Psychosocial Stages by Erik Erikson

Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to
the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still
plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life. Erikson puts a great deal of
emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s identity.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of
uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the
care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will
carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three,
children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play
with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of will.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are
particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor
of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive”. Children begin to plan activities, make
up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of
initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of purpose.

4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority

Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The
stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they
will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an
important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

It occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of
self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals. During
adolescence the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel
uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with
others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a
family member. Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship,
begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We give back to society
through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities
and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives
as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become
dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of
closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

PSYCHOSEXUAL by Sigmund Frued

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

An infant's primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. If
this need is not met, the child may develop an oral fixation later in life, examples of which include thumb-
sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and overeating.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Too much pressure can result in an excessive
need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or
destructive behavior later in life.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Freud suggested that the primary focus of the id's energy is on the genitals. According to Freud, boy's
experience an Oedipal Complex and girl's experience and Electra Complex, or an attraction to the
opposite sex parent. To cope with this conflict, children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-
sex parent, thus forming the superego.
Latent Stage (6 to 11 years)

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.

Genital Stage (11 to 18 years)

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During this stage, people develop a
strong interest in the opposite. If development has been successful to this point, the individual will
continue to develop into a well-balanced person.

COGNITIVE STAGES by Jean Piaget

 The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. It was his observations of his daughter and nephew
that heavily influenced his conception of this stage. At this point in development, a child's
intelligence consists of their basic motor and sensory explorations of the world. Piaget believed
that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to
exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development. By
learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own
outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to
objects.
 The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding
the ideal of constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two
equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece
of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the
two pieces are exactly the same size.
 The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically,
but their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts. At this point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that
their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.
 The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the
ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them.
Vygostky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development centered on the ideas that social interaction and
imaginative play are large contributors to the process of cognitive development in children. He believed
that the social interactions that children engaged in helped them to both discover and create meaning
from the things that they discover.

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

Vygotsky also proposed something called the “zone of proximal development” and the idea of
“scaffolding” in a child’s development. The way this works is by recognizing that there are some things
a child cannot do independently, but they would be able to do with the assistance of someone else.

Language Development

Vygotsky was particularly interested in the role of language in cognitive development. Given that
language is vital to human interactions, he believed that language was the most important tool that
human could utilize.

 Social Speech – This is what Vygotsky referred to as the external communication that people
use to talk with other people, and he believed that this form of language was typical in children
from the age of two.
 Private Speech – This is what Vykotsky referred to as the internal communication that a
person directs to themselves. It serves an intellectual function, and it is typical in children from
the age of three.
 Silent Inner Speech – Vygotsky believed that this is what happens when private speech
diminishes in its audibility until it become a self-regulating function. He believed this was
typical in children from the age of seven.

Imaginative Play and Cognitive Development

This is the point where imaginative play comes into Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.
Adults may see children engaging in imaginative play, pretending to be pirates or princesses, and think
that it’s just a fun way that children entertain themselves. What they may not realize, however, is the
vital role that imaginative play serves in a child’s cognitive development. In fact, imaginative play
involves a very complex mental process that impacts the child’s overall life and development.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT by Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but
instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is
perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is,
the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the
individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of
others, only to the point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours"
mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
"what's in it for me?" and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief
that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed
on good behavior and people being "nice" to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one
is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need
for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—
thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at
stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post conventional
Throughout the post conventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that
individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by
their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and
justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be
obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a
situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should
be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary
to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision
and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally,
the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or
respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and
if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right
to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it
is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it
difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.