Engineering Manufacturing Lab Project No.

Laser Hardening

Submitted to: Dr. Muhammad Arif

Submitted by Waqas Ibrahim
Roll no. 18-MCE-49
Section B
Email waqas.ibrahim0314@gmail.com

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NFC-IEFR Faisalabad
Nov. 2019
 Laser Hardening

Laser is one of the most important inventions of the 20th century. Rapid
advances in laser technology in the past decade made it possible to perform various
operations such as heat treating, glazing, alloying, and cladding on surface of materials,
resulting in better physical properties of the surface and improved performance in the
given environment.

Why we use Laser?

As laser is an expensive source of energy, it is used only in cases where it offers
some technical and economic benefits compared to conventional methods. Among then
on-conventional techniques, laser surface treatment became most popular due to the
recent development of high power, neodymium yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd: YAG)
solid type, CO2 and diode lasers. These lasers may have pulsed or continuous output
power. One important area of surface-treatment is surface hardening. This is an
extensively used process in the treatment of surfaces on mechanical parts In
conventional methods of heat treatment, the component is heated to the required
temperature and then quenched in oil or water to achieve the desired hardness at the
surface.
Introduction to Laser hardening.
During laser hardening, also known as surface layer hardening, the energy from
the laser beam is applied directly to the component surface. The surface layer is heated
up to the hardening temperature (>1000°C) in a reduced area within a very short period
of time. Laser hardening is a method aimed at improving component wear behavior
One advantage of using a laser is that the amount of heat input is comparatively
low, so heat is transmitted into the base material relatively quickly. Self-quenching is
produced as a martensitic structure is formed and the hardening layer is 'cooled.'
A very tough, fine-grained structure is created thanks to the high heat-up rate
during laser hardening. The risk of cracks forming is very low thanks to self-quenching.
The precisely focused energy ensures that the component is subject to a comparatively
low impact from heat, bringing a great advantage in minimum quench distortion
Laser hardening is the perfect solution for processing highly stressed, complex
components. This is because there is practically no warping of the component during
processing due to targeted heat input that is confined to local areas. You can even open
up applications that would not be possible with conventional hardening methods such
as induction or flame hardening using the non-contact laser process. Since the
machining process can be controlled precisely, even geometrically complex and
delicate components can be hardened. The result is surfaces that can be strongly stressed
mechanically and chemically; they produce significant benefits in tool making, the
automotive industry, and in agricultural technology
What are the benefits of laser hardening?
• Less reworking
Due to the low heat input, the outlay for reworking is reduced or
eliminated entirely.
• Hardening small and delicate components
Compared to alternative processes, even locally restricted functional
surfaces can be hardened precisely using the laser.
• No distortion
While distortion is created during conventional hardening processes due
to higher energy input and the subsequent quenching, the component remains in
virtually its original state during laser hardening.
• Precise control
Due to the laser technology and the temperature control, the heat input
can be controlled precisely.
• Fast throughput time and high productivity
Due to the non-contact and distortion-free processing, the laser increases
the throughput time and reduces possible preparations and reworking.
• Completely independent of the geometry
With the TRUMPF scanner technology, hardness geometries can be
changed quickly "on the fly" on components. This means that no conversion of the
optics/the entire system is necessary.

How does the laser hardening process work?

• In laser hardening, the skin of a carbon-containing workpiece made from steel
or cast iron is heated up to just below the melting temperature – this is generally
around 900 to 1400°C. Around 40% of the irradiated power is absorbed. The
high temperature causes the carbon atoms in the metal lattice to rearrange
(austenitization).
• When the nominal temperature has been reached, the laser beam starts to move,
thereby steadily heating the surface in the direction of feed.
• As the laser beam moves on, the surrounding material cools down the hot surface
very quickly in a process known as self-quenching. As a result of the rapid
cooling, the metal lattice is unable to return to its original form, producing
martensite. This results in a significant increase in hardness.
 • The hardening depth of the outer layer is normally 0.1 to 1.5 millimeters,
although on some materials, it may be 2.5 millimeters or more.

Working Principle:
In most industrial applications, wear occurs only in selected areas of the
component; hence, it is sufficient to harden these areas to enhance the performance of
the component. The advantages of using laser for surface processing results from its
highly directional nature and the ability to deliver controlled amounts of energy to
desired regions. The energy input is dependent on the absorptivity of the material. Only
a fraction of the laser energy is absorbed by the material and the remaining portion is
reflected from the surface. The absorption of a polished metal surface depends strongly
on the wave length of irradiation. In the case of steels, the absorptivity increases when
the wavelength is short. The wave length of Nd: YAG laser beam is 1.064 μm where
the CO2 laser beam is 10.6 μm. So the Nd: YAG laser which is having short wave length
is suitable for surface hardening of steel. Due to higher wavelength, CO2 laser offers a
low coupling interaction with metallic substances. Before CO2 laser hardening (LH),
painting or coating has to be applied on the base metal to increase the absorption rate.
The used paint or coating causes pollution and hazardous effects to the environment. In
contrast, Nd: YAG laser is emerging as a competitive tool in surface modification due
to the short wavelength and high absorb ingrate of the materials and coating of base
material is not needed which is the advantage compared to CO2 laser. A schematic
sketch of the Nd: YAG laser surface hardening (LSH) system. The laser energy
generated from Nd:YAG laser can be transformed via fibre optic cable to the workplace
which is not possible by CO2 laser. Inert gases Ar, Ne and He are used to avoid
atmospheric contamination.

Advantage of laser hardening:

• Precise energy input with minimum heat effect
• Low distortion, so little to no finishing work required
• Less hardness stress
• Low risk of cracking
• No media required for quenching.
• Low energy usage in comparison with conventional surface heat-treatment
processes
• Energy input can be adjusted in a wide range by changing laser-beam power,
with converging lenses having different focuses at different levels of defocus,
and by choosing different travel speeds of work piece
• The optical system for beam guidance from the source to the work piece surface
can be adjusted to the hardened-layer profile form, i.e., to the exactness of the
product using lenses and mirrors of different shapes
• A hardened surface will be obtained by self-quenching of the heated surface
layer
• Without any quenching media, the hardening processes are clean and the work
pieces need not be cleaned
• Beam guidance over the work piece surface can be automated
• Heat treatment can be done on small parts
• Good reproducibility of the microstructure and profile of the surface-hardened
layer.

Disadvantages of Laser Hardening:

• high initial investment
• surface preparation is needed in some cases
• protection against radiation is required
• highly skilled operators are needed.
• The oxide-free clean metallic surfaces are highly reflective of laser radiation,
requiring the application of absorption coating on the surface being laser heat
treated
• Non availability of enough high-power lasers to heat-treat large surface areas in
a single pass
• Tempering of the overlapped zone causing softening of the hardened zone when
a large surface area is covered by overlapped laser passes
• Maximum hardness and depth of hardening dependent on temperature rise and
cooling rate, predicting them in components of different shapes and mass
 distribution is an issue. This necessitates online process monitoring with
feedback control for reproducibility of results

Theoretical viewpoint about Laser Hardening:

Laser surface hardening (LSH) is one of the most widely used surface hardening
process which can be applied to almost the whole range of metallic materials in today’s
applications. Laser beam is focused to the localized region for hardening the required
portion of the material. High intensity laser radiation is involved for heating the surface
of steel into the austenitic region. Steep temperature gradient arises, due to high rates
of heat transformation that results in instant cooling by conduction. It causes the phase
conversion from austenite to martensite without the need for external quenching.
Among various types of lasers, CO2, Nd: YAG and diode lasers are the widely used
lasers for hardening in industries.
• Selective and localized heat treatment of engineering parts controlled by the laser
beam
• Self-quenching through heat conduction in the cold interior of the part without
the requirement of any external quenchant, unlike conventional heat treatment
processes
• Minimum heat input energy
• Negligible part distortion, thus applicable on the finished part
• No need of post processing
• Controlled case depth within a mm or so from the surface
• Improved fatigue life
 Laser hardening is usually done in medium carbon steels and low alloy steels
having a carbon content of less than 2 wt%. The laser hardening process is
fundamentally similar to the conventional hardening process with the difference being
that this does not often require an external quenching medium.

This involves the following three steps:

• Heating a top surface layer by laser to a temperature above Ac3 austenitization
temperature, but below the melting point.

The plain carbon steel having a eutectoid carbon percentage of 0.76 wt% has a
pearlitic microstructure, which consists of lamellae of two phases: ferrite (α phase) and
cementite (Fe3C). Ferrite has a body centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure and can
dissolve a maximum of 0.008 wt% C at room temperature and 0.028 wt% at eutectoid
temperature, 727°C (Ac1) and above. Cementite (Fe3C) is an intermetallic compound
consisting of 6.67 wt% carbon. Hypereutectoid steel has more than 0.76 wt% C and it
consists of pearlite grains accommodating 0.76% carbon. The remaining carbon in the
form of cementite is distributed around pearlite grains. The microstructure of hypo-
eutectoid steel, which has less than 0.76 wt% carbon, consists of ferrite grains and
pearlite colonies. In laser hardening of hypo-eutectic steel, as the eutectoid temperature,
Ac1 (727°C), is reached during laser heating, pearlite colonies transform into austenite
(γ phase)
This has a face centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure and can dissolve 0.76 wt%
C at eutectoid temperature and a maximum of 2.14 wt% C in solid solution at 1147°C.
Cemetites (Fe3C) in pearlite begin dissolving and the carbon starts diffusing into
eutectoid ferrite lamellae transformed austenite. Carbon from high-content austenite
also diffuses into low-content austenite and proeutectoid ferrite. Proeutectoid ferrite
also starts transforming into austenite at the eutectoid temperature, becoming
completely transformed when the temperature reaches the Ac3 point.

• Holding the heated surface layer above the austenitization temperature Ac3 for
enough time for the complete transformation of proeutectoid ferrite to austenite,
dissolution of cementite (Fe3C), and diffusion of carbon uniformly in austenite
phase. This depends on the prior size of the pearlite colonies and that of the
proeutectoid ferrite regions. Laser.

Subsequent fast cooling by self-quenching through heat conduction in the rest of

the bulk material for FCC austenite phase to transform into tetragonal body centered
martensite metastable phase. All austenite material with carbon content more than a
critical value Cc (which is usually taken to be 0.05 wt% C) transforms to martensite;
the remaining reverts to ferrite [7]. Fig. 11.2 schematically shows the body centered
tetragonal unit cell of martensite steel.
The tetragonality arises from the preferential occupation of octahedral interstitial
sites along the c axis by carbons. Martensite is a hard and brittle metastable phase. Its
hardness depends on the extent of tetragonal distortion as measured by the ratio of the
longer c axis to the shorter a axis (square face), which in turn depends on the carbon
content. The higher the carbon content, the higher the c/a ratio
The degree of tetragonality varies with carbon content and shows the average
relationship between carbon content and hardness for steels containing different
amounts of martensite.
Austenite to martensite transformation is a diffusionless process. The cooling
rate required for martensite transformation depends on the carbon content and other
alloying elements present in the steel, which tend to slow the decomposition of austenite
into ferrite and pearlite.

Lasers in Surface Hardening

Until recently, high-power CW CO2 lasers operating at ~10 μm wavelength,

lasers where the technology was first matured and became commercially available for
industrial applications, were mostly used for heat treatment application. With the
development of high-power solid-state Nd:YAG, disk and fiber lasers operating at ~1
wavelength and newer high power diode lasers operating in the 0.8–0.9 μm
wavelengths, CO2 lasers are now facing competition due to several advantages of using
these lasers. When the CO2 laser beam is incident on a polished steel surface, more than
70%–80% of the laser power is reflected. Though the absorptivity tends to increase with
the increase of surface temperature, absorbing coating of some suitable material, such
as magnesium phosphate, zinc phosphate, or colloidal graphite, is usually applied on
the surface. This increases the laser power absorption for effective surface hardening,
which incursextra cost to the process for application and removal. Solid-state and diode
lasers with wavelengths about one-tenth of the CO2 laser wavelength have higher
absorption than a CO2 laser due to their shorter wavelengths. This means that the need
for surface coating is greatly relaxed. Moreover, low-loss optical fibers are
commercially available to transmit and deliver the high-power beam of ~1 μm
wavelength from solid-state and diode lasers.

Materials for Laser Surface Hardening

It is mentioned above that ferrous materials like medium carbon steels and low
alloy steels are amenable to laser surface hardening. More specifically, this means AISI
1040 [4], 1045 [23], and low alloy steels for dies like AISI 4140 [12] or x40Cr13, 5135
[5], heavy duty and ball bearing steels like 100Cr6, tool steels like X210CrW12,
martensitic stainless steel, such as AISI 420 [24] 440C [35], railroad steels [36], and
other steels [3–6,16,19–23,37].

Practical Application of Laser Hardening

Some of the practical application of laser hardening are given bellow

Hardening of a key way on a shaft

 The top and bottom surface of a piston ring groove
have been selectively heat

Heat treatment of the bearing contact area on a wheel

spindle of a large vehicle using a diode laser