8.

THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE II:

THE CONSONANTS. PHONETIC SYMBOLS. COMPARISON WITH
SPANISH.

In this topic I am going to deal with the English consonant system. I will establish
four different sections. First, I will introduce some definitions of concepts that are
relevant to the topic under study. In my second section I will deal with the organs of
speech and the production of sound. Then I will move on to present the English
consonant system, and how the different consonants are classified. Finally, in my fourth
section I will establish a comparison between English and Spanish consonant systems
and have reflected on the importance of teaching pronunciation.
But before I go any further, I´d like to mention the bibliography I’ve used in order to
develop this topic:
Crystal, D. 1985. Linguistics.
Gimson, A. C. 1980. An introduction to the pronunciation of English.
O’Connor, J.D. 1988. Better English Pronunciation

Before start dealing with the topic I would like to point out that the model used
when describing the phonological system of the English language is the so called R.P.
English or Received Pronunciation. In, England, this accent, whose ancestral form
developed in the late Middles Ages in London and the South-East, has come to stand
out above all others, conveying associations of respectable social standing and good
education. Hence, R. P. English, also known as BBC English of Southern English, is
the model most commonly adopted when teaching pronunciation. The reasons for that
are obvious: Received Pronunciation is a standard; most teaching-learning materials
use R.P. English; it is widely intelligible and it does not have any regional
characteristics; and it enjoys social prestige being spoken by upper-class and educated
people.
In my first section I am going to define some concepts which may be useful for a
better understanding of this topic. First, I would like to establish a difference between
phonetics and phonology. Phonetics is the discipline that deals with the
characteristics of sounds themselves, without any reference to their function. Since the
phonetic unit is the sound, it formulates methods of description and classification of the

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sound types that occur in speech (articulatory, auditory and acoustic; or stages of
production). On the contrary, phonology studies the sounds form the point of view of
their working in the language. It investigates the phonic differences with the differences
in meaning.

Another distinction I would like to point out is that between speech sounds and
phonemes. Phonetics deals with sounds. A speech sound is any phonetically distinct
unit of sound, that is, any unit of sound produced by speech organs that can be
distinguished by the phonetician from all other units of sounds produced by the speech
organs. On the contrary, phonology deals with phonemes. A phoneme may be
described as a family of sounds consisting of one important sound of the language
(generally the most frequently used member of that family) together with other related
sounds, called allophones, which take its place in particular sound sequences or under
particular conditions of length, stress or intonation.

In my next section I am going to provide an overview of the speech production

and the organs involved in that process. In order to teach and learn a correct
pronunciation, and especially in the case of consonants, it is essential for us, as second
language teachers, to be able to know where the speech organs are and how they
work. In all languages we speak with air from the lungs. The air-stream released by the
lungs undergoes important modifications in the upper stages of the respiratory tract
before it acquires the quality of speech sound. The air comes up through the trachea or
wind-pipe and then passes through the larynx, which is commonly called the Adam’s
apple. The larynx is formed of muscled and cartilage, and housed within this structure
from back to front are the vocal cords, which are two small folds of ligament and elastic
tissue. The cord may be brought together or parted, by the rotation of the cartilages
through muscular action. The opening between the cords is known as the glottis,
through which the air can pass freely when we breathe quietly in and out. When the
vocal cords are brought together tightly, no air can pass. The most important function
of the vocal cords is the production of voice. Voiced sounds are achieved when the
vocal cords are vibrating close together, whereas voiceless sounds are made when
the vocal cords are wide open, the air passes freely between them and there is no
vibration.

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 The air-stream undergoes further modification according to the shape within the
upper cavities of the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavities. The pharyngeal cavity
extends from the top of the larynx to the region in the rear of the soft palate. We may
find different positions of the soft palate. If it is lowered, the air escapes through the
nose and the mouth and we obtained nasalized sounds; if it is held in its raised position,
there is an oral escape through the mouth.

The shape of the mouth determines finally the quality of the majority of our speech
sounds. The mouth is limited by the teeth at the front, the hard palate in the upper part
and the soft palate in the rear. The area of the palate moving backwards from the teeth
is known as alveolar ridge. The remaining organs, lips, tongue and soft palate with its
pendent uvula, are movable. The teeth are used in English to some extent as passive
articulators in sounds such as /t/.

The tongue is the most important of the organs of speech because it has the greatest
variety of movement and flexibility so as to assume a variety of positions in the
articulation. The lips are particularly significant in the formation of vowel quality and
take up different positions. They can be brought firmly together so that they completely
block the mouth, or they can be pushed forward to a greater or lesser extent.

After clarifying the concepts that are essential for the understanding of this topic
and dealing with the speech organs and the production of sound, I am going to move to
my third section, in which I will look at the English consonant system. Consonant
sounds, from a phonological point of view are normally placed at the peripheral side of
the syllable. Moreover, consonants are sounds whose production takes place with an
obstruction of the passage of the air through the mouth in one or another place.
Consonants are also said to be less sonorous than vowel sounds.

On the whole, in English there are 24 consonant sounds, which are represented
in spelling by 21 letters. Consonants fall into several different interesting categories
depending on the voice, the manner of articulation or the place of articulation. Thus, in
the following lines, I shall describe consonant sounds, first in terms of the use of voice
and then considering the manner of articulation as a basis and the place of articulation
in a related way.

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 According to the use of the voice, English consonant sounds are grouped into
two categories. On the one hand, voiced consonants, whose production takes place
with a vibration of the vocal cords and examples of them would be /b/ as in bad, /d/ as
in do, /g/ as in girl, /v/ as in very, /z/ as in zoo, /  ζ / in words such as pleasure or
measure, and so on. Voiced consonants are / b , d, g, v, ∂, z, r,  ζ ,  d ζ,  l, m, n,  ŋ,  ј, w /.
On the other hand voiceless consonants are those which are pronounced without
vibration of the vocal cords. This is the case of consonants such as /p/ in paper, /t/ in
tall, /k/ in key, /f/ in words such as fine , /Ө/ in think or thorough, the consonant /s/ as in
assess, etc. Voiceless consonants are /p, t, k, f, Ө, s, h, ∫, t∫ /
 If we take into account the manner of articulation, that is to say, how a
consonant sound is produced, we may distinguish seven main classes in the English
language: plosives, affricate, nasal, lateral, rolled, fricative and semivowels . From
now on a detailed description of these seven groups will be conveyed focusing at the
same time on the place of articulation, which will provide us with a complete and global
picture of the English consonant system.
 Plosive consonant sounds are formed by completely closing the air
passage and suddenly removing the obstacle so that the air escapes making an
explosive sound or plosion. In English there are six plosive consonants. Some of
them are bilabial, that is, the sound is produced with the two lips. This is the case of /p/
in words like pupils and /b/ in those like boat or Bible. Some of them are alveolar, that
is, they are pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar-ridge. It is the
case of /t/ in task or /d/ in difficult. There are also velar plosives in English, produced
when the back of the tongue is on or near the soft palate. For instance, the sound /k/,
whose most frequent spelling can be k as in king or c as in cat; and the sound /g/, found
in words such as good, gate or get.
 Fricative consonants are formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some
point to such an extent that the air escaping produces an audible friction. There are
ten fricative consonants in the English language. Some of them are labiodentals. It is
the case of the sound /f/ in words like fur, or laugh, which is voiceless, and the sound /v/
found in words like save, average or nephew, which is voiced.
Other fricative consonants are dental, that is, they are articulated by the tip of the
tongue against the upper teeth. This is the case of the voiceless consonant sound /Ө/

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 found in words like think always spelt with the consonant cluster th; and also with this
spelling, the voiceless sound /∂/ found in words like rather.
Another group of fricative consonants are the alveolar fricatives, such as the voiceless
consonant /s/ as in so and the voiced one /z/ as in zoo.
Palato-alveolar fricative consonant sounds are those articulated by the blade of the
tongue against the alveolar-ridge. There are two palato-alveolar consonants in English:
one of them is the voiceless sound / ∫ / which is normally represented in spelling by the
consonant cluster sh, as in she, the ending –ssion such as in passion, and with the
spelling ch in words like machine; and the sound /  ζ  / found in examples such as
measure, visual or seizure
Another sound /h/is a voiceless glottal fricative. The mouth is held in a vowel position
and the air is pushed quickly through the glottis. It is found in words like help, whole,etc.
The last consonant that can be included within this group is the sound /r/ which is also
rolled. This sound is articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back part of the
alveolar-ridge, then being post-alveolar. It is graphically represented by the letters r or
rr in words such as hurry or story. However when the grapheme r appears at the end of
a word, it is not pronounced, unless it is followed by a vowel sound within speech. And
so, if the word car is not followed by a vowel, it is pronounced /ka:/ and not /ka:r/.
 Affricate consonants are a combination of plosives and fricatives. Air
pressure is first built up, and it is released through a narrow passageway like a fricative.
There are two main affricate consonant sounds: the sound / tζ /, found in words such as
chain, furniture or question; and the sound / dζ /, which appears in words with spelling j
like James, others spelt with g like giant or George and also the cluster dg in words like
judgement.
 Nasal consonants are produced when the air passes through the nasal
cavity since the oral passage is closed. All nasal consonants are voiced. There are
three nasal sounds in the English consonant system: the bilabial nasal /m/ in words
like man; the alveolar /n/ found in words such as no or onion; and the velar / ŋ /, which
has a pronunciation similar to /m/ and /n/ and whose main spelling are the clusters ng in
words like sing and the consonant cluster nk as in sink.
 Lateral /l/ is produced when the air stream flows along the sides of the
tongue, while the front makes contact with the teeth. It is found in words such as holly or
lorry. Two varieties of /l/ can be distinguished: clear /l/, which is characterised by having

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 a relatively front vowel resonance and occurs only before vowels and before the
sound /j/ such as in ladder or value; and dark /l/, which has a relatively back vowel
resonance and is used before all other consonants, in word such as bell or tell.
 The sound /r/, which appears in words like red, rat or arrive is classified
according to the manner of articulation as a rolled consonant. It is produced by a rapid
succession of taps of some elastic part of the speech mechanism.

In order to end up with this classification of English consonants, I am going to deal

with the so-called semivowel sounds. English semivowels may be defined as
independent vowel glides in which the speech organs start by forming a weakly
articulated close vowel and immediately move to another sound of equal or greater
prominence. Despite the fact that semivowels are, in phonetic terms, generally vocalic,
they are treated within the consonant class, mainly because their function is that of a
consonant sound being preceded by the indefinite article a, and the weak form of the
definite article /ə/, and they have a peripheral or marginal situation within the syllable.
There are three semivowels, or what is the same, approximants, in English: the
sounds /w/,/j/ and sometimes /r/.

The semivowel /w/ is represented in spelling by the letter w, when it occurs in

initial positions like in want, wine or watch; or when the spelling w is preceded by a
consonant as in twelve or twenty. This sound is also represented by the consonant
cluster u+q and u+g as it is seen in quick or anguish.

The sound /j/ is normally represented in spelling as y in initial position, found in

words such as yea; it is also found in medial position in words like tedious or
companion, and sometimes this sound also appears before the sound /u:/., for instance
in the words like university. This semivowel is usually called yot.

Finally, the sound /r/ is considered a semivowel especially when the grapheme r is
placed in unstressed position in words such as very or more.

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 After having conveyed a detailed classification of the English consonant system, I
am going to move to my fourth section and explore the main differences between the
English and the Spanish consonant system. The differences between the English
and the Spanish consonant system are striking and they must be pointed out in order
to help our students to attain a better pronunciation of the foreign language.

As it was said at the very beginning, there are 27 consonants used in spoken
Spanish and 24 in spoken English. Among them, there are only 11 similar phonemes.

As far as the syllable structure is concerned, English consonants occur in

many positions not found in Spanish, especially in final position and consonant
clusters such is in ask, street, etc.
Some consonant clusters are found in both languages, such it is the case of /pl/ in
plan or plano. Nevertheless, a lot of English consonant clusters never appear in
Spanish like /sm/ in words like small or smoke or / Ө /, in words like thread or throw.
These clusters present difficulties for Spanish learners of English, not only as far as
pronunciation is concerned, but also in terms of written spelling.
And so for instance we tend to add a vowel /e/ at the beginning of those clusters
beginning with /s/: instead of pronouncing street /stri:t/, we will say /estri:t/.
In addition, Spanish learners normally delete one of the two /s/ in the cluster /s/
+consonant+/s/ as in the word crisps /krisps/.
They also delete the final consonant or insert a vowel in final clusters with t or d.
This is frequent in the pronunciation of the simple past of regular verbs, where we tend
to delete the /t/ in forms such as stopped; the /d/ in forms like arrived or simply
pronounced an /e/ sound.
Some clusters may be formed with the final elements of a word followed by the
initial elements of the next. For example ‘Next Sunday’ / kst s /. These phonological
characteristic of the English language poses many difficulties for Spanish students of
English.

Other frequent problems for Spanish learners regarding English consonants

are, for instance, the difficulty for us to aspirate the English sounds / p, t, k /. It is
also confusing the difference between /v/ and /b/ since it does not exist in Spanish.

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So, though we say in Spanish vena and balon, both pronounced with the same
consonant sound, we have to pronounce in English vein /v/ and ball /b/.

The same case takes place with the difference between the English sounds /s/
and /z/. We must say secret and zed, being voiceless in the first example and voiced in
the second. This is especially complicated when these sounds are found in the last
syllable of the word, for instance, in the pronunciation of plurals or the third person
singular of English verbs, since Spanish learners tend to use the sound /s/ in all the
occasions.

Another difference that must be enhanced by us, as teachers of English, is that the
sounds /t/ and /d/ are not similar in Spanish and in English. In fact, they are dental
in Spanish and alveolar in English. The best way to show this to our students is by
means of examples. They have to notice that the /t/ in tea is quite different fro the /t/ in
té; or the /d/ in day highly differs from that of Spanish día.

Finally, the sound /l/ is always clear in Spanish. We notice that in words such as
lapiz or sal. However, in English the /l/ sound can be either clear as in link or dark as in
little.

These differences between both consonant systems cause problems to

Spanish learners of the English language. So these pronunciation differences should
be pointed during the class, what will result in a better pronunciation competence on the
part of pupils. In the English class teachers should pay attention to pronunciation. It is
not a question of dramatising any minor error, but only those which affect
understanding. We must create a relaxing and motivating atmosphere which will
undermine our students’ feelings of shame and frustration when dealing with a language
different from their own one.

In An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English for TESOL , PARKER and

GRAHAM stated that “it is impossible for the foreigner to grasp the sound system of
English” basing on the principle that English is a phonetic language. The view of Parker
and Graham is too extreme, first of all because, as it is stated by the General Law of
Spanish Education, it is not of the utmost importance to speak English with perfect R.P.

8
English or another native accent. What is crucial is that we can understand and be
understood. On the other hand, DAVID BRAZIL in his work Pronunciation for Advanced
Learners of English also affirms that “good pronunciation is taken to be pronunciation
which does not put a barrier between you and your listener”.

Therefore, we, as English teachers, must be aware of the problems that our
pupils, as Spanish speakers, will encounter with the second language and how
they can be addressed. We know that our pupils automatically impose their native
sound system pronunciation, stress, intonation and so on, on the new language. They
are not aware of the differences until the teachers point them out. The problem may
increase when we are dealing with students from Extremadura or other communities
such as Andalucia, where speakers tend to delete the final consonant of the majority of
words and so they do in English. This is the case of the final ‘s’ in Extremadura.

To sum up, in this topic I have dealt with the English consonant system. I have
established four different sections. First, I have introduced some definitions of concepts
that are relevant to the topic under study. In my second section I have dealt with the
organs of speech and the production of sound. Then I have moved on to present the
English consonant system, and how the different consonants are classified. Finally, in
my fourth section I have established a comparison between English and Spanish
consonant systems and have reflected on the importance of teaching pronunciation.