
operation of your vehicle.
however, that oncoming traffic still automatically has
right of way.
2. Diagonal white lines. An area filled with diagonal
white lines and bordered by solid white lines is not 6. Solid yellow double center line. As we noted a
considered part of the roadway, and vehicles are while back, this line indicates that it is unsafe to
expected to stay off unless there is an emergency. overtake at any time. It is often found around blind
These areas are often used to ease the flow of traffic curves or in areas where fast-moving two-way traffic
where roads diverge or intersect. meets on an undivided road.
3. Broken white center line or lane divider. This
denotes the center of a two-lane road, or marks the
7. Mixed center line/solid yellow with broken
division between lanes on multi-lane roads. It is a
yellow or white line. This indicates that only one
reminder to stay in your lane. Straddling the line is
illegal and punishable under the law. As the line is side can overtake--the side with the broken line. This
is often found entering curves where the view is
“broken,” however, this means it is legal to cross it
obstructed coming from one direction, but is clear
when overtaking or changing lanes. Bear in mind that
from the opposite side.
vehicles continuing in a straight line within their lane
automatically have right of way, so wait your turn.
4. Solid white center line. This is often used to
divide traffic on a two-way multi-lane road. As this is
a solid line, you are discouraged from overtaking
over it unless the way is absolutely clear.
8. Solid white lane divider. These are often found
near intersections, and are reminders to stay in lane.
As a practice, if you're turning at an intersection, it's
best to get into the turning lane 50m before the
intersection, while the lane divider is still broken.
9. Directional arrows. When combined with solid 14. Rumble strips. These tightly spaced horizontal
white lane dividers, they indicate which directions white lines not only give your car's suspension a bit
you are allowed to go within a lane. If the arrow of a workout, they also indicate hazards ahead, such
points forward only, you cannot make a turn from as dangerous curves or merging traffic.
that lane. If it points forward and to the side, you can
either go straight or turn. If it points only to the side,
you must turn within that lane. Ignoring these arrows
might just get you a ticket, or worse, get you into an
accident.

15. Solid white horizontal line. This indicates where

you must stop at a stoplight or stop sign.

10. Broken blue lane divider. This indicates the

motorbike lane along major thoroughfares. The
broken line indicates that you can move into and out
of it, but the lane is preferentially for motorbikes.
16. Zebra crossing. This indicates a pedestrian
crossing zone. Stopping over this at a red light is a
traffic violation, so make sure to pay attention to
those light timers!

11. Solid yellow lane divider. This indicates the bus

lane on EDSA, but can also be used to indicate
bicycle lanes in some areas. Bicycle lanes may also
be indicated by solid white lines on the side of the
road.
12. Broken yellow lane divider. This indicates areas
where you can merge into the bus lane in preparation 17. The yellow box. This box indicates the part of the
for turning off EDSA. intersection that must--by law--be kept open at all
times. Even if you have a green light, if the traffic is
13. Mixed double lane divider/solid yellow with
stopped on the other side ahead, it's best to wait until
broken yellow or white line. This indicates that there's enough space for you to clear the yellow box.
traffic on the solid yellow side cannot cross lanes, Even in the absence of a light, the yellow box must
while traffic on the other side may do so if the way is be kept clear.
clear. This is often used where smaller arteries merge
into main roads or where feeder roads merge onto the
highway.
2.6.8 Width of Lines
The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage of the specified line.
Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver sees markings on the carriageway.
Overview
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They supplement the function
of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and signify the delineation of traffic path and its
lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe movement of traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the
safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse
markings, object markings and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the road etc.
will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Classification of road markings
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set into applied or attached to
the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and
informing the users. The road markings are classified as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object
markings, word messages, marking for parkings, marking at hazardous locations etc.

2.6.9 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three. they shall only be used
so supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words is variable, depending on the message and
location at which it is based. (Usually twice the length of the word if achievable.) The first word of the message is
to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. Un urban lowspeed areas, the order is optional.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall measure at least 2.5
m; oh high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m. Messages generally in use are STOP,
KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL PED XING, RAILROD XING, SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT)
TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.
2.6.10 Symbols
a. Give way (yield) symbol The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists of isosceles
triangle having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450 mm at the base and 150
mm for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line is between 5 m and 25 m, depending
on the location and vehicle speeds on that road.

b. Pavement arrows Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are generally 5m
in length on urban roads and 7.5m on high-speed roads. For half-turn movements, the stems of the
straight arrows can be bent to suit the particular direction of movements. The first set of arrows should be
placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar, and the supplement sets should be placed at 45m apart.

c. Numerals The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at location to
supplement limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by drivers.
2.7 OBJECT MARKINGS AND MARKERS
2.7.1 Object Markings Physical obstructions in or near a roadway that constitute serious traffic hazard,
including installations designed for the control of traffic, shall be adequately marked. Typical obstructions of
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
this character are bridge supports, monuments, traffic islands, beacons, signal and sign support, loading islands,
railroads and draw-bridge gates, posts of narrow bridges, underpass piers and abutments, culvert headwalls, poles,
trees, rocks, and structures giving restricted and overhead clearance. For additional emphasis it is also advisable to
mark obstructions rather than islands with reflectorized white paint with not less than five alternating black and
reflectorized white stripes. The stripes shall slope downward at an angle of 45 degrees toward the side of
obstruction, and shall be uniform and not less than 100 mm in width. A large surface, such as a bridge pier, may
require stripes of 300 mm.

In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the roadway, warning of approach to the hazard shall be
given by line markings on the pavements. Reflectorized yellow should be used in curbs of all islands located in the
line of traffic flows especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at T and offset intersections.

2.7.2 Raised Pavement Markers

Raised pavement markers are small rectangular or dome-shaped devices that are fixed to the pavement surface to
simulate or supplement painted pavement markings (figure 2.4). The markers can be reflective or nonreflective.

Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night and under wet conditions. The reflective types are
more brilliant than reflectorized paint markings. Because of high cost of installation and maintenance, use of raised
pavement markings may be considered only in accident-prone areas, e.g., on hilly areas where there is frequent fog
and rain
Hazard markers
Hazard markers are rectangular and generally consist of a series of alternating black and white bands. The white
portion is always reflectorized, but the reflectorized material may cover only the central portion of each white band
in order to achieve a balance between the areas of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands may
consist of either diagonal strips where only a target is required or of chevrons where directional as well as target
properties are desirable.

Delineators
Delineators are small reflective panels or buttons mounted on guide posts or guard fences as an effective aid for
night driving .Delineators are made of reflective material capable of reflecting light clearly visible under normal
atmospheric condition from a distance of 300-500 m when illuminated by the upper beam of a standard automobile
head lamp.