1G Shaking Table Test On Effect Of Water Content On

Embankment Liquefaction
Zamsyar Giendhra Fad
The University of Tokyo, Civil Engineering Department, JAPAN
Junichi Koseki
The University of Tokyo, Civil Engineering Department, JAPAN
Takaki Matsumaru
Railway Technical Research Institute, JAPAN

ABSTRAK: Muka air tanah dan area jenuh air yang tinggi pada tanggul akibat rembesan dari lapisan tanah
bawah atau infiltrasi air hujan telah menjadi perhatian sebagai salah satu faktor yang menyebabkan likuifaksi
tanggul saat gempa terjadi. Paper ini menampilkan eksperimen efek kadar air berbeda pada tanggul yang
berdiri diatas tanah non-likuifaksi menggunakan tes 1g shaking table. Initial suction diukur menggunakan alat
triaxial, dimana hasilnya menunjukkan efek initial suction terhadap likuifaksi tanggul. Tanggul dengan nilai
suction yang hampir mendekati nol menunjukkan deformasi terbesar dibandingkan dengan tanggul lainnya
yang memiliki nilai suction yang lebih tinggi. Likuifaksi dianalisa melalui perilaku cyclic stress - strain yang
didapatkan dari perhitungan data accelerometers dan pore pressure transducers. Likuifaksi terjadi pada bagian
dasar hingga bagian tengah tanggul dan beberapa bagian pada kemiringan dan kaki tanggul.
Kata Kunci: 1g shaking table test, tanggul, kadar air, suction, likuifaksi, cyclic stress - strain

ABSTRACT: The high ground water level or saturated-water region inside the embankment due to the seepage
of ground water level or rainfall infiltration has been considered as an important factor that caused the
liquefaction of embankment during earthquakes. This paper presents an experimental study of the different
water contents of the embankment founded on non-liquefiable subsoil using 1g shaking table test. The initial
suction of each test was measured using triaxial apparatus where it is revealed that the suction plays an
important role on the liquefaction of embankment. The embankment with has almost zero suction exhibited
the largest deformation compared to the other embankments with higher suction. The liquefaction of
embankment was evaluated using the cyclic stress – strain behavior which was obtained from the calculation
of representative sensor data. The embankment was liquefied from the base up to the middle section of the
embankment and limited at the slope and toe of the embankment.

Keywords: 1g shaking table test, embankment, water content, suction, liquefaction, cyclic stress - strain

1 INTRODUCTION

Liquefaction of embankment was initially discussed
in the damaged Kushiro River Embankment, on
January 15th, 1993, Japan was shocked by
earthquakes of magnitude 7.8 at the depth of the
source 107 km. It was reported that accelerations of
711-919 gal measured at the local weather station,
while accelerations of 300-500 gal were reported
within 100 km of the epicenter. The damage of
Kushiro river embankment was 26,306 m length
along 52 sections. Sasaki et al. (1994), Kaneko et al.
(1996) and Finn et al., (1997) discussed the
mechanism of the Kushiro river embankment failure.
The embankment was resting on non-liquefiable
subsoil layer. The subsoil was a peat layer of 3-6 m
thickness that was level before the construction. Due
to the weight of embankment, it induced
consolidation of the subsoil, where the embankment
base moved to the subsoil around 50 cm and caused
the seepage of the water from the subsoil to the
embankment. The water-saturated region inside the
embankment rises higher due to the rainfall
infiltration. Hence, the damage led the interpretation
of the liquefaction inside the embankment.
The same effect of a water-saturated region inside
the embankment during the earthquakes has been
observed in many damaged embankments during
2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake
(Tohoku Regional Development Bureau of MLIT,
2011). As an evidence of liquefaction of
embankment, sand boils have been found in the
embankments during the investigation. Figure 1,
shows the severe damage of Naruse river
embankment at Shimo-Nakanome site, where lateral
expansion induced crack and sand boil was easily
seen inside the crack of the embankment.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Damaged Naruse river embankment and (b)
sand boil inside the crack of the embankment. Source
Sasaki et al. (2012)
A large number of the damaged embankment has
been found resting on clayey subsoil (Oka et al.,
2012) that is not likely to liquefy, during 2011 off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake. The subsoil
investigation of the damaged Naka river embankment
near Hinuma Lake shows that the subsoil was a thick
clay with the thickness of 20 m.
This paper presents 1G shaking table tests on the
liquefaction of embankment resting on non-
liquefiable layer with different water contents.
Attempts have been made to study the dynamic
stability of different water contents of the inclined
embankment by using centrifugal model test (Higo et
al., 2015). The liquefaction of the subsoil has been
also studied by using centrifugal model test and 1G
shaking table test (e.g., Koga, and Matsuo, 1990, and
Okamura et al., 2013). However, there has been only
limited attempt to study liquefaction of embankment
that rests on a non-liquefiable layer.
2 METHOD OF STUDY
2.1 1G shaking table test
Shaking table tests were conducted at Geotechnical
Laboratory, The University of Tokyo. It is 3m x 2m
bi-axial shaking table of x and y shaking directions
with loading capacity 7 tons and operating capacity 2-
50 Hz. The maximum acceleration is 1000 Gal, the
maximum velocity is 27 cm/s, and the maximum
displacement is 200 mm.
The embankment was prepared inside 260 cm
length x 40 cm width x 60 cm depth rigid soil
container. The container was made of steel frame and
transparent acrylic to allow the observation during the
shaking test. The bottom of soil container is mounted
on the top of shaking table and pipes are installed at
the bottom to allow water flow uniformly.
The subsoil was prepared with air pluviation
method by using a sand hopper, while for the
embankment, sand with a certain degree of water
content was prepared by using dynamic tamping.
Accelerometer sensors, pore pressure transducers,
volumetric water content and laser displacement
sensors were used to record the subsoil and
embankment response to the shaking.
2.2 Model Preparation
Silica sand # 7 was used for experiments. Table 1
shows the properties of silica sand #7. The model
consists of two parts, they are subsoil and
embankment; the subsoil is made as a dense saturated
layer with the thickness of 20 cm. The subsoil is
prepared by air pluviation method using sand hopper
to achieve relative density of 100%, by referring to
the sand hopper calibration. After filling the sand to
20 cm height, the subsoil was saturated by infiltrating
water slowly to the soil from the bottom of the soil
box until reach the soil surface. Despite the purpose
of this research is to study the liquefaction of
embankment, the subsoil was prepared to avoid the
shear effect between embankment and the bottom of
soil box, besides that it is also considered to be more
realistic.
The embankment is made by dynamic compaction.
The soil was mixed with a certain amount of water to
reach the target saturation. To ensure the
homogeneity of soil density, embankment was
prepared by each 5 cm. The embankment was
prepared in 50% relative density. Figure 2 shows the
model and location of sensors. Table 3 summarizes the
experiment cases.
Table 2 shows the input motion, artificial sinusoidal
waves were applying in several steps until excessive
failure observed, by increasing the amplitude from
350 Gal and increased at 50 Gal larger at each step,
while the frequency and duration was fixed at 4 Hz
and 10 sec, respectively.
 ′
2.3 Data Preparation The initial effective stress 𝜎𝑉𝑜 is calculated by
′ ∗
Shear stress and shear strain behavior of both 𝝈𝑽𝒐 = ∑ 𝝆 . 𝒈 . 𝒉 (4)
embankment and subsoil at several locations were 𝝆t = wet density of the soil, 𝝆sat = Saturated density
calculated by using the data from accelerometer and of soil, 𝒈 = gravity acceleration, 𝒉 = depth from the
pore pressure transducer. Shear strain(𝛾) data was model surface.
calculated from accelerometers data. Double
integration of two adjacent accelerometers was Table 1 Soil properties of Silica Sand #7
Specific Gravity, Gs 2.640
calculated to obtain the differential displacement. The
Maximum Void ratio, emax 1.243
principal of calculation is referred to Koga Y. and
Minimum Void ratio, emin 0.743
Matsuo O. (1990). The shear strain is calculated by
∆𝒅 Mean particle diameter, D50 (mm) 0.206
𝜸 = (∆𝒉) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% (1) Effective particle diameter, D10 (mm) 0.115
∆𝒅 = differential horizontal displacement between Coefficient of Uniformity, Uc 2.00
two adjacent points, ∆𝒉 = vertical distance between Coefficient of curvature, U’c 0.98
two accelerometers Table 3 Input motion
Amplitude Frequency Duration
Shear stress (𝜏) data was calculated by integrating Step (Gal) (Hz) (sec)
inertial force from the surface to its depth, as given in
this formula 1 350 4 10
𝝉 = ∑ 𝒎𝒂 (2) 2 400 4 10
𝒎 = mass of the soil column, 𝒂 = response 3 450 4 10
acceleration 4 500 4 10
5 550 4 10
The vertical effective stress 𝝈′𝑽 is calculated by 6 600 4 10
using this formula 7 650 4 10
𝝈′𝑽 = 𝝈′𝑽𝒐 − ∆𝒖 (3) 8 700 4 10
′
𝝈𝑽𝒐 = initial vertical effective stress, ∆𝒖 = excess
pore water pressure.

Table 2 Summary of shaking table test

Subsoil Embankment
Height of
Dr (%) Sr (%) Dr (%) w (%)
Test No. Embankment Slope
Relative Degree of Relative Water
(m)
Density Saturation Density Content
5 0.3 1:2 100 100 50 25
6 0.3 1:2 100 100 50 30
7 0.3 1:2 100 100 50 32

Figure 2. Model and location of sensors

3 DISCUSSION contents of 25%, 30% and at the maximum 32%,

respectively. The data of moisture content at the
To study the behavior of water-saturated region inside middle part of embankment, shows higher initial
the embankment, 1G shaking table test #5, test #6 and water content than the design water content of the test.
test #7 have been conducted with different water This was caused by the seepage of the water from the
subsoil. Meanwhile, the initial water content at the
crest of embankment was relatively similar to the test
condition as designed.
Figure 3 shows the suction vs. degree of saturation
from SWCC test and the measured suction of
different water contents by the triaxial test. The
hysteresis was observed in drying and wetting curves,
where the measured suction (by triaxial test) of water
content 10%, 25%, 30%, and 32% were located near
the wetting curve, while measured suction of water
content 32% was located close to the drying curve,
where it shows almost no suction.
The settlement of the crest of embankment of
every test is shown in Figure 4. It is noted that the
higher water content of embankment caused larger
settlement. The embankments with the water contents
25% and 30% exhibited almost similar settlements to
each other, while at the maximum water content of
32%, the largest settlement was observed among the
tests, one of the possibility due to almost no initial
suction. The settlement at the shoulder of
embankment and displacement at the middle slope of
embankment showed the same tendency with the
settlement at the crest. However, the displacement at
the toe of embankment have almost no differences
among the tests.
16 Drying
Wetting
Suction (Triaxial Test)
12
Suction (kPa)
w 20%
8 w 25%
4 w 32%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Degree of Saturation (%)
Figure 3. SWCC and suction (from triaxial test
measurement) of silica sand #7
60
Location: Crest of embankment
Settlement (mm)
40
Case 5
Case 6
Case 7
20
0
1 2 3 4
Shaking Step
Figure 4. Crest Settlement
Table 4 summarizes the failure condition of each
test. Embankments of test #5 and test #6 were
damaged at the same shaking step, step 6 (600 Gal,
4Hz and 10 sec), while that of test #7 failed earlier, at
step 5 (550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec). There were no
significant deformation observed for all of the tests on
corresponding’s previous shaking step. Larger lateral
spreading was observed at the slope of embankment
for test #6 and test #7. For all of the cases, the
displacement of the embankment started at 5 s
gradually until 7.5 s and then accumulated until the
end of the shaking.
Table 4 Summary of the embankment failure
Accumulated
Test Failure Deformation at
Settlement at the
No. Time the slope (mm)
Crest (mm)
5 step 6; 10.16 -5.29
6 step 6; 22.26 -42.47
7 step 5; 19.99 -32.5
3.1 Response of the model during shaking
The pore water pressure of test #5, test #6 and test
#7 are compared in Figure 5. A pair of pore water
pressure data from pore pressure transducer with
mesh filter and ceramic filter was combined, where
initial pore water pressure was obtained from ceramic
filter pore pressure transducer data while excess pore
water pressure during shaking was obtained from
mesh filter pore pressure transducer data. The pairs
are PW101 – PW02-1, PW84 – PW38, and PW93 –
PW83-2 were given the name of pore pressure
transducer with the mesh filter in the graphs.
At the shaking step 5 (550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec),
w 30% high excess pore water pressure was observed in test
#7, where the embankment was damage after
reaching certain increased of pore water pressure. In
the contrary, no significant increase of pore water can
be observed in test #5 and test #6.
The increase of pore water pressure at the center of
embankment (PW84 and PW93) were reaching initial
effective stress. Although excess pore water pressure
at the top (PW74) of embankment was increasing but
it was not reaching initial effective stress. While at
subsoil (PW95) in test #7, the increase of pore water
pressure was not reaching initial effective stress, due
to the confining pressure from the weight of
embankment. It is noted that at the subsoil (PW95)
the pore water pressure increases differently depend
on the different condition of water content of
embankment.
Figure 6 shows the response acceleration of test
5 6 #7. In step 5 of test #7, as the excess pore water
pressure in the embankment increased, input wave
was more amplified in the embankment (AC24 and
AC68-2).
3.2 Cyclic stress-strain behavior contrary, cyclic stress – strain behavior of element of test
#6 did not indicate liquefaction at this shaking step.
Figure 7 shows the shear stress – shear strain
Figure 8 shows the cyclic stress – strain behavior that
relationship and the stress path of test #7, test #6 and test
located on the area where it is subjected to the initial static
#5 at the base of embankment (PW93) during shaking step
horizontal shear stress, at the slope of embankment for test
5 (550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec). Shear stress – shear strain
#7. The analysis of each test has been made at the shaking
relationship of test #7 shows a round shaped hysteresis
step where the embankment was failure. Shaking step 5
with large strain amplitude. The stress of stress path of test
(550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec) is prepared for test #7. The
#7 reached zero vertical effective stress which is indicating
stress path at the slope of embankment (PW14) in test #7
softening occurred from the base of embankment while the
reach zero vertical effective stress.
middle section of embankment was liquefied. In the

8 8
PW93 (Case5)
PW101 (Case5) PW93 (Case6)
6

Pressure (kPa)
6
Pressure (kPa)

PW101 (Case6) PW93 (Case7)

Pore Water
PW101 (Case7) 'v0 Test #7
Pore Water

'v0 Test #7 4
4
2 2

0 0

-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec) Time (sec)
8 8
PW95 (Case5)
PW84 (Case5)
6

Pressure (kPa)
PW95 (Case6)
6
Pressure (kPa)

PW84 (Case6)
PW95 (Case7)

Pore Water
PW84 (Case7)
Pore Water

'v0 Test #7
'v0 Test #7 4
4
2
2
0
0
-2
-2 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15 20 25 Time (sec)
Time (sec)
Figure 5. Excess pore water pressure of test #5, test #6 and test #7

4 4 4
AC24 AC68-2 AC82
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

2 2 2

0 0 0

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
Time (Sec) Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Figure 6. Response acceleration of test #7 at step 5 (550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec)
2 2
Test 7: Step 5, 550 gal Test 7: Step 5, 550 gal
Location: PW93 Location: PW93
Shear Stress  (kPa)
Shear Stress  (kPa)

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2
-10 -5 0 5 10 -2
-2 0 2 4 6 8
Shear Strain  (%) Effective Vertical Stress 'v (kPa)
2 2
Test 6: Step 5, 550 gal Test 6: Step 5, 550 gal
Location: PW93 Location: PW93
Shear Stress  (kPa)
Shear Stress  (kPa)

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2
-10 -5 0 5 10 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Shear Strain  (%) Effective Vertical Stress 'v (kPa)
Figure 7. Comparison of cyclic stress - strain at the middle of embankment, PW84 (step 5: 550 Gal, 4Hz and 10 sec)
 4 Test 7: Step 6, 550 gal
Location: PW14
Shear Stress  (kPa)
2 2
0 0
-2
-10 -5 0 5
Shear Strain  (%)
Figure 8. Cyclic stress –strain behavior where initial static horizontal shear stress applied (test #7, step 5: 550 Gal, 4Hz
and 10sec)
4 SUMMARY
Study of the liquefaction of embankment has been
conducted by reproducing the liquefaction of
embankment in the 1G shaking table test. The study
has been made by analyzed the effect degree of
saturation inside the embankment. Besides that,
attempts to analyze the cyclic stress – strain behavior
have been made in this study. The embankment with
water content 32% was significantly damaged at the
shaking step 5 (550 Gal, 4hz and 10 sec), while the
embankment with water content 25% and 30% were
damaged at the shaking step (600 Gal, 4Hz and 10
sec). The cyclic stress – strain analysis indicated
liquefaction occurrence from the base up to the
middle section embankment, while top section of
embankment was not liquefied. In the soil-water
characteristic curve, the water content of 32% is
located at the saturated (maximum) degree of
saturation, while water content of 30% and 25% are
on the same suction (around 2.2). This coincides with
the deformation of its embankment, where
embankment with initial water content 30% and 25%
were failed at the same shaking step. The
embankment with initial water content 32% was
deformed largely, one of the possibility due to almost
no initial suction.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author would like to gratefully acknowledge
the Asian Development Bank – Japanese Scholarship
Program (ADB-JSP) for the financial support.
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