Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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M O D E R N C O M P U T IN G
A N D IN D IG E N O U S D E S IG N
RO N EG LA SH
C o n ten ts
PART I I n tr o d u c tio n
CHAPTER J I n t r o d u c t i o n t o f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y 3
CHAPTER 2 F r a c t a ls in A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e 20
CHAPTER 3 F ra c t a ls in c r o s s - c u l tu r a l c o m p a r i s o n 39
CHAPTER 4 I n t e n t i o n a n d i n v e n t i o n in d e s i g n 49
P A R T II A fr ic a n fr a c ta l 7 n a t h e m a t i c s
CHAPTER 6 S calin g 71
CHAPTER 7 N u m e r i c s y s te m s 86
/
CHAPTER 8 R ecursion 109
CHAPTER 9 I n f in it y 147
Ch a p t e r 11 T h e o r e t i c a l fr a m e w o r k s i n c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s o f k n o w l e d g e 1 79
c h a p t e r 12 T h e p o li ti c s o f A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s 192
c h a p t e r 13 F ra c t a ls in t h e E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y o f m a t h e m a t i c s 203
c h a p t e r 14 F u tu r e s fo r A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s 216
N o te s 235
R eferences 243
Index 253
•Acknowledgments
-Introductio n -----------------—
CHAPTER
In troduction-------------------------------------------
to--------------------------- :------------------- —
fractal------------------------------------------------
—geometry-----------------:----------------------------
F r a c t a l g e o m e t r y h a s e m e r g e d as o n e o f t h e m o s t e x c i t i n g f r o n t i e r s in t h e
f u s io n b e t w e e n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . F r a c t a ls c a n b e s e e n
in m a n y o f t h e s w ir lin g p a t t e r n s p r o d u c e d by c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s , a n d t h e y h a v e
b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t n e w t o o l fo r m o d e l i n g i n bio lo g y , geology, a n d o t h e r n a t
u ral s c i e n c e s . W h i l e f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y c a n i n d e e d t a k e u r i n t o t h e far r e a c h e s .
. o f h i g h - r e c h s c i e n c e , its p a t t e r n s a re su r p ris in g ly c o m m o n in t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n
d e s i g n s , a n d s o m e o f its b a s i c c o n c e p t s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l t o A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e
s y s te m s . T h i s b o o k w ill p r o v i d e a n easy i n t r o d u c t i o n t o f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y for
p e o p l e w i t h o u t a n y m a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d , a n d it w ill s h o w h o w t h e s e s a m e
c a t e g o r i e s o f g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n , c a l c u l a t i o n , a n d t h e o r y a r e e x p r e s s e d in
A f r ic a n cu ltu res.
M a t h e m a t i c s a n d culture
For m a n y y ears a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e p a t t e r n s p r o d u c e d in d i f
fe re n t c u ltu re s c a n b e ch a ra c te riz e d by specific design therr.es. In E u ro p e a n d A m e r
ic a, fo r e x a m p l e , we o f t e n see c it ie s la id o u t in a grid p a t t e r n o f s t r a i g h t s t r e e t s
a n d r i g h t - a n g l e c o r n e r s . A n o t h e r g rid , t h e C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s y s te m , h a s
lo ng b e e n a f o u n d a t i o n for t h e m a t h e m a t i c s used in th e s e societies. In m a n y w orks
Introductton
o f C h i n e s e a r t w e find h e x a g o n s u s e d w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y g e o m e t r i c p r e c i s i o n —
a c h o i c e t h a t m i g h t s e e m a r b i t r a r y w e r e it n o t fo r t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e n u m
b e r six in t h e h e x a g r a m s o f th e i r f o r tu n e te llin g system ( t h e I Ching), in th e a n a to m y
c h a r t s for a c u p u n c t u r e (liu-qi o r “six s p irits ” ), a n d e v e n in C h i n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e . 1
S h a p e a n d n u m b e r a r e n o t o n l y t h e u n i v e r s a l ru le s o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d logic;
t h e y a r e a ls o c u l t u r a l to o l s t h a t c a n b e u se d for e x p r e s s i n g p a r t i c u l a r so c ia l id eas
a n d l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f life. T h e y a re , as C l a u d e L e v i - S t r a u s s w o u ld p u t it,
“g o o d to t h i n k w i t h . ”
D e s i g n t h e m e s a r e lik e t h r e a d s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e s o c ia l fa b r ic ; t h e y are
less a c o m m a n d i n g f o r c e t h a n s o m e t h i n g w e c o m m a n d , w e a v i n g th e s e s t r a n d s
i n t o m a n y d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f m e a n i n g . T h e a n c i e n t C h i n e s e e m p i r e s , for
e x a m p l e , u s e d a b a s e - i o c o u n t i n g s y s te m , a n d t h e y e v e n b e g a n t h e first u n i v e r
sal m e t r i c s y s te m .^ S o t h e f r e q u e n t u se o f t h e n u m b e r 6 0 i n C h i n e s e k n o w l e d g e
s y s te m s c a n b e l i n k e d t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h i s o fficia l b a se 10 n o t a t i o n w i t h
t h e i r sacred n u m b e r six. I n s o m e A m e r i c a n cities we find t h a t t h e s tre e ts a re n u m
b e r e d lik e C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s , b u t in o t h e r s t h e y a r e n a m e d a f t e r h is to r i c a l
figures, a n d still o t h e r s c o m b i n e t h e tw o . T h e s e c i t y d i f f e r e n c e s ty p i c a ll y c o r r e
s p o n d t o d i f f e r e n t s o c i a t m e a n i n g s — a n e m p h a s i s o n h is t o r y v e rs u s efficiency, for
exam ple.
S u p p o s e t h a t v i s i t o r s fr o m a n o t h e r w o r ld w e r e to v ie w t h e g rid o f a n
A m e r i c a n city. For a c ity w i t h n u m b e r e d stre ets , t h e v is ito rs (a s s u m in g th e y c o u l d
r e a d o u r n u m b e r s ) c o u l d safely c o n c l u d e t h a t A m e r i c a n s m a d e u s e o f a c o o r d i -
■n a t e s t r u c t u r e . B u t d o t h e s e A m e r i c a n s a c t u a l l y u n d e r s t a n d c o o r d i n a t e m a t h e
m a tic s ? C a n th e y use a c o o r d i n a t e grid t o g r a p h e q u a ti o n s ? j u s t h o w s o p h i s ti c a te d
is t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g ? I n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r , w e w ill find o u r
selves in a sim ilar p o sitio n , for A fric a n s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i te c t u r e is filled w ith r e m a r k
a b l e e x a m p l e s o f f r a c t a l s t r u c t u r e . D id p r e c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n s a c t u a l l y u n d e r s t a n d
a n d a p p l y f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y ?
A s I w ill e x p l a i n in t h i s c h a p t e r , f r a c t a l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e r e p e t i
t i o n o f s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s a t e v e r - d i m i n i s h i n g sc a le s. T r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n s e t t l e
m e n t s t y p i c a l l y s h o w t h i s “s e l f - s i m i l a r ” c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : c i r c l e s o f c i r c l e s o f
c i r c u l a r d w e l l i n g s , r e c t a n g u l a r w a lls e n c l o s i n g e v e r - s m a l l e r r e c t a n g l e s , a n d
s t r e e t s in w h i c h b r o a d a v e n u e s b r a n c h d o w n t o t i n y f o o t p a t h s w i t h s t r i k i n g g e o
m e t r i c r e p e t i t i o n . T h e f r a c ta l s t r u c t u r e w ill b e e a s ily i d e n t i f i e d w h e n w e c o m
p a r e a e r i a l v ie w s o f t h e s e A f r i c a n v illa g e s a n d c i t i e s w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g f r a c ta l
graphics sim u latio n s. . .
W h a t a r e w e t o m a k e o f t h i s c o m p a r i s o n ? L e t ’s p u t o u r s e l v e s b a c k in th e
s h o e s o f t h e v is ito rs fro m a n o t h e r p l a n e t . H a v i n g b e a m e d d o w n t o a n A m e r i c a n
s e t t l e m e n t n a m e d “C o rv a llis , O r e g o n , " th e y d is c o v e r t h a t t h e s t re e ts a r e n o t n u m -
F ractal geom etry
b e r e d , b u t r a t h e r t i t l e d w i t h w h a t a p p e a r t o b e a r b i t r a r y n a m e s : W a s h i n g t o n , Jef
ferson, A d a m s , a n d so o n . A t first th e y m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t th e r e is n o t h i n g m a t h e
m a t i c a l a b o u t it. By u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b i t m o r e a b o u t t h e c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g ,
h o w e v e r* a m a t h e m a t i c a l p a t t e r n d o e s e m e r g e : t h e s e are n a m e s in h is to r i c a l s u c
c e s s io n . I t m i g h t b e o n l y o r d e r i n g in t e r m s o f p o s i t i o n in a series ( a n “o r d i n a l ”
n u m b e r ) , b u t t h e r e is s o m e k i n d o f c o o r d i n a t e s y s te m a t w o r k a f t e r all. A f r i c a n
d esigns h a v e to b e a p p ro a c h e d in th e s a m e way. W e c a n n o t ju st assume t h a t A fric a n
f r a c ta ls s h o w a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y , n o r c a n w e d ism iss t h a t p o s
sibility. W e n e e d to lis te n t o w h a t t h e d e s i g n e r s a n d users o f th e s e s tru c tu r e s h a v e
to say a b o u t it. W h a t a p p e a r s to b e a n u n c o n s c i o u s o r a c c i d e n t a l p a t t e r n m i g h t
actu a lly h a v e a n in te n tio n a l m a t h e m a tic a l c o m p o n e n t.
O v e r a l l , t h e p r e s e n c e o f m a t h e m a t i c s in c u l t u r e c a n b e t h o u g h t o f in
t e r m s o f a s p e c t r u m fr o m u n i n t e n t i o n a l t o s e l f - c o n s c io u s . A t o n e e x t r e m e is th e
e m e r g e n c e o f c o m p l e t e l y u n c o n s c i o u s s t r u c t u r e s . T e r m i t e m o u n d s , for e x a m p l e ,
are e x c e l l e n t fra c ta ls ( t h e y h a v e c h a m b e r s w i t h i n c h a m b e r s w i t h i n c h a m b e r s )
b u t n o o n e w o u ld c l a i m t h a t te r m i t e s u n d e r s t a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . I n t h e s a m e way,
p a t t e r n s a p p e a r in t h e g ro u p d y n a m i c s o f large h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t th e s e are
g e n e r a l ly n o t p a t t e r n s o f w h i c h a n y i n d i v i d u a l is a w a r e . U n c o n s c i o u s s t r u c t u r e s
d o n o t c o u n t as m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , e v e n t h o u g h w e c a n u se m a t h e m a t i c s
t o d e s c r ib e t h e m .
M o v i n g a l o n g th i s s p e c t r u m t o w a r d t h e m o r e i n t e n t i o n a l , w e n e x t find
e x a m p le s o f d e c o ra tiv e designs w h ic h , a lt h o u g h consciously created, h a v e n o
e x p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e a t t a c h e d t o t h e m . I t is p o s s ib le , for e x a m p l e , t h a t a n a r t i s t
w h o d o e s n o t k n o w w h a t t h e w o r d “h e x a g o n ” m e a n s c o u l d s till d ra w o n e w i t h
g r e a t p r e c i s i o n . T h i s w o u ld b e a c o n s c i o u s d e s i g n , b u t t h e k n o w l e d g e is s t ric tly
im p li c it .'1 I n t h e n e x t s t e p a l o n g o u r s p e c t r u m , p e o p l e m a k e rh e s e c o m p o n e n t s
e x p l i c i t — t h e y h a v e n a m e s for t h e p a t t e r n s t h e y o b s e r v e in s h a p e s a n d n u m b e r s .
T a k i n g t h e i n t e n t i o n s p e c t r u m o n e m o r e s t e p , w e h a v e ru les fo r h o w th e s e p a t
t e r n s c a n b e c o m b i n e d . H e r e we c a n f i n d “a p p l i e d m a t h e m a t i c s . ” O f c o u rs e
t h e r e is a w o rld o f d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a p p li e d m a t h o f a m o d e r n e n g i n e e r a n d
t h e a p p li e d m a t h o f a s h o p k e e p e r — w h e t h e r o r n o t s o m e t h i n g is i n t e n t i o n a l tells
u s n o t h i n g a b o u t its c o m p l e x it y .
F in ally we m o v e to “ p u re m a th e m a tic s ," as fo u n d in th e a b s tra c t th e o rie s
o f m o d e r n a c a d e m i c m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . P u r e m a t h c a n a l s o b e v e ry s i m p l e — for
e x a m p l e , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o r d i n a l n u m b e r s (first, s e c o n d , t h i r d ) a n d c a r
d i n a l n u m b e r s ( o n e , tw o , t h r e e ) is a n e x a m p l e o f p u r e m a t h . B u t it w o u l d n o t
b e e n o u g h f o r p e o p l e in a s o c i e t y s i m p l y t o u se e x a m p l e s o f b o t h ty p es; th e y
w o u l d h a v e t o h a v e w o rd s for t h e s e tw o c a t e g o r i e s a n d e x p l i c i t l y r e f l e c t o n a
c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s b e f o r e w e w o u l d say t h a t t h e y h a v e a t h e o r y o f
6 In tro d u c tio n
T h i s b o o k b e g i n s by m o v i n g a l o n g t h e s p e c t r u m ju s t d e s c r i b e d . W e w ill s t a r t b y
s h o w i n g t h a t A f r i c a n fra c ta ls a re n o t s i m p l y d u e t o u n c o n s c i o u s a c tiv ity . W e will
t h e n lo o k a t e x a m p l e s w h e r e t h e y a re c o n s c i o u s b u t i m p l i c i t d e s i g n s , f o llo w e d
b y e x a m p l e s in w h i c h A f r i c a n s h a v e d e v i s e d e x p l i c i t ru les fo r g e n e r a t i n g t h e s e
p a t t e r n s , a n d fin ally t o e x a m p l e s o f a b s t r a c t t h e o r y in t h e s e i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l
ed g e systems. T h e re a s o n for ta k in g s u c h a c a u ti o u s r o u t e c a n b e e xp ressed in te r m s
o f w h a t p h i l o s o p h e r K arl P o p p e r c a l l e d “falsifiability." P o p p e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
e v e r y o n e h a s t h e u r g e t o c o n f i r m t h e i r f a v o r i t e t h e o r i e s ; a n d so w e h a v e t o t a k e
p r e c a u t i o n s n o t to li m i t o u r a t t e n t i o n t o s u c c e s s — a t h e o r y is o n l y g o o d if you
tr y t o t e s t it fo r failu re . If w e o n ly u s e e x a m p l e s w h e r e A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e sy s
t e m s su c c e s sfu lly m a t c h e d f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y , w e w o u ld n o t k n o w its l i m i t a t i o n s .
T h e r e are i n d e e d gaps w h e r e t h e fam ily o f t h e o r i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d
fractal g eo m etry in h i g h - t e c h m a t h e m a t i c s h a s n o c o u n t e r p a r t in tr a d it io n a l Africa.
A l t h o u g h s u c h g a p s a re s i g n if i c a n t, t h e y d o n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e c o m p a r i s o n , b u t
r a t h e r p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a ry q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t o a c c u r a t e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i n d i g e
n o u s f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y o f A fric a .
O ve rv ie w o f th e text
F o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , i n c h a p t e r
2 w e w ill e x p l o r e f r a c ta ls in A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s . I t w ill b e c o m e c l e a r t h a t t h e
e x p l a n a t i o n o f u n c o n s c i o u s g r o u p a c t i v i t y d o e s n o t fit t h i s c a se . W h e n w e t a l k
to th e in d ig e n o u s a rc h ite c ts , th e y are q u ite e x p lic it a b o u t th o s e sa m e fractal
f e a t u r e s we o b s e r v e , a n c l u s e s e v e r a l o f t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y in
d is c u ssin g th e i r m a te ria l d esigns a n d a ss o c ia te d k n o w le d g e system s. T e rm ite s
m ay m a k e fractal a rc h ite c tu re s , b u t th e y d o n o t p a in t a b s tr a c t m o d e ls o f th e
s t r u c t u r e o n its- w a lls o r c r e a t e s y m b o ls fo r its g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s . W h i l e t h e s e
i n t r o d u c t o r y e x a m p l e s w o n ’t s e t t l e a ll t h e q u e s t i o n s , w e w ill a t le a s t h a v e e s t a b
l i s h e d t h a t t h e s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n s s h o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d by s o m e t h i n g m o r e
t h a n u n i n t e n t i o n a l so c ia l d y n a m i c s .
I n c h a p t e r 3 w e will e x a m i n e a n o t h e r e x p l a n a tio n : p e r h a p s fractal s e t t l e m e n t '
p a t t e r n s a re n o t u n i q u e to A fric a , a n d w e h a v e sim p ly o b s e r v e d a c o m m o n c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c o f all n o n - W e s t e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e s . H e r e t h e c o n c e p t o f d e s i g n t h e m e s
b e c o m e im p o rta n t. A n th ro p o lo g is ts h a v e fo u n d th a t th e design th e m e s fo u n d
in e a c h c u l t u r e a r e fairly d i s t i n c t — t h a t is, d e s p i t e t h e a r t i s t i c d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n
F ractal geometr}
e a c h s o c ie ty , m o s t o f t h e c u l t u r e ’s p a t t e r n s c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s p e c ific g e o
m e t r i c p r a c t i c e s . W e w ill see t h a t a l t h o u g h f r a c t a l d e s i g n s d o o c c u r o u t s i d e o f
A f r i c a ( C e l t i c k n o t s , U k r a i n i a n eggs, a n d M a o r i^ r a f te r s h a v e s o m e e x c e l l e n t
e x a m p l e s ) , t h e y a r e n o t e v e r y w h e r e . T h e i- r s t r o n g p r e v a l e n c e in A f r i c a ( a n d in
A f r i c a n - i n f l u e n c e d s o u t h e r n I n d i a ) is q u i t e s p e c i fic .
C h a p t e r 4 r e t u r n s to th i s e x p l o r a t i o n w i t h f r a c ta l s in A f r i c a n e s t h e t i c
d e s i g n . T h e s e e x a m p l e s are i m p o r t a n t for t w o r e a s o n s . F irst, t h e y r e m i n d us t h a t
we c a n n o t a s s u m e e x p l i c i t , f o r m a l k n o w l e d g e s i m p l y o n t h e basis o f a p a t t e r n .
I n c o n t r a s t to t h e fra c ta l p a t t e r n s o f A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e s e a e s
t h e t i c f r a c ta ls, a c c o r d i n g to t h e a r t i s a n s , w e r e m a d e “j u s t b e c a u s e it lo o k s p r e t t y
t h a t w ay.” T h e y a re n e i t h e r fo r m a l s y s te m s ( n o ru les to t h e g a m e ) n o r d o t h e a r t i
s a n s ’ r e p o r t e x p l i c i t t h i n k i n g (“ I d o n ’t k n o w h o w o r why, it j u s t c a m e to m e ” ).
S e c o n d , th e y p ro v i d e o n e p ossib le r o u t e by w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l
c o n c e p t s c a m e to b e s p r e a d o v e r a n e n o r m o u s c o n t i n e n t . T r a d e n e t w o r k s c o u l d
h a v e d iffu se d t h e fra c ta l a e s t h e t i c a c ro s s A f r i c a , r e i n f o r c i n g a d e s i g n t h e m e t h a t
m a y h a v e b e e n s c a t te r e d a b o u t in o t h e r a r e a s o f life. O f co u rs e, s u c h o r i g in sto ries
a r e n e v e r c e r t a i n , a n d all t o o easy t o i n v e n t .
P a r t 11 o f th is b oo k , s ta rtin g w i t h c h a p t e r 5, p re s e n ts th e e x p lic it d esign m e t h
o d s a n d s y m b o li c sy stem s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y as a n A f r i c a n k n o w l
e d g e s y s te m . A s in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o f r a c t a l s in t h e first c h a p t e r , I. w ill a s s u m e
th e re a d e r has n o m a th e m a tic s b ac k g ro u n d a n d p rovide a n in tro d u c tio n to any
n e w c o n c e p t s a lo n g w i t h t h e A f r i c a n v e rs io n s . W e will see t h a t n o t o n ly in a r c h i
t e c t u r e , b u t i n t r a d i t i o n a l h a t r s t y l i n g , t e x t i l e s , a n d s c u l p t u r e , in p a i n t i n g , c a r v
in g , a n d i n e r a l w o r k , in r e l i g i o n , g a m e s , a n d p r a c t i c a l c ra f t, i n q u a n t i t a t i v e
t e c h n i q u e s a n d s y m b o li c sy s te m s , A f r i c a n s h a v e used t h e p a t t e r n s a n d a b s t r a c t
c o n c e p t s o f f r a c ta l geo m e rry .
C h a p t e r 10, t h e la st in p a r t n , is t h e r e s u l t o f m y c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h a n
A f r i c a n p h y s i c is t , P ro f e sso r C h r i s t i a n S i n a D i a t t a . A s p o n s o r for t h e F u l b r i g h t
f e l l o w s h i p t h a t e n a b l e d m y f i e ld w o rk in w e s t a n d c e n t r a l A fric a , D r. D i a t t a t o o k
t h e i d e a o f i n d i g e n o u s f r a c ta l s a n d r a n w i t h it, m o v i n g us in d i r e c t i o n s t h a t 1
w o u l d n e v e r h a v e c o n s i d e r e d o n m y o w n , a n d s till h a v e y e t t o e x p l o r e fully.
In t h e t h i r d a n d final p a r t o f t h i s b o o k w e w ill e x a m i n e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f A f r i c a n f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y : g i v e n t h a t i t d o e s e x is t, w h a t a re its s o c ia l i m p l i c a
tio n s ? C h a p t e r 1 1 w ill briefly r e v i e w p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e sy s
te m s . W e w ill see t h a t a l t h o u g h s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e p r o p o s e d ideas r e l a t e d
t o t h e f r a c ta l c o n c e p t — H e n r y L o u is G a t e s ’s “ r e p e t i t i o n w i t h r e v i s i o n , ” L e o p o l d
S e n g h o r ' s ‘“ d y n a m i c s y m m e try ," a n d W i l l i a m Fag g’s " e x p o n e n t i a l m o r p h o l o g y ” are
all g oo d ex am ples— th e r e h a v e b e e n specific o bstacles t h a t p rev en te d anthrop olo gists
a n d o t h e r s fr o m t a k i n g u p th e s e c o n c e p t s in t e r m s o f A f r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c s .
8 Introduction
C h a p t e r i 2 c o v e r s t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s . O n t h e
o n e h a n d , we w ill find t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t g e o m e t r i c f o r m h a s a n y in h e r
e n t s o c ia l m e a n i n g . I n s e t t l e m e n t d e s i g n , for e x a m p l e , p e o p l e r e p o r t b o t h o p p r e s
siv e a n d H b e ra to r y s o c ia l e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e s . F r a c t a b v e r s u s
n o n f r a c t a l ( “E u c l i d e a n " ) g e o m e t r y d o e s n o t im p ly g o o d v e r s u s b a d . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , p e o p l e d o i n v e s t a b s t r a c t fo r m s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r lo c a l m e a n i n g s . T o
tak e a c o n tro v e rsia l ex a m p le , re c e n t U .S . su p rem e c o u rt d e c is io n s d e c la re d th a t
v o t i n g d is tr i c ts c a n n o t h a v e “b iz a r r e ” o r “h i g h l y i r r e g u la r ” s h a p e s , a n d s e v e r a l o f
th e s e fractal c o n to u r s h a v e b e e n re p la c e d by th e s tr a ig h t lines o f E u c lid e a n
fo r m . If f r a c ta l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l for p e o p l e o f A f r i c a n d e s c e n t ,
a n d E u c l i d e a n s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s fo r E u r o p e a n s , is i t e t h n o c e n t r i c t o in s ist o n
o n l y E u c l i d e a n v o t i n g d i s t r i c t lines?
C h a p t e r 13 w ill e x a m i n e t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y a n d its
m a t h e m a t i c a l p re c u r s o rs in E u r o p e . W e w ill s e e t h a t t h e g a p s a r e n o t o n e - s i d e d :
j u s t as A f r i c a n s w e r e m i s s i n g c e r t a i n m a t h e m a t i c a l i d e a s i n t h e i r v e r s i o n o f
f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y , E u r o p e a n s w e r e e q u a l l y a f f e c t e d by t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l v ie w s
a n d h a v e b e e n s lo w to a d o p t s o m e o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s t h a t w e r e l o n g
c h a m p i o n e d b y A f r i c a n s . I n d e e d , t h e r e is s t r i k i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e o f t h e
s o u r c e s o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n for E u r o p e a n f r a c t a l s w e r e o f A f r i c a n
o r i g i n . T h e f i n a l c h a p t e r w ill m o v e f o r w a r d in t i m e , h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e c o n
te m p o ra r y v e rs io n s o f fr a c ta l d e s ig n t h a t h a v e b e e n p ro p o s e d by A f r i c a n
a r c h i t e c t s in S e n e g a l , M a l i , a n d Z a m b i a , a n d o t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f p o s s ib le f r a c
ta l futures.
B u t to u n d e r s t a n d a ll th i s , w e m u s t first v is it t h e f r a c t a l p ast.
A h i s t o r i c a l i n tr o d u c t io n to f r a c t a l g e o m e tr y
T h e w o r k o f G e o r g C a n t o r ( 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 1 8 ) , w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e first f r a c ta l , t h e
C a n t o r set (fig. 1.1), p r o v e d to b e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w o u t l o o k o n infinity. In f in
ity h a d l o n g b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s u s p e c t by m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . H o w c a n w e c l a i m to
b e u s i n g o n l y e x a c t , e x p l i c i t ru le s if w e h a v e a s y m b o l t h a t v a g u e l y m e a n s “ t h e
n u m b e r yo u w o u ld g e t if y o u c o u n t e d f o r e v e r" ? S o m a n y m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , s t a r t
in g w i t h A r i s t o t l e , h a d j u s t b a n n e d it o u t r i g h t . C a n t o r s h o w e d t h a t i t w as p o s
s i b le t o k e e p t r a c k o f f h e n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s in a n i n f i n i t e s e t , a n d d i d s o in a
d e c e p t i v e l y s i m p l e fa s h io n . S t a r t i n g w i t h a s in g le s t r a i g h t li n e , C a n t o r e r a s e d t h e
m i d d l e t h i r d , le a v i n g t w o lin es. H e t h e n c a r r i e d o u t t h e s a m e o p e r a t i o n o n
t h o s e t w o lin e s , e r a s i n g t h e i r m i d d l e s a n d l e a v i n g fo u r l i n e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , h e
u s e d a s o r t o f f e e d b a c k lo o p , w i t h t h e e n d re s u lt o f i o n e s t a g e b r o u g h t b a c k as t h e
s t a r t i n g p o i n t for t h e n e x t . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is c a l l e d “ r e c u r s i o n . " C a n t o r s h o w e d
Fractal geom etry 9
t h a t if t h i s re c u r s iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s c o n t i n u e d fo r e v e r, it w o u l d c r e a t e a n
i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f lin e s , a n d y e t w o u l d h a v e ze ro l e n g t h .
N o t o n ly d i d C a n t o r r e i n t r o d u c e i n f i n i t y - a s a p r o p e r o b j e c t o f m a t h e
m a t i c a l stu d y , b u t h is r e c u r s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d b e u s e d as a m o d e l for o t h e r
" p a t h o l o g i c a l c u rv e s ," s u c h as t h a t c r e a t e d b y H e l g e v o n K o c h in 1 9 0 4 (figs. 1.2,
7 .3). T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e fig u re s w e r e e q u a l l y p e r p l e x i n g .
S m a l l p o rtio n s lo o k e d ju s t like t h e w h o le , a n d th e s e reflections w ere re p e a te d d o w n
t o in f i n i t e s i m a l sc a le s. H o w c o u l d w e m e a s u r e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e K o c h c u r v e ? If
FIGURE 1.1
T h e C a n t o r se t
In 1877 Georg Cantor came up with the idea of repeatedly subdividing a line to illustrate
the concept of an infinite set. This looping technique is called recursion. By specifying that the
recursion continues forever, C antor was able to define an infinite set.
F I G U R E 1. 2
T h e K o c h c u rv e
Helge v o n Koch used the same k ind of recursive loop as C antor, b u t he added lines instead of
erasing them . He began w ith a triangular shape made of four line^, th e “seed." He t h e n replaced
each o f the lines w ith a reduced version o f the original seed shape.
a b
F I G U R E 1 .3
K o c h curve v a r ia tio n s
There is nothing special about the particular shape Koch first used. For example, we can make
B^ similar shapes that are more flat or more spiked losing variations on the seed shape (a). Nor is there
iflt anything special about tridngles— any shape can'undergo this recursive replacement process.
Mathematician Giuseppe Peano, for example, experimented with rectangular seed shapes such as
those in (b).
Introduction
FIGURE I . 4
M e a s u r in g th e le n g th o f fr a c ta l c u r v e s
T he new curves of Rancor, Koch, an d others represented a problem in m easurem ent theory.
T he length of the curve d epen ds o n th e size of the ruler. As we shrink the ruler dow n, the length
approaches infinity.
m
for
tOJ
>
U
O
•£
So
c
“O
4u>
D
«
e
sm aller ruler s i z e >•
FIGURE 1 . 5
A b e t t e r w a y to m e a s u r e f r a c t a l c u r v e s
Our experiment in shrinking rulers wasn’t a total waste. In fact, it turns out that if you keep track
of how the measured length changes with ruler size, you get a very good way of characterizing the
curve. A relatively smooth fractal won’t increase length very quickly with shrinking ruler size, but
very crinkled fractals will, (a) This smooth Koch curve doesn’t add much length with shrinking
ruler size, so the plot shows only a small rise, (b) Since a small ruler can get into all the nooks and
crannies, this more crinkled Koch curve shows a steeper rise in measured length with a shrinking
ruler, (c) An extremely tortuous Koch curve has a very sreep slope for its plot.
N o te f o r m ath sticklers: T h e s e figures are p lo tted o n 0 logarithm ic graph.
F ractal geom etry 15
r e p l a c e d . T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d fo r t h e l u n g m o d e l a t t h e b o t t o m o f fig u re 1.7. T h e
l i n e s t h a t g e t r e p l a c e d in e a c h i t e r a t i o n a r e c a l l e d “a c t i v e l i n e s . ” T h o s e t h a t d o
n o t get replaced are called “passive lines.” W e w ill bemusing t h e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n
a c t i v e a n d p a s s iv e l i n e s in s i m u l a t i o n s fo p - A f r ic a n d e s i g n s as well.
M a n d e l b r o t c o i n e d t h e t e r m " f r a c t a l ” fo r t h i s n e w g e o m e t r y , a n d it is n o w
u se d in e v e ry s c i e n ti fic d i s c i p l i n e fr o m a s t r o p h y s i c s t o zoology. I t is o n e o f th e
m o s t p o w erfu l to o ls for t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s as well as a re v o l u ti o n a ry
a p p r o a c h t o t h e a n a ly s is o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . I n m e d i c i n e , fo r e x a m p l e , fra c ta l
FIGURE 1.6
M e a s u r i n g n a t u r e u d t h f r a c t a l g e o m e tr y
Although the curves of Cantor and others were introduced as abstractions without physical
meaning, Benoit Mandelbrot realized chat their scaling measure, which he called “fractal
dimension,” could be put to practical use in characterizing irregular shapes in nature. The classic
example is the measurement, of coastlines. Even though it is a very crude model, we can see how
the variations of the roughness in the Koch curve are similar to the variations in these coasts.
Note that tire fractal dimension is our plot slope from figure a.5; the coastlines were measured in
the same way.
acacia tree clouds
shell fern
This vertical
line is passive.
These two
horizontal lines we see that only the active
(gray) are the lines were replaced;
active lines that the passive line remains
will be replaced the same. Now there
by a reduced are three passive lines By the eighth iteration we can sec
version of this (center) and four active the similarity to the scaling structure
seed shape- lines (the ends). of the human lungs. .
F I G U R E 1-7
S i m u l a t i n g n a t u r e w i t h f r a c t a l g e o m e tr y
In his experiments with computer graphics, Mandelbrot found that fractal shapes abound in
nature, where continual processes such as biological growth, geological change, and atmospheric
turbulence result in a wide variety of recursive scaling structures (a). T he recursive construction of
these natural shapes is basically the same as that of the other fractal shapes we have seen so far. In
some examples, like the lung model (b), certain lines of the original seed shape do not participate
in the replacement step; they are called "passive lines.” T he ones which do go through
replacement are called "active lines." Each step is referred to as an “iteration."
Fractal geom etry
F i v e e s s e n t ia l c o m p o n e n t s o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y
RECURSION
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t fra c ta ls are g e n e r a t e d b y a c i r c u l a r p ro c e s s , a lo o p in w h i c h
t h e o u t p u t a t o n e sta g e b e c o m e s t h e i n p u t fo r t h e n e x t . R e s u lt s a re r e p e a t e d l y
r e t u r n e d , so t h a t t h e sam e o p e r a t i o n c a n b e c arrie d o u t again . T h i s is o ft e n referred
t o as “ re c u r s io n ,” a very p o w e rfu l c o n c e p t . L a t e r w e will d is tin g u is h b e t w e e n th r e e
• u i f f c . e n i ty p e s o f r e c u r s io n , b u t f o r n o w j u s t t h i n k o f i t in te r m s o f t h i s ic e r a tiv e
f e e d b a c k lo o p . W e ’ve a lr e a d y s e e n h o w i t e r a t i o n w o r k s t o c r e a t e t h e C a n t o r s et
a n d t h e K o c h cu rv e . A l t h o u g h w e c a n c r e a t e a m a t h e m a t i c a l a b s t r a c t io n in w h i c h
t h e r e c u r s io n c o n t i n u e s forever, t h e r e a re also cases w h e r e t h e r e c u r s io n w ill “b o t
t o m o u t . ” In o u r g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e K o c h c u r v e , for e x a m p l e , we q u i t o n c e th e lines
g e t t o o s m a ll to p r i n t . I n fa c t, a n y p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t i n g o b j e c t w ill o n l y b e fractal-
w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e o f scales.
SCALING
If yo u lo o k a t t h e c o a s t l i n e o f a c o n t i n e n t — ta k e th e P acific side o f N o r t h A m e r
ica fo r i n s t a n c e — y ou will see a ja g g e d s h a p e , a n d if y o u lo o k a t a s m a ll p i e c e o f
t h a t c o a s t l i n e — say, C a l i f o r n i a — w e c o n t i n u e t o see s i m i l a r ja g g e d n e s s . I n fa ct,
a s i m i l a r ja g g e d c u r v e c a n b e s e e n s t a n d i n g o n a cliff o v e r l o o k i n g a ro ck y C a l i
fo r n ia sh o r e , o r e v e n s t a n d i n g o n t h a t s h o r e lo o k i n g a t o n e rock. O f co urse, t h a t ’s
i8 Intro d u ctio n
SELF-SIMILARITY
J u s t h o w s i m i l a r d o t h e s e p a t t e r n s h a v e t o b e t o q u a li fy as a fr a c ta l ? M a t h e
m a t ic i a n s d is tin g u is h b e t w e e n s t a tis tic a l self-sim ilarity, as in t h e c a s e o f t h e c o a s t
l i n e , a n d e x a c t s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y , as i n t h e c a s e o f t h e K o c h c u r v e . I n e x a c t
s e l f - s im i la r it y w e n e e d t o b e a b l e t o s h o w a p r e c i s e r e p l i c a o f t h e w h o l e in a t
l e a s t s o m e o f its p a r t s . I n t h e K o c h c u r v e a p r e c i s e r e p l i c a o f t h e w h o l e c o u l d
b e f o u n d w i t h i n a n y s e c t i o n o f t h e f r a c t a l ( " s t r i c t l y s e l f - s i m i l a r ” ), b u t t h i s i s n ’t
t r u e fo r all f r a c ta l s . T h e b r a n c h i n g f r a c t a l s u s e d t o m o d e l t h e lu n g s a n d a c a c i a
tr e e (fig. 1 .7), fo r e x a m p l e , h a v e p a r t s (e .g ., t h e s t e m ) t h a t d o n o t c o n t a i n a tin y
im a g e o f t h e w h o l e . U n l i k e t h e K o c h c u r v e , t h e y w e r e n o t g e n e r a t e d by r e p l a c
in g e v e r y l i n e in t h e s e e d s h a p e w i t h a m i n i a t u r e v e r s i o n o f t h e s e e d ; i n s t e a d ,
w e u s e d s o m e p a s s iv e li n e s t h a t w e r e j u s t c a r r i e d t h o u g h t h e i t e r a t i o n s w i t h o u t
c h a n g e , in a d d i t i o n t o a c t i v e l i n e s t h a t c r e a t e d a g r o w i n g t i p b y t h e u s u a l
recu rsiv e re p la c e m e n t.
INFINITY
FRACTIONAL DIMENSION
t h e b o t t o m , we c o u ld m a k e t h e c u r v e s o j a g g e d t h a t it s t a r t s to fill i n tw o -
d im e n sio n a l areas of th e p la n e . In b e tw e e n , w e n e e d a n in -b e tw e e n d im e n sio n .
L o o k in g fo r f r a c ta ls in A f r ic a n c u l t u re
A s w e e x a m i n e A f r i c a n d e s i g n s a n d k n o w l e d g e sy s tem s , t h e s e five e s s e n t i a l
c o m p o n e n t s will b e a u se fu l w ay t o k e e p t r a c k o f w h a t d o e s o r d o e s n o t m a t c h
f r a c ta l g e o m e try . S i n c e s c a l i n g a n d s e lf- s im i la r it y a r e d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
o u r first s te p will b e to lo ok for th e s e p r o p e r tie s in A f r i c a n designs. O n c e we e s t a b
lish t h a t t h e m e , we c a n ask w h e t h e r o r n o t th e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n in t e n ti o n a ll y
a p p li e d , a n d s t a r t to lo o k for t h e o t h e r t h r e e e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t s . W e w ill n o w
t u r n t o A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h e r e w e find s o m e o f t h e c l e a r e s t i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f
i n d i g e n o u s se l f - s im i la r d esig n s.
CHAPTER
-* * » ■ , : 2 _
in---------------------------------------------------
—A frican-----------------------------------------------
-settlem ent---------------------------------------------
architecture— ^------------------------- --------------
In e a c h c a s e p r e s e n t e d h e r e w e w ill c o m p a r e t h e a e r i a l p h o t o o r a r c h i t e c
t u r a l d i a g r a m o f a s e t t l e m e n t t o a c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d f r a c ta l m o d e l . T h e f r a c
ta l s i m u l a t i o n w ill m a k e t h e s e l f - s im i la r a s p e c t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e m o r e
e v i d e n t , a n d in s o m e cases it will e v e n h e l p us u n d e r s t a n d t h e lo cal c u ltu ra l m e a n
in g o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e . S i n c e t h e A f r i c a n d e s i g n e r s u s e d t e c h n i q u e s lik e i t e r a
t i o n in b u i l d in g th e s e s t ru c tu r e s , o u r v ir tu a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h frac tal g rap h ics
w ill g iv e us a c h a n c e to s e e h o w t h e p a t t e r n s e m e r g e t h r o u g h t h i s p ro cess.
R e c t a n g u l a r f r a c t a l s in s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e
I f y ou fly o v e r t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f C a m e r o o n , h e a d i n g t o w a r d L a k e C h a d a lo n g
t h e L o g o n e R iv e r , y ou will s e e s o m e t h i n g lik e figure 2 .1 a. T h i s a erial p h o t o s h o w s
t h e c ity o f L o g o n e - B ir n i in C a m e r o o n . T h e K o t o k o p e o p le , w h o f o u n d e d th is city
c e n t u r i e s a g o , u se t h e lo c a l c la y t o c r e a t e h u g e r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d i n g c o m p l e x e s .
T h e la r g e st o f t h e s e b u il d in g s , in t h e u p p e r c e n t e r o f t h e p h o t o , is t h e p a l a c e o f
t h e ch ief, o r “M i a r r e ” (fig. 2 .1 b ). E a c h c o m p l e x is c r e a t e d by a pro cess o f t e n c alle d
“a r c h i te c t u r e by a c c r e t io n , ” in th is case a d d in g r e c t a n g u la r en closu res t o p reex istin g
r e c t a n g l e s . S i n c e n e w e n c l o s u r e s o f t e n i n c o r p o r a t e t h e w a lls o f t w o Qt m o r e . o f
t h e o ld o n e s , e n c l o s u r e s t e n d to g e t l a r g e r a n d la r g e r as yo u g o o u t w a r d f r o m t h e
c e n te r . T h e e n d re s u lt is t h e c o m p l e x o f r e c t a n g l e s w i t h i n r e c t a n g l e s w i t h i n r e c
t a n g l e s t h a t we see in t h e p h o t o .
S i n c e t h i s a r c h i t e c t u r e c a n be d e s c r ib e d in te r m s o f s elf-s im ilar s c a l in g — it
m a k e s use o f t h e sa m e p a t t e r n a t sev eral differe nt scales— it is easy to sim u la te using
a c o m p u te r- g e n e ra te d fractal, as we see in figures 2 . i c - e . T h e seed shape o f th e m o d el
is a r e c t a n g le , b u t e a c h sid e is m a d e u p o f b o t h a c t i v e lin e s (gray) a n d passive lines
(b la c k ). A f t e r . t h e first it e r a t io n we see h o w a sm all v e rs io n o f th e original re c ta n g le
is re p r o d u c e d by e a c h o f t h e a c ti v e lines. O n e m o r e it e r a t io n gives a ra n g e o f scales
t h a t is a b o u t t h e sa m e as t h a t o f t h e p a la c e ; t h i s is e n la r g e d in figure 2 . i e .
D u r i n g m y v isit t o L o g o n e - B i r n i in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 93 , t h e M i a r r e k in d l y
a llo w e d m e t o c l i m b o n t o t h e p a la c e r o o f a n d ta k e th e p h o t o s h o w n in figure 2 . if.
1 asked sev eral o f th e K o to k o m e n a b o u t th e v a r i a ti o n in scale o f t h e i r a rc h ite c tu re .
T h e y e x p l a i n e d it in t e r m s o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p a t r i l o c a l h o u s e h o l d e x p a n s i o n ,
a n d t h e h i s t o r i c n e e d for d e f e n s e . " A m a n w o u l d lik e h i s s o n s t o live n e x t to
h i m , " t h e y s a id , “a n d so w e b u i l d by a d d i n g w alls t o t h e f a t h e r ’s h o u s e . ” I n t h e
p ast, i n v a s i o n s b y n o r t h e r n m a r a u d e r s w e re c o m m o n , a n d so a la rg e r d e f e n s iv e
w a ll w a s a ls o n e e d e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e a s s e m b ly o f f a m i l i e s w o u ld o u t g r o w th i s
d e f e n s iv e e n c l o s u r e , a n d so th e y w o u ld t u r n t h a t w all i n t o h o u s i n g , a n d b u ild a n
e v e n la rg e r e n c l o s u r e a r o u n d it. T h e s e s c a l i n g a d d i t i o n s c r e a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f
s e l f - s im i la r s h a p e s we s till see to d a y , a l t h o u g h t h e p o p u l a t i o n is far b e lo w t h e
a. A n aerial view of the city of Logone-Birni in Cameroon. b. A closer view of the palace.
The largest building complex, in the center, is the palace T he smallest rectangles, in the
of the chief. center, are the royal chambers.
Pho to co urtesy M usee de I ' H o m m e , Paris.
FIGURE 2.1
L o g o n e -B irn i (figure c o n t i n u e s )
f. Photo by the author taken from the roof of the palace.
of Lebeuf 1969.
F I G U R E 2 . 1 (continued.)
In s id e L o g o n e-B irn i
In tro d u c tio n
o r i g i n a l 1 8 0 ,0 0 0 e s t i m a t e d Tor L o g o n e - B i r n i ’s p e a k in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . A t
t h a t t i m e t h e r e w a s a g i g a n t i c w a ll, a b o u t 10 f e e t t h i c k , t h a t e n c l o s e d t h e
p erim eter o f th e e n tire settlem en t.
T h e w o m e n I s p o k e w i t h w e r e m u c h less i n t e r e s t e d i n e i t h e r p a t r i l i n e a g e
o r m ilita r y h is to ry ; t h e i r re s p o n s e s c o n c e r n i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l s c a l in g w e r e prim arily
a b o u t t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e ra w e x t e r i o r w alls a n d t h e s t u n n i n g w a t e r p r o o f
fi n is h t h e y c r e a t e d f o r c o u r t y a r d s a n d i n t e r i o r r o o m s . T h i s b e g a n b y s m o o t h i n g
w e t w a lls f l a t . w i t h s p e c i a l s t o n e s , a p p l y i n g a r e s in c r e a t e d f r o m a p l a n t e x t r a c t ,
a n d t h e n a d d i n g . b e a u t i f u l l y a u s t e r e d e c o r a t i v e lin e s .
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e d e c o r a t i v e d r a w in g s is t h e guri, a royal insig nia
(fig. 2.1 g). T h e c e n t r a l m o t i f o f t h e g u ti s h o w s a re c t a n g le in s id e a r e c t a n g l e inside
a r e c t a n g l e ; it is a k i n d o f a b s t r a c t m o d e l t h a t t h e K o t o k o t h e m s e l v e s h a v e c r e
a t e d . T h e r e a s o n f o r c h o o s i n g s c a l i n g r e c t a n g l e s as a s y m b o l o f r o y a l t y b e c o m e s
c le a r w h e n w e lo o k a t t h e passage t h a t o n e m u s t t a k e to v is it t h e M i a r r e (fig. 2 . i h ) .
T h e p assag e as a w h o l e is a r e c t a n g u l a r spiral. E a c h t i m e y o u e n t e r a s m a ll e r scale,
y o u a re r e q u i r e d t o b e h a v e m o r e p o lite ly . By t h e t i m e y o u a r r i v e a t t h e t h r o n e
y o u a r e s h o e l e s s a n d s p e a k w i t h a v e r y c u l t u r e d f o r m a l i t y . 2 T h u s t h e f r a c ta l
s c a l i n g o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e is n o t s i m p l y t h e re s u lt o f u n c o n s c i o u s s o c i a l d y n a m
ics; it is a su b je c t o f a b s t r a c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , anti e v e n a p r a c t ic a l t e c h n i q u e a p p lied
to social ran k in g .
T o th e w est n ear th e N ig e ria n b order th e landscape o f C a m e ro o n becom es
m u c h g r e e n e r ; t h i s is t h e f e r tile h i g h g ra s sla n d s r e g i o n o f t h e B a m i le k e . T h e y to o
h a v e a f r a c t a l s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e b a s e d o n r e c t a n g l e s (fig. 2 . 2 a ) , b u t i t h a s
n o c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n to t h a t o f t h e K o t o k o . R a t h e r t h a n t h e t h i c k c la y o f L o g o n e -
B ir n i , t h e s e h o u s e s a n d t h e a t t a c h e d e n c l o s u r e s a r e b u i l t f r o m b a m b o o , w h i c h ,
is v e r y s t r o n g a n d w id e ly a v a i l a b l e . A n d t h e r e w a s n o m e n t i o n o f k i n s h i p ,
d e f e n s e , o r p o l i t i c s w h e n I a s k e d a b o u t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e ; h e r e 1 w a s t o l d it is p a t
t e r n s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e s c a l in g . T h e g r a s s l a n d so il a n d
c l i m a t e a re e x c e l l e n t for f a r m i n g , a n d t h e g a r d e n s n e a r t h e B a m i l e k e h o u s e s t y p
ic ally g ro w a d o z e n d if fe re n t p l a n t s all in a s in g le s p a c e , w i t h e a c h - t a k i n g its c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c v e r t i c a l p l a c e . B u t t h i s is l a b o r i n t e n s i v e , a n d s o m o r e d i s p e r s e d
p l a n t i n g s — ro w s o f c o r n a n d g r o u n d - n u t — a r e u s e d in t h e w i d e r s p a c e s f a r t h e r
fr o m t h e h o u s e . S i n c e t h e s a m e b a m b o o m e s h c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d fo r h o u s e s ,
h o u s e e n c l o s u r e s , a n d e n c l o s u r e s o f e n c l o s u r e s , t h e r e s u l t is a s e l f - s im i la r a r c h i
tectu re. U n lik e th e d efen siv e la b y rin th o f K o to k o a rc h ite c tu re , w h e re th ere
w e re o n l y a few w e l l - p r o t e c t e d e n tr y w a y s , t h e f a r m i n g a c t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e a lo t o f
m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n e n c l o s u r e s , so a t all s c a l e s we s e e g o o d - s iz e d o p e n i n g s . T h e
f r a c t a l s i m u l a t i o n in figures 2 . 2 b , c s h o w s h o w t h i s s c a l i n g s t r u c t u r e c a n b e m o d
e l e d u s i n g a n o p e n s q u a r e as t h e s e e d s h a p e .
FIGURE 2.2
B a m ile k e se ttlem en t
(a) Plan of Bamileke settlement from about i960, (b) Fractal simulation of Bamileke architecture.
In the first iteration (“seed shape”), the two active lines are shown in gray, (c) Enlarged view of
fourth iteration.
( a , Begum 1952; reprinted with permission f r o m o r s t o m ) .
26 introduction
M u c h o f s o u t h e r n A f r i c a is m a d e u p o f a r i d p l a i n s w h e r e h e r d s o f c a t t l e - a n d o t h e r
l i v e s t o c k a re ra is e d . R i n g - s h a p e d l i v e s t o c k p e n s , o n e fo r e a c h e x t e n d e d fam ily,^
c a n b e s e e n in t h e a erial p h o t o in figure 2.3a, a B a-ila s e t t l e m e n t in s o u t h e r n Z a m
bia. A d ia g r a m o f a n o t h e r B a -ila s e t t l e m e n t (fig. 2 .3 d ) m a k e s th e s e liv e sto c k e n c l o
sures ( “k ra a ls ” ) m o r e clear. T o w a r d t h e b a c k o f e a c h p e n w e find t h e fam ily liv in g
q u a r t e r s , a n d t o w a r d t h e f r o n t is t h e g a t e d e n t r a n c e fo r l e t t i n g l i v e s t o c k in a n d
o u t. For th is r e a s o n t h e f r o n t e n t r a n c e is a s s o c ia te d w i t h lo w s t a tu s ( u n c l e a n , a n i
m a l s ) , a n d t h e b a c k e n d w i t h h i g h s t a t u s ( c l e a n , p eop le).'* T h i s g r a d i e n t o f s t a
t u s is re f le c te d by t h e size g r a d i e n t in t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e : t h e f r o n t is o n l y f e n c i n g ,
as w e g o t o w a r d t h e b a c k s m a l l e r b u i l d i n g s (f o r s t o r a g e ) a p p e a r , a n d t o w a r d t h e
v e ry b a c k e n d a r e t h e la r g e r h o u s e s . T h e t w o g e o m e t r i c e l e m e n t s o f t h i s s t r u c
t u r e — a r i n g s h a p e o v e r a l l , a n d a s t a t u s g r a d i e n t i n c r e a s i n g w i t h size fr o m f r o n t
t o b a c k — e c h o e s t h r o u g h o u t e v e r y s c a l e o f t h e B a -il a s e t t l e m e n t .
T h e s e t t l e m e n t as a w h o l e h a s t h e s a m e s h a p e : it is a r i n g o f rin gs. T h e s e t
t l e m e n t , like t h e li v e s t o c k p e n , h a s a f r o n t / b a c k s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n : t h e e n t r a n c e
is lo w s t a t u s , a n d t h e b a c k e n d is h i g h s t a tu s . A t t h e s e t t l e m e n t e n t r a n c e t h e r e
a re n o fam ily e n c l o s u r e s a t a ll fo r t h e first 2 0 y a r d s o r s o , b u t t h e f a r t h e r b ack, w e
go, t h e la r g e r t h e fa m ily e n c l o s u r e s b e c o m e .
A t t h e b a c k e n d o f t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t , w e see a s m a ll e r d e t a c h e d
r i n g o f h o u s e s , l i k e a s e t t l e m e n t w i t h i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t . T h i s is t h e c h i e f ’s
e x t e n d e d family. A t t h e b a c k o f t h e i n t e r i o r o f tine c h i e f ’s e x t e n d e d fa m il y rin g ,
t h e c h i e f h a s h i s o w n h o u s e . A n d if w e w e r e t o v ie w a s i n g l e h o u s e f r o m a b o v e ,
w e w o u ld see t h a t it is a r i n g w i t h a s p e c i a l p l a c e a t t h e b a r k o f t h e i n t e r i o r : t h e
h o u s e h o l d altar.
S i n c e w e h a v e a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e a t all sc a le s, t h i s a r c h i t e c t u r e is e a sy to
m o d e l w i t h fractals. F ig u re 2 . 3 b s h o w s t h e first t h r e e i t e r a t i o n s . W e b e g i n w i t h
a s e e d s h a p e t h a t c o u l d be t h e o v e r h e a d v i e w o f a s i n g l e h o u s e . T h i s is c r e a t e d
by a c t i v e li n e s t h a t m a k e u p t h e r i n g - s h a p e d w a lls, as w e ll as a n a c t i v e l i n e a t
t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a l t a r a t t h e b a c k o f t h e i n t e r i o r . T h e o n l y p a s s iv e li n e s a r e
those a d ja c e n t to th e e n tr a n c e . In th e n e x t ite ra tio n , we h a v e a sh a p e th a t c o u ld
be t h e o v e r h e a d v ie w o f a fa m ily e n c l o s u r e . A t t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e f a m ily e n c l o
su re w e h a v e o n l y f e n c i n g , b u t as w e go t o w a r d t h e b a c k w e h a v e b u i l d i n g s o f
i n c r e a s i n g size. S i n c e t h e s e e d s h a p e u se d o n l y p a s s iv e l i n e s n e a r t h e e n t r a n c e
a n d in c r e a s i n g ly la rg e r lin e s t o w a r d t h e b a c k , t h i s i t e r a t i o n o f o u r s i m u l a t i o n h a s
t h e s a m e size g r a d i e n t t h a t t h e real fam ily e n c l o s u r e sh o w s. Fin ally , t h e t h i r d i t e r
a tio n p ro v id es a stru ctu re t h a t c o u ld b e th e o v e rh e a d v iew o f th e w h o le s e ttle
m e n t . A t th e e n t r a n c e to th e s e t t l e m e n t w e h a v e o n ly fe n c in g , b u t as we go to w a rd
FIGURE 2 .3
B a -ila
( a) A e r i a l p h o t o o f B a - i l a s e t t l e m e n t b e f o r e 1 9 4 4 - ( b ) F r a c t a l g e n e r a t i o n o f B a - i l a s i m u l a t i o n .
N o t e t h a t t h e s e e d s h a p e h a s o n l y a c t i v e l i n e s ( g r a y ) e x c e p t fo r t h o s e n e a r t h e o p e n i n g ( b l a c k ) ,
t h e b a c k w e h a v e e n c l o s u r e s o f i n c r e a s i n g size. A g a i n , b y h a v i n g t h e s e e d s h a p e
use o n l y p a s s iv e li n e s n e a r t h e e n t r a n c e a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r li n e s t o w a r d th e
b a c k , th is i t e r a t i o n o f o u r s i m u l a t i o n h a s t h e sam e size g r a d i e n t t h a t the'T eal s ettle -
m e n t sh ow s.
I n e v e r v i s i t e d t h e B a - il a m y self; m o s t o f m y i n f o r m a t i o n c o m e s fr o m t h e
c la s s ic e t h n o g r a p h y b y E d w i n S m i t h a n d A n d r e w D a l e , p u b l i s h e d in 1 92 0.
W h i l e t h e i r c o l o n i a l a n d m i s s i o n a r y m o t i v a t i o n s d o n o t i n s p i r e m u c h tr u s t,
t h e y o f t e n s h o w e d a s t r o n g c o m m i t m e n t t o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e B a - il a p o i n t
o f v ie w for s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e i r a n a l y s i s o f B a - il a s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e
p o i n t s o u t f r a c t a l a t t r i b u t e s . T h e y t o o n o t e d t h e s c a l i n g o f h o u s e size, fr o m
t h o s e less t h a n 12 f e e t w i d e n e a r t h e e n t r a n c e , t o h o u s e s m o r e t h a n 4 0 f e e t w id e
a t t h e b a c k , a n d e x p l a i n e d it as a s o c ia l s t a t u s g r a d i e n t ; “ t h e r e b e i n g a w o r l d o f
d if fe re n c e b e t w e e n t h e s m a ll h o v e l o f a careless n o b o d y a n d t h e s p a c i o u s d w e lli n g
o f a c h i e f ’ ( S m i t h a n d D a l e 1 9 6 8 , 1 1 4 ).
It is in S m i t h ’s d i s c u s s i o n o f re lig io u s b eliefs, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e m o s t s t r i k
in g f e a t u r e o f t h e B a - i l a ’s f r a c ta l a r c h i t e c t u r e is i l l u m i n a t e d . U n l i k e m o s t m i s
s i o n a r ie s o f h i s ti m e , S m i t h w as a s t r o n g p r o p o n e n t o f r e s p e c t fo r lo c a l re lig io n s.
H e w as n o r e l a t i v i s t — u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e s p e c t w ere' s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o n v e r
s i o n — b u t h i s d e l i g h t in t h e in d i g e n o u s s p i rit u a l s t r e n g t h c o m e s ac ro s s c le a r ly in
h i s w r it in g s a n d p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s u b t l e r e l a t i o n o f t h e so c ia l,
s a c r e d , a n d p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e B a - il a a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n .
I n t h e first i t e r a t i o n o f t h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d m o d e l t h e r e is a d e t a c h e d
a c t i v e li n e in s id e t h e r i n g , a t t h e e n d o p p o s i t e t h e e n t r a n c e . T h i s w a s m o t i v a t e d
by t h e r i n g c o m p r i s i n g t h e c h i e f ’s fam ily, b u t it also d e s c r i b e s t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e
s a c r e d a l t a r w i t h i n e a c h h o u s e . A s a l o g i c ia n w o u ld p u t it, t h e c h i e f ’s f a m ily rin g
is t o t h e w h o l e s e t t l e m e n t as t h e a l t a r is t o t h e h o u s e . It is n o t a s t a t u s g r a d i e n t ,
as we saw w i t h t h e f r o n t - b a c k axis, b u t r a t h e r a r e c u r r i n g f u n c t i o n a l ro le b e t w e e n
d i f f e r e n t sca les: “T h e w o r d a p p l i e d t o t h e c h i e f 's r e l a t i o n t o h is p e o p l e is latlela:
in t h e e x t r a c t s g iv e n a b o v e w e t r a n s l a t e it ‘to r u l e , 1 b u t it h a s t h i s o n l y as a sec-
Fractals in A fr ic a n se ttle m en t architecture
o n d a r y m e a n i n g . K u le la is p r i m a r i ly t o n u r s e , t o c h e r i s h ; it is t h e w o r d a p p li e d
t o a w o m a n c a r i n g for h e r c h i l d . T h e c h i e f is t h e f a t h e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ; t h e y
a re h is c h i l d r e n , a n d w h a t h e d o e s is lela t h e m ” ( S m i t h a n d D a le 1 9 6 8 , 3 0 7 ) .
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is e c h o e d t h r o u g h o u t ' f a m i l y a n d s p i r i t u a l tie s a t all
scales', a n d is s t r u c t u r a l l y m a p p e d t h r o u g h t h e se l f - s im i la r a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e
n e s t i n g o f c i r c u l a r s h a p e s — a n c e s t r a l m i n i a t u r e s t o c h i e f ’s h o u s e r i n g t o c h i e f ’s
e x t e n d e d fam ily r i n g to che g re a t o u t e r ring— was n o t a s t a tu s g r a d i e n t , as we saw
f o r t h e e n c l o s u r e v a r i a t i o n fr o m f r o n t t o b a c k , b u t s u c c e s s iv e i t e r a t i o n s o f lela.
A very d if fe re n t c ir c u la r fracta l a r c h i t e c t u r e c a n b e s e e n in t h e fam ou s s t o n e
b u i l d i n g s in t h e M a n d a r a M o u n t a i n s o f C a m e r o o n . T h e v a r i o u s e t h n i c g ro u p s
o f t h i s a r e a h a v e t h e i r o w n s e p a r a t e n a m e s , b u t c o l l e c t i v e l y a re o f t e n re f e rre d t o
as K ird i, t h e F u l a n i w o rd for “ p a g a n , ” b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t
c o n v e r s i o n t o Is la m . T h e i r b u i l d i n g s a r e c r e a t e d fr o m t h e s t o n e r u b b l e t h a t
c o m m o n ly covers th e M a n d a r a m o u n t a in terrain. M u c h o f th e s to n e h as n a tu ra l
f r a c t u r e l i n e s t h a t t e n d t o s p l i t i n t o t h i c k f l a t s h e e t s , so t h e s e r e a d y - m a d e
b ric k s— a l o n g w i t h d e f e n s i v e n e e d s — h e l p e d t o in s p ire t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r
h u g e castlelike c o m p lex es. But r a th e r th a n b e in g th e E u c lid e a n sh apes o f E u ro
p e a n c a s t le s , t h i s A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e is fr a c ta l.
’ F ig u re 2 .4 a s h o w s t h e b u i l d i n g c o m p l e x o f t h e c h i e f o f M o k o u l e k , o n e o f
t h e M o f o u s e t t l e m e n t s . A n a r c h i t e c t u r a l d i a g r a m o f M o k o u l e k , d r a w n by F re n c h ,
researchers from th e o r s t o m scie n c e in s titu te , show s its o v erall stru c tu re (fig. 2.4b).
It is prim arily c o m p o s e d o f th r e e s t o n e e n c lo s u re s ( t h e large circles), e a c h o f w h i c h
s u r r o u n d s ti g h t l y s p i r a le d g ra n a r ie s ( s m a ll c i r c le s ) . T h e s e e d s h a p e for t h e s i m
u l a t i o n r e q u i r e s a c ir c le , m a d e o f p a s s iv e li n e s , a n d t w o d i f f e r e n t sets o f a c t i v e
lin e s (fig. 2.4 c ) . I n s id e t h e c ir c le is a s c a l i n g s e q u e n c e o f s m a ll a c t i v e lines; th e s e
w ill b e c o m e t h e g r a n a r ie s . O u t s i d e t h e c ir c le t h e r e is a la r g e a c t i v e lin e ; t h i s w ill
r e p l i c a t e t h e e n c l o s u r e filled w i t h g ra n a r ie s . By t h e f o u r t h i t e r a t i o n w e h a v e c r e
a t e d t h r e e e n c lo s u r e s filled w i t h sp iral c lu s te rs o f g ra n a r ie s , plus o n e unfilled. T h e
re a l d i a g r a m o f M o k o u l e k s h o w s s e v e r a l u n f i l l e d c i r c l e s — e v i d e n c e t h a t n o t
e v e r y t h i n g in t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t r u c t u r e c a n b e a c c o u n t e d fo r by frac tals. N e v
e r t h e le s s , a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e is s u g g e s te d by t h e s i m u l a t i o n .
I n t h e first i t e r a t i o n we see t h a t t h e large e x t e r n a l a c t i v e li n e is t o t h e left
o f t h e c ir c le . B u t s i n c e it is a t a n a n g l e , t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n finds t h i s a c t i v e lin e
a b o v e a n d t o t h e r i g h t. If we fo llo w t h e i t e r a t i o n s , we c a n see t h a t t h e dynam ic
constrwction o f t h e c o m p l e x lias a s p ira l p a t t e r n ; t h e r e p l i c a t i o n s w h o r l a b o u t a
c e n t r a l l o c a t io n . T h i s sp iral d y n a m i c c a n be m issed w i t h j u s t a s t a t i c view — I c e r
t a i n ly d i d n ’t see it b e fo r e I tr ie d t h e s i m u l a t i o n — b u t o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n . i n t h e v i r
tu a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m a k e s t h e spiral q u i t e e v i d e n t . 3 T h e sim ilarity b e t w e e n t h e sm all
s p irals o f g ra n a r ie s in s id e t h e e n c l o s u r e s a n d t h i s l a r g e - s c a l e s p ira l s h a p e o f t h e
c
FIGURE 2 . 4
M o k o u le k
( a ) M o k o u l e k , C a m e r o o n . T h e s m a l l b u i l d i n g s in s i d e t h e s t o n e w a l l a r e g r a n a r i e s . T h e r e c t a n g u l a r
b u i l d i n g ( t o p r i g h t ) h o l d s t h e s a c r e d a l t a r , ( b ) A r c h i t e c t u r a l d i a g r a m o f M o k o u l e k . ( c ) F ir s t t h r e e
i t e r a t i o n s o f t h e M o k o u l e k s i m u l a t i o n . T h e s e e d s h a p e is c o m p o s e d o f a c i r c l e d r a w n w i t h p a s s i v e
lin es ( b la c k ) a n d w it h gray a c t i v e lin es b o t h inside a n d o u tsid e th e c irc le , (d ) F o u rth ite ra tio n o f
the M o k o u le k sim u lation ,
f a a n d b, b y permission f r o m S e i g n o b o s 1 9 8 2 .)
Fractals in A fr ic a n settlement architecture
c o m p l e x as a w h o l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f r a c t a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e is
n o t m e r e ly d u e t o a r a n d o m a c c u m u l a t i o n o f v a rio u s - s iz e d c i r c u l a r fo rm s. T h e
i d e a o f c i r c l e s o f i n c r e a s i n g size, s p i r a l i n g f r o m a c e n t r a l p o i n t , h a s b e e n a p p li e d
a t tw o d i f f e r e n t sc ales, a n d t h i s s t r u c t u r a l c o h e f e n c e is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e a r c h i
tects’ o w n concepts.
I n o u r s im u la tio n th e activ e lin e b e c a m e lo c a te d to w a rd th e c e n te r o f th e
s p i ra l. T h e M o f o u a ls o t h i n k o f t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e as s p i r a l i n g f r o m t h i s c e n t r a l
l o c a t i o n , w h i c h h o l d s t h e i r s a c r e d altar. T h e a l t a r is a k i n d o f c o n c e p t u a l “a c t i v e
l i n e ” in t h e i r s c h e m a ; it is r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h e i t e r a t i o n s o f life. S e i g n o b o s ( 1 9 8 2 )
n o te s t h a t th is a re a o f t h e c o m p l e x is t h e site o f b o t h religio us a n d p o litic a l a u t h o r
ity; it is t h e l o c a t i o n for r i t u a l s t h a t g e n e r a t e c y c le s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l f e r til it y a n d
a n c e s t r a l s u c c e s s io n . T h i s g e o m e t r i c m a p p i n g b e t w e e n t h e s c a l in g c ir c le s o f t h e .
a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l c y cle s o f life is r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e i r d i v i n a t i o n
( “f o r t u n e t e l l i n g ” ) r i tu a l , in w h i c h t h e p r i e s t c r e a t e s c o n c e n t r i c c ir c le s o f sto n e s '
a n d p la c e s h i m s e l f a t t h e c e n te r. A s in t h e guti p a i n t i n g in L o g o n e - B ir n i , in w h i c h
t h e K o t o k o h a d m o d e l e d t h e i r s c a l i n g r e c t a n g l e s , t h e M o f o u h a v e a ls o c r e a t e d
th e ir o w n scalin g sim u latio n .
By t h e t i m e 1 a r r iv e d a t M o k o u l e k in 1 9 9 4 t h e c h i e f h a d d ie d , a n d t h e o w n
e r s h i p o f t h i s c o m p l e x h a d b e e n p ass ed o n to h i s w id o w s. T h e n e w c h i e f to l d me
thac t h e d esig n o f th is a r c h i t e c t u r e , in c l u d i n g t h a t o f h is n e w c o m p l e x , b e g a n w ith
a p re c i s e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a g ri c u lt u ra l y ield . T h i s v o l u m e m e a s u r e w as t h e n c o n
v e r t e d t o a n u m b e r o f g r a n a r ie s , a n d t h e s e w e r e a r r a n g e d in spirals. T h e d e sig n
is t h u s n o t s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f a d d i n g o n g r a n a r i e s as t h e y a r e n e e d e d ; in fact, it
h a s a m u c h m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e basis t h a n m y c o m p u t e r m o d e l , w h i c h I sim p ly did
by e y e b a ll.
N o t a ll c i r c u l a r a r c h i t e c t u r e s , in A f r i c a h a v e t h e k i n d o f c e n t r a l i z e d
l o c a t i o n t h a t w e sa w in M o k o u l e k . T h e S o n g h a i v i l l a g e o f L a b b e z a n g a in M a l i
(fig. 2 . 5 a ) , for e x a m p l e , s h o w s c i r c u l a r sw irls o f c i r c u l a r h o u s e s w i t h o u t a n y
s in g le fo c u s . B u t c o m p a r i n g t h i s t o t h e f r a c t a l im a g e o f figure 2 .5 b , w e see t h a t
a l a c k o f c e n t r a l fo cu s d o e s n o t m e a n a l a c k o f s e lf-s im ila r ity . It is i m p o r t a n t to
r e m e m b e r c h a t w h ile “s y m m e t r y ” in E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y m e a n s s i m ila rity w i t h i n
o n e s c a l e (e.g ., s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n o p p o s i t e s id e s in b i l a t e r a l s y m m e t r y ) , f r a c ta l
g e o m e t r y is b a s e d o n s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t sc a le s. E v e n t h e s e d e c e n t r a l
ized sw ir ls o f c i r c u l a r b u i l d i n g s s h o w a s c a l i n g s y m m e t r y . .
P a u l S to l le r , a n a c c o m p l i s h e d e t h n o g r a p h e r o f t h e S o n g h a i , te lls m e t h a t
t h e r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d i n g s t h a t c a n b e s e e n in figure 2 . 5 a a r e d u e to Is la m ic in flu
e n c e , a n d t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y c ir c u la r .
T h a n k s t o P e t e r B ro a d w e ll, a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r f r o m S i l i c o n G r a p h i c s In c.,
' w e w e r e a b le t o r u n a q u a n t i t a t i v e te s t o f t h e p h o t o t h a t c o n f i r m e d w h a t o u r eyes
32
In tro d u c tio n
FIGURE 2 .5
Labbezanga
(a) Aerial view of the village of Lahhetanga in Mali, (b) Fractal graphic.
( a , photo by G e o rg G c r s te r ; b , by p erm issio n o f B enoit M a n d e lb ro t.}
w e r e t e l l i n g us: t h e S o n g h a i a r c h i t e c t u r e c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a f r a c ta l d i m e n
s i o n s i m i l a r to t h a t o f t h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d f r a c ta l o f figure 2.5b.**
T h i s k i n d o f d e n s e c i r c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t o f c ir c le s , w h i l e o c c u r r i n g in all
so r ts o f v a r i a t i o n s , is c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t i n l a n d w e s t A f r i c a . B o u r d i e r a n d
T r i n h ( 1 9 8 5 ) , for e x a m p l e , d e s c r ib e a sim ila r c ircu lar a r c h i t e c t u r e in B u r k i n a Faso.
T h e s c a l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s is b e a u t i f u l l y d i a g r a m m e d in t h e i r c o v e r
i l l u s t r a t i o n (fig. 2 . 6 a ) , a p o r t i o n o f o n e o f t h e large b u i l d i n g c o m p l e x e s c r e a t e d
by t h e N a n k a n i society. A s for t h e S o n g h a i , fo r e ig n c u l t u r a l i n f lu e n c e s h a v e n o w
i n t r o d u c e d r e c t a n g u l a r b u il d in g s as w ell. I n t h e N a n k a n i c o m p l e x t h e o u t e r m o s t
e n c l o s u r e ( t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e c o m p l e x ) is s o c ia lly c o d e d a s m a l e . A s w e m o v e
in , t h e s u c c e s s iv e e n c l o s u r e s b e c o m e m o r e f e m a l e a s s o c i a t e d , d o w n t o t h e c i r
c u l a r w o m a n ’s dego (fig. 2 . 6 b ) , t h e c i r c u l a r f i r e p l a c e , a n d f i n a l l y t h e s c a l i n g
s t a c k s o f p o t s (fig. 2 .6 c ).
U s i n g a t e c h n i q u e q u i t e c lo s e t o t h a t o f t h e K o t o k o w o m e n , t h e w o m e n
o f N a n k a n i a ls o w a t e r p r o o f a n d d e c o r a t e t h e s e w alls. T h e r e c u r r e n t i m a g e o f a
Fractals m A fr ic a n se ttle m e n t architecture 33
t r i a n g l e in th e s e d e c o r a t i o n s (s e e w alls o f d e g o ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e zalanga, a n e s t e d
s t a c k o f c a l a b a s h e s ( c i r c u l a r b o w ls c a r v e d f r o m g o u r d s ) t h a t e a c h w o m a n k e e p s
in h e r k i t c h e n (fig. 2 .6 d ). S i n c e th e s e c a l a b a s h e s a r e s t a c k e d fr o m large to sm all,
th ey (a n d th e rope th a t h o ld s th e m ) form a tr ia n g le — th u s th e trian g u lar
•v
d e c o r a t i o n s also r e p r e s e n t s c a l in g c irc le s , j u s t in a m o r e a b s t r a c t way. T h e s m a l l
e s t c o n t a i n e r in a w o m a n ’s z a la n g a is t h e /cumpio, w h i c h is a s h r i n e for h e r soul.
W h e n s h e dies, th e zalanga, alo n g w i t h h e r p o ts , is sm a sh e d , a n d h e r soul is released
t o e t e r n i t y . T h e e t e r n i t y c o n c e p t , ' a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w e l l - b e i n g , is s y m b o li c a ll y
FIGURE 2 . 6
N a n k a n i home
(a) D r a w i n g o f a N a n k a n i h o m e , ( b ) T h e w o m a n ’s m a i n r o o m (dego)
in s i d e t h e N a n k a n i h o m e , ( c ) A s c a l i n g s t a c k o f p o t s in d i e f i r e p l a c e ,
(d) T h e ?a!an ga .
(a, Bonrd ier a n d T rinh 1 5 8 5 ; co urte sy o f the authors; b - d , p/totos fro m
B ourdier a n d T rin h 19 8 5 , by permission o f the a u th o rs .)
34 Introduction
r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e c o il s o f a s e r p e n t o f i n f i n i t e l e n g t h , s c u l p t e d i n t o t h e w alls
o f th e s e hom es.
F r o m t h e 2 0 - m e t e r d i a m e t e r o f t h e b u i l d i n g c o m p l e x t o t h e 0 . 2 - r f te t e r
k u m p i o — a n d n o t s im p ly a t o n e o r t w o le v e ls in b e t w e e n , b u t w i t h d o z e n s o f self-
s i m i l a r s c a l in g s — t h e N a n k a n i f r a c t a l s p a n s t h r e e o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e , w h i c h is
c o m p a ra b le to th e re s o lu tio n o f m o s t c o m p u te r screens. M o re o v e r, th ese scalin g
circles a re far from u n c o n s c i o u s a c c i d e n t : as in sev eral o t h e r a r c h i t e c t u r e s w e h a v e
e x a m i n e d , t h e y h a v e m a d e c o n s c i o u s u s e o f t h e s c a l in g in t h e i r s o c i a l s y m b o l
ism. In th is case, t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t s y m b o li s m is t h a t o f b i r t h i n g . W h e n a c h il d
is b o r n , fo r e x a m p l e , i t m u s t r e m a i n i n t h e i n n e r m o s t e n c l o s u r e o f t h e w o m e n ’s
r d e g o u n t i l it c a n c ra w l o u t by itself. E a c h s u c c e s siv e e n t r a n c e is— s p a t ia l ly as w e ll
as so c ia lly — a r i t e o f p assag e, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e b io l o g i c a l e n t r a n c e o f t h e c h i l d
f r o m t h e w o m b . I t le a v e s e a c h o f t h e s e n e s t e d c h a m b e r s as t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n in
life ’s sta g e s is b o r n . T h e z a la n g a m o d e l s t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e i n m i n i a t u r e , a n d its
d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e e v e n t o f d e a t h m a p s t h e j o u r n e y i n re v e r s e : f r o m t h e c ir c le s
o f t h e la r g e s t c a l a b a s h to t h e t i n y k u m p i o h o l d i n g t h e s o u l — f r o m m a t u r e a d u l t
t o t h e e t e r n a l r e a l m o f a n c e s t o r s w h o d w e ll i n " t h e e a r t h ’s w o m b . ” T h e r e is a
c o n s c i o u s s c h e m e to t h e s c a l i n g c i r c l e s o f t h e N a n k a n i : it is a r e c u r s i o n w h i c h
b o t t o m s - o u t a t in f in ity .
B r a n c h in g fr a c ta ls
W h i l e A f r i c a n c i r c u l a r b u i l d i n g s a r e ty p i c a ll y a r r a n g e d in c i r c u l a r c l u s t e r s , t h e
p a t h s t h a t le a d t h r o u g h t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s a r e ty p i c a ll y n o t c i r c u la r . L i k e t h e
b r o n c h i a l passag es t h a t o x y g e n a t e t h e f o u n d a l v e o l i of t h e lu n g s , t h e r o u t e s t h a t
n o u r i s h c i r c u l a r s e t t l e m e n t s o f t e n t a k e a b r a n c h i n g f o r m (e .g ., figure 2 . 7 ) . B u t
d esp ite m y u n a v o id a b ly o rg a n ic ist m e ta p h o r, th e s e c a n n o t be sim p ly re d u c e d to
u n c o n s c i o u s tr a c e s o f m i n i m u m e ff o rt. F o r o n e t h i n g , c o n s c i o u s d e s i g n c r i t e r i a
a r e e v i d e n t in c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e r e is a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m c i r
c u l a r t o r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d in g s , s i n c e t h e y c a n c h o o s e t o e i t h e r m a i n t a i n o r e ra s e
t h e b r a n c h i n g fo rm s.
D iscussion c o n c e r n i n g s u c h d ecisio ns are a p p a r e n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f B anyo,
C a m e ro o n , w h e re th e tra n s itio n h a s a lo n g h isto ry (H u ra u lt 1975)- 1 fo u n d th a t
few c i r c u l a r b u i l d i n g s w e r e le f t, b u t t h o s e t h a t w e r e s t il l i n t a c t s e r v e d as a n
e m b o d i m e n t o f c u l t u r a l m e m o r y . T h i s ro le w a s h o n o r e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e c h i e f ’s
c o m p l e x a n d e x p l o i t e d in t h e c a s e o f a b l a c k s m i t h ’s s h o p , w h i c h w a s t h e s i t e o f
o c c a s i o n a l t o u r i s t v is its. A f t e r p a s s i n g a p p r o v a l by t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic ia ls
a n d t h e s u l t a n , 1 w as g r e e t e d b y t h e o f f i c i a l c i t y s u r v e y o r , w h o — c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e fa c t t h a t h is r a is o n d ’e t r e w as E u c l i d e a n i z i n g t h e s t r e e t s — s h o w e d s u r p r is in g
Fractals in A fr ic a n se ttle m e n t architecture 35
F I G U R E 2.7
B r a n c h in g p a th s in a S e n e g a le s e s e t t l e m e n t
{a) Aerial p h o to o f a traditional s e ttle m e n t in n o rth e a st Senegal. T h e space betw een enclosure
walls, serving as roads an d footpaths, creates a b ra n c h in g pattern , (b) A branch in g fractal c a n be
created by the background of a scaling set of circular shapes.
(a, courtesy Institut Geographique du Senegal.)
a p p r e c i a t i o n fo r m y p r o j e c t a n d h e l p e d m e l o c a t e t h e m o s t f r a c ta l a r e a o f t h e
c it y (fig. 2 .8 a ) . A t t h e u p p e r left o f t h e p h o t o w e se e a p o r t i o n o f t h e E u c l i d e a n
grid t h a t c o v e r s t h e re s t o f t h e city, b u t m o s t o f t h i s a re a is s till fr a c ta l. T h e l o c a
t i o n o f t h i s c a r e f u ll y m a i n t a i n e d b r a n c h i n g — f a n n i n g o u t fr o m a la r g e p laza
t h a t is b o r d e r e d by t h e p a l a c e o f t h e s u l t a n a n d t h e g r a n d m o s q u e — is n o
c o i n c i d e n c e . By m a r k i n g m y p o s i t i o n o n t h e a e r i a l p h o t o as 1 t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h
(fig. 2 . 8 b ) , I w as l a t e r a b le t o c r e a t e a m a p by d ig i ta l ly a l t e r i n g t h e p h o t o im ag e
(fig. 2 .8 c ) . T h i s p r o v i d e s a s t a r k o u t l i n e — l o o k i n g m u c h lik e t h e v e i n s i n a
le a f— o f t h e f r a c ta l s t r u c t u r e o f th i s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e t w o r k . I m ay h a v e p lu n g e d
t h r o u g h a w all o r t w o in c r e a t i n g th i s m a p , b u t it c e r t a i n l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e
fine b r a n c h i n g o f t h e f o o t p a t h s , as 1 d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o i n c l u d e t h e i r e x t e n s i o n s
i n t o p r i v a t e h o u s i n g e n c lo s u r e s .
H o w d o e s t h e c r e a t i o n o f th e s e s c a l in g b r a n c h e s i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e k i n d s o f
i t e r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s o c ia l m e a n i n g we h a v e s e e n a s s o c ia te d w ich o t h e r
e x a m p l e s o f f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e ? A g o o d i l l u s t r a t i o n c a n b e f o u n d in t h e
Position 1— outside palace Position 2 — road below mosque Position 3 —narrow walkway
FIGURE 2.8
B r a n c h i n g p a t h s in B a n y o
(a) Aerial phoco of the city of Banyo,
Cameroon, (b) Successive views of the
branching paths, as marked on the photo above.
The clay walls require their own roof, which
comes in both thatched and metal versions
along the walkway in the last photo, (c) Aerial
photo of Banyo with only public paths showing,
(a, c o u r t e s y N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f C a r t o g r a p h y ,
Cameroon.)
FIGURE 2 . 9
S t r e e t s o f Cairo
(a) M a p o f s t r e e t s o f C a i r o , 1 8 9 8 . ( b ) F r a c t a l s i m u l a t i o n fo r C a i r o s t r e e t s , ( c ) E n l a r g e d v i e w
o f fourth iteration.
38 Introduction
C o n c lu s io n
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t a w id e v a r i e t y o f A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t
a r c h i t e c t u r e s c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as fra ctals. T h e i r p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m a k e s
u se o f s c a l in g a n d i t e r a t i o n , a n d t h e i r s e lf- s im i la r it y is c le a r ly e v i d e n t fr o m c o m
p a r i s o n to fractal-grap hic s im u la tio n s. C h a p t e r 3 wilt s h o w t h a t fracta l a r c h i t e c t u r e
is n o t sim p ly a ty pic al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n o n - W e s t e r n s e t t l e m e n t s . T h i s a l o n e d o e s
n o t a ll o w us t o c o n c l u d e a n i n d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e o f f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y ;
in f a c t , I w ill a rg u e in c h a p t e r 4 t h a t c e r t a i n f r a c ta l p a t t e r n s in A f r i c a n d e c o r a
ti v e a r t s are m e re ly t h e res u lt o f a n i n t u i t i v e e s t h e ti c . B u t as w e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n ,
t h e fractals in A fr i c a n a rc h i te c t u r e a re m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t . T h e i r d e sig n is lin k ed
t o c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e s y s te m s t h a t s u g g e s t s o m e o f t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s o f f r a c
ta l g e o m e t r y , a n d in la t e r c h a p t e r s w e w ill fin d m o r e e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h i s
i n d i g e n o u s m a t h e m a t i c s in a s t o n i s h i n g v a r i e t y a n d fo r m .
CHAPTER
-Fractals--------------------------------------------
3
ire
-crosS'Cultural-
—c o m p a r is o n -
T h e f r a c t a l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s o f ' A f r i c a s t a n d in s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e C a r te - ,
s i a n g rid s o f E u r o - A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s . W h y t h e d if f e r e n c e ? O n e e x p l a n a t i o n
c o u ld b e t h e d if f e r e n c e in so c ia l s t r u c t u r e . E u r o - A m e r i c a n c u lt u r e s are o rg a n iz e d
by w h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w o u ld c a ll a “s t a t e s o c i e t y . ” T h i s i n c l u d e s n o t j u s t t h e
m o d e r n n a t i o n - s t a t e , b u t re f e rs m o r e g e n e r a l l y t o a n y s o c i e t y w i t h a la r g e
p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y , l a b o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d c o h e s i v e , f o r m a l c o n t r o l s — w h a t is
s o m e t i m e s c a ll e d “ t o p - d o w n ” o r g a n i z a t i o n . P r e c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n c u lt u r e s in c l u d e d
m a n y s t a t e s o c i e t i e s , as w e ll as a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r o f s m a ll e r , d e c e n t r a l i z e d
so c ia l g ro u p s , w i t h l i t t l e p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y — t h a t is, s o c i e ti e s t h a t a re o rg a n iz e d
“b o t t o m - u p ” r a t h e r t h a n “ t o p - d o w n .” 1 B u t if f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e is s i m p l y t h e
a u t o m a t i c re su lt o f a n o n s t a t e social o r g a n iz a tio n , t h e n we sh o u ld see fractal s e t t l e
m e n t p a t t e r n s in t h e i n d i g e n o u s s o c ie tie s o f m a n y p a rts o f t h e w orld. I n this c h a p
t e r w e w ill e x a m i n e t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s f o u n d in t h e i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t i e s
o f t h e A m e r i c a s a n d t h e S o u t h P a c if ic , b u t o u r s e a r c h w ill t u r n u p v e ry few f r a c
tals. R a t h e r t h a n d i v i d i n g t h e w o r l d b e t w e e n a E u c l i d e a n W e s t a n d f r a c t a l
n o n - W e s t , w e w ill f i n d t h a t e a c h s o c i e t y m a k e s use o f its p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n
t h e m e s in o rg a n i z in g its b u il t e n v i r o n m e n t . A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e t e n d s t o b e frac
tal b e c a u s e t h a t is a p r o m i n e n t d e s i g n t h e m e in A f r i c a n c u l t u r e . I n fact, th is c u l
tu r a l s p e c i f i c i t y o f d e s i g n t h e m e s is t r u e n o t o n l y fo r a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t fo r m a n y
40 introduction
o t h e r ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l d e s i g n a n d c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s as w e ll. W e w ill b e g i n o u r
su rv e y w i t h a b r i e f lo o k a t t h e d e s i g n t h e m e s in N a t i v e A m e r i c a n so c ie tie s, w h i c h
i n c l u d e d b o t h h i e r a r c h i c a l s t a t e e m p i r e s as w e l l as s m a l l e r , d e c e n t r a l i z e d tr ib a l
cu ltu res.
T h e A n c e s t r a l P u e b l o s o c i e t y d w e l l e d in w h a t is n o w t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d
S tates aro u n d 1 1 0 0 c .e . A e r i a l p h o t o s o f t h e s e sites (fig. 3 .1 ) a re s o m e o f t h e m o s t
f a m o u s e x a m p l e s o f N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s . B u t as we c a n se e fr o m th i s
v a n t a g e p o i n t , t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e is p r i m a r i ly c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n e n o r m o u s circu la r
fo r m c r e a t e d fr o m s m a lle r re c ta n g u la r c o m p o n e n t s — c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e s a m e shape-
a t t w o d i f f e r e n t scales. T h i s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e c ir c le a n d t h e q u a d r i l a t e r a l ( r e c
tan gle or cross-shaped) form is n o t a c o in c i d e n c e ; th e tw o forms are t h e m o s t im p o r
t a n t d e s i g n t h e m e s in t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f m a n y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s o c i e ti e s ,
in c lu d in g b o th N o r th a n d S o u th c o n tin e n ts -
A s far as a r c h i t e c t u r e is c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e are n o e x a m p l e s o f t h e n o n ! in e a r
s c a l i n g w e saw in A f r i c a . T h e o n l y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e s t h a t c o m e
c lo s e a r e a few i n s t a n c e s o f l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c fig ures (fig. 3 . 2 a ) . S h a p e s a p p r o x
i m a t i n g c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s c a n b e s e e n i n t;he P o v e r t y P o i n t c o m p l e x i n n o r t h -
a h
FIGURE 3 .I
E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y in N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e
(a) Aerial photo of Bandelter, one of the Ancestral Pueblo settlements (starting around 1100 c .e .)
in norluwestern New Mexico, (b) Aerial photo of Pueblo Bonito, another Ancestral Pueblo .
settlement (starting around 950 C. E. ) . N o te t h a t they are mostly rectangular at the smallest scale
and circular at the largest scale.
( a , p h o io by T o m B aiter; b , photo by G e o rg G e r s te r .)
F ra c ta l m cross-cultural comparison 41
e r n L o u i s i a n a , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d t h e r e w e r e c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s o f t e p e e s in t h e
C h e y e n n e c a m p s . T h e s t e p - p y r a m i d s o f M e s o a m e r i c a l o o k li k e c o n c e n t r i c
s q u a r e s w h e n v i e w e d fr o m a b o v e . B u t l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c fig ures a r e n o t f r a c ta ls.
F irst, t h e s e a re l i n e a r layers: t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n li n e s is alw a y s t h e s a m e , a n d
t h u s t h e n u m b e r o f c o n c e n t r i c c ircles w i t h i n t h e largest circle is fin ite. T h e n o n
l i n e a r s c a l i n g o f f r a c t a l s r e q u i r e s a n e v e r - c h a n g i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n lin e s ,
figure 3.2
L i n e a r c o n c e n tr ic f o r m s in N a tiv e A m e r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e
(a) N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e is t y p i c a l l y b a s e d o n q u a d r i l a t e r a l grid s o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
circ ula r a n d g ri d fo r m s . T h e o n l y e x a m p l e s o f s c a l i n g s h a p e s a re t h e s e li n e a r c o n c e n t r i c fo rm s. In
the P o v e r t y P o i n t c o m p l e x , fo r e x a m p l e , c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s w e r e u se d, a n d c o n c e n t r i c sq u a r e s c a n be
seen if w e l o o k a t t h e M e x i c a n s t e p p y r a m i d s f r o m a b o v e . T h e s e fo r m s a re b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d as
E u c li d e a n t h a n f r a c t a l fo r t w o re a so n s: ( b ) First , t h e y a re lin e a r . H e r e is a n e x a m p l e o f a n o n l i n e a r
c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e . W h i l e t h e l i n e a r v e r s i o n m u s t h a v e a f in it e n u m b e r o f c i r c l e s , t h is figure c o u l d
h a v e a n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r a n d st il l fit in t h e s a m e b o u n d a r y , ( c ) S e c o n d , t h e y o n l y s c a l e w i t h r e s p e c t
to o n e p o i n t ( t h e c e n t e r ) . H e r e is a n e x a m p l e o f c i r c l e s w i t h m o r e g l o b a l s c a l i n g s y m m e t r y .
/rUroduction
w h i c h m e a n s t h e r e c a n b e a n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r in a f i n i t e s p a c e (fig. 3 . 2 b ) . S e c
o n d , e v e n n o n lin e a r c o n c e n t r ic c ircles are o n ly self-sim ilar w ith re sp e c t to a
sin g le locus ( t h e c e n t e r p o i n t ) , r a t h e r t h a n h a v in g t h e g lo b a l se lf-sitn ilarity o f
f r a c t a l s (fig. 3 . 2 c ) .
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c i r c l e is d e t a i l e d i n a f a m o u s p a s s a g e b y B l a c k E l k
( 1 9 6 1 ) , in w h i c h h e e x p l a i n s t h a t “e v e r y t h i n g a n I n d i a n d o e s is in a c i r c l e , a n d
t h a t is b e c a u s e t h e P o w e r o f t h e W o r l d alw a y s w o rk s in c ir c le s , a n d e v e r y t h i n g
trie s t o be r o u n d . ” B u t h e g o e s o n to n o t e t h a t h is p e o p l e t h o u g h t o f t h e i r w o r ld
as “ t h e circle o f t h e four q u a r t e r s ." A s im i la r c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e c ir c le a n d q u a d r i
la t e r a l fo r m c a n b e s e e n m a n y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n m y t h s a n d a rtifa c ts; it is n o t t h e i r
o n l y d e s i g n t h e m e , b u t i t c a n b e f o u n d i n a s u r p r is in g n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i
eties. B u rla n d (1 9 6 5 ) , for e x a m p le , s h ow s a c e re m o n ia l r a ttle c o n s is tin g o f a w o o d e n
h o o p w i t h a cross i n s i d e fr o m s o u t h e r n A l a s k a , a N a v a j o s a n d p a i n t i n g s h o w i n g
f o u r e q u i d i s t a n t sta lk s o f c o r n g r o w in g fro m a c i r c u la r lak e, a n d a P a w n e e bu ffalo-
h i d e d r u m w i t h f o u r a r r o w s e m a n a t i n g f r o m its c i r c u l a r c e n t e r . N a b o k o v a n d
E a s t o n ( 1 9 8 9 ) d e s c r i b e t h e c u l t u r a l s y m b o l i s m o f t h e t e p e e in t e r m s o f its c o m
b i n a t i o n o f c i r c u l a r h i d e e x t e r i o r a n d t h e fo u r m a i n s t r u t s o f t h e i n t e r i o r w o o d
s u p p o r t s . W a t e r s ( 1 9 6 3 ) p r o v i d e s a n e x t e n s i v e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l s ig
n if ic a n c e o f c o m b i n i n g t h e c i r c u la r a n d cross fo rm in his c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e H o p i
c r e a tio n m yth.
T h e fo u rfo ld s y m m e t r y o f t h e q u a d r i l a t e r a l fo rm h a s le a d t o s o m e s o p h i s
t i c a t e d c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e s i n N a t i v e A m e r i c a n k n o w l e d g e s y s te m s . I n N a v a j o
s a n d p a i n t i n g , for e x a m p l e , t h e c r u c i f o r m s h a p e r e p r e s e n t s t h e “ fo u r d i r e c t i o n s ”
c o n c e p t , s i m i l a r to t h e C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s y s te m . W h i l e o r d e r l y a n d c o n s i s
t e n t , it is by n o m e a n s s i m p l e (s e e W i t h e r s p o o n a n d P e t e r s o n 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e fo u r
N a V a j o d i r e c t i o n s a r e a ls o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g s u n p o s i t i o n s ( d a w n ,
day , e v e n i n g , n i g h t ) , y e a r l y s e a s o n s ( s p r i n g , s u m m e r , fa ll, w i n t e r ) , p r i n c i p a l
c o lo r s ( w h i t e , b l u e , y e llo w , b l a c k ) , a n d o t h e r q u a d r i l a t e r a l d i v i s i o n s ( b o t a n i c a l
c a t e g o r i e s , p a r t i t i o n s o f t h e life c y c le , e t c . ) . T h e s e a r e f u r t h e r b r o k e n i n t o i n t e r
s e c t in g b ip o la rities (e.g., t h e e a s t /w e s t s u n p a t h is b r o k e n by t h e n o r t h / s o u t h d i r e c
t i o n s ) . C o m b i n e d w i t h c i r c u l a r c u r v e s ( u s u a lly r e p r e s e n t i n g o r g a n i c s h a p e s a n d
p ro c e s s e s ), t h e r e s u lti n g s c h e m a a r e Tich c u l t u r a l re s o u rc e s f o r i n d i g e n o u s m a t h e
m a t ic s (see M o o r e 1994)- B ut, e x c e p t for m i n o r re p e t it io n s ( l ik e t h e s m a ll c ir c u la r
k i v a s in t h e C h a c o c a n y o n s i t e o f fig. 3 . 1 ) t h e r e is n o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y f r a c ta l
a b o u t th e s e q u a d rila te ra l designs.
M a n y M e s o a m e r i c a n . c i t i e s , s u c h a s t h e M a y a n s ’ T e o t i h u a c a n , t h e A z te c 's
T e n o c h t i t l a n , a n d t h e T o l t e c ’s T u l a , e m b e d d e d a w e a l t h o f a s t r o n o m i c a l k n o w l
e d g e in t h e i r r e c t a n g u l a r l a y o u t s , a l i g n i n g t h e i r s t r e e t s a n d b u i l d i n g s w i t h h e a v
e n l y o b j e c t s a n d e v e n t s ( A v e n i 1 9 8 0 ) . J. T h o m p s o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) a n d K l e i n ( 1 9 8 2 )
Fractals in cross-cultural com parison
d e s c r ib e t h e q u a d r i l a t e r a l figure as a n u n d e r l y i n g t h e m e in M e s o a m e r i c a n g e o
m e t r i c t h i n k i n g , fr o m s m a l l - s c a l e m a t e r i a ! c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s s u c h as
w e a v i n g , t o t h e h e a v e n l y c o s m o l o g y o f t h e f o u r . s e r p e n t s . R o g e l i o D iaz, o f th e
.M a th e m a tic s M u seu m a t,th e U n iv e rs ity -o f Q u e re ta r o , p o in ts o u t th a t th e skin
p a t t e r n s o f t h e d i a m o n d b a c k r a t t l e s n a k e w e r e u se d by t h e M a y a n s t o s y m b o liz e
th i s c o n c e p t (fig. 3 . 3 a ) .
C o m p a r i n g t h e M a y a n s n a k e p a t t e r n w i t h a n A f r i c a n w e a v in g b a s e d o n th e
c o b r a s k i n p a t t e r n (fig. 3 . 3 b ) , w e c a n see h o w g e o m e t r i c m o d e l i n g o f s i m i l a r n a t
u ra l p h e n o m e n a i n t h e s e tw o c u l t u r e s re s u lts in v e ry d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .
T h e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n e x a m p l e e m p h a s i z e s t h e E u c l i d e a n s y m m e t r y w ithin one
size fr a m e ( “size f r a m e ” b e c a u s e t h e t e r m “s c a l e ” is c o n f u s i n g in t h e c o n t e x t o f
s n a k e s k i n ) . T h i s M a y a n p a t t e r n is c o m p o s e d o f four s h a p e s o f t h e s a m e size, a
fo u r fo ld sy m m e try . B u t t h e A f r i c a n e x a m p l e e m p h a s iz e s f r a c ta l s y m m e t ry , w h i c h
is n o t a b o u t s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n r i g h t / l e f t o r u p / d o w n , b u t r a t h e r s i m i l a r i t y
betw een d iffe r e n t size fr a m e s . T h e A f r i c a n s n a k e p a t t e r n s h o w s d i a m o n d s w i t h i n
d i a m o n d s w i t h i n d i a m o n d s . N e i t h e r d e s i g n is n e c e s s a r il y m o r e a c c u r a t e : c o b r a
s k i n d o e s i n d e e d e x h i b i t a f r a c ta l p a t t e r n — t h e s n a k e ’s " h o o d , ” its t w i n w h i t e
p a t c h e s , a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l sc a le s t h e m s e l v e s a re all d i a m o n d s h a p e d — a n d yet
s n a k e s k i n p a t t e r n s ( t h a n k s t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s c a le s ) a re also c h a r a c
te r i s t i c a l l y in d i a g o n a l ro w s, so t h e y a re a c c u r a t e l y m o d e l e d as E u c l i d e a n s t r u c
t u r e s as w e ll. E a c h c u l t u r e c h o o s e s t o e m p h a s i z e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t b e s t fit
its d e s i g n t h e m e .
T h e r e a re a few c a s e s in w h i c h N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s h a v e u s e d s c a l i n g g e o
m e t r i e s in a r t i s t i c d e s ig n s . S e v e r a l o f t h e s e w e r e n o t , h o w e v e r , p a r t o f t h e t r a
d i t i o n a l r e p e r t o i r e . ^ N a v a j o b l a n k e t s , f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e o r i g i n a l l y q u i t e lin e a r;
-it w a s -o n l y c n - e x a m i n i n g P e r s i a n - r u g a ::t-hat N a v a j o w e a v e r s b e g a n t o u se m o r e
s c a l i n g s t y le s o f d e s i g n ( a n d e v e n t h e n t h e d e s i g n s w e r e m u c h m o r e E u c l i d e a n
t h a n t h e P e r s i a n o r i g in a l s ; see K e n t 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e P u e b l o " s t o r y t e l l e r ” figures h a v e
s o m e s c a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s , b u t th e y a r e o f r e c e n t ( 1 9 6 0 s ) o r i g i n . P o t t e r y a n d c a l a
b a s h ( c a r v e d g o u r d ) a r t i s a n s in A f r i c a o f t e n c r e a t e s c a l i n g by a l l o w i n g t h e
d e s i g n a d a p t i v e l y t o c h a n g e p r o p o r t i o n a c c o r d i n g to t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l fo rm
o n w h i c h it is i n s c r i b e d (s e e “a d a p t i v e s c a l i n g ” in c h a p t e r 6 ) , b u t th i s w a s q u i t e
ra r e i n N a t i v e A m e r i c a n p o t t e r y u n t i l t h e 19 60s.
F in a lly , t h e r e a r e t h r e e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e s i g n s t h a t a re b o t h i n d i g e n o u s •
a n d f r a c ta l . T h e b e s t c a s e is t h e a b s t r a c t fig u ra tiv e a r t o f t h e H a i d a , K w a k i u t l ,
T l i n g u t , a n d o t h e r s in t h e P acific N o r t h w e s t ( H o l m 1 9 6 5 ). T h e figures, p rim a rily
c a r v i n g s , h a v e t h e k i n d o f g lo b a l , n o n l i n e a r s e lf- s im i la r it y n e c e s s a r y t o q ualify
as f r a c ta ls a n d c le a r ly e x h i b i t r e c u r s i v e s c a l i n g o f u p t o t h r e e o r fo u r it e r a t i o n s .
T h e y a ls o m a k e u se o f a d a p t i v e s c a l i n g , as il l u s t r a t e d by t h e s h r i n k i n g se rie s o f
FIGURE 3.3
S n a k e s h i n m o d e ls in N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a n d A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s
U ) R o g e lio D iaz o f t h e M a t h e m a t ic s M u se u m a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f Q u e r e t a r o sh o w s h o w the sk in
p a tterns o f the d ia m o n d b a c k ra ttlesn ak e w ere used by the M a y a n s to sy m bo lize a c o s m o lo g y based
on quad rilateral structure, (b) T h e M a n d ia c k w e avers o f G u in e a - B is s a u h a v e also cre a ted an
a b stra c t d esign based on a s n a k e s k in p a tte r n , h u t c h o s e to e m p h a siz e t h e fractal c h a ra c te ristic s .
Fractals m cross-cwltural comparison
figures o n t h e d i m i n i s h i n g h a n d l e s o f s o u p ladles. R e s e a r c h e r s s i n c e A d a m s
(1 9 3 6 ) h a v e p o i n t e d to t h e s im ila rity w ith e arly C h i n e s e art, w h i c h also h a s s o m e
b e a u ti f u l e x a m p l e s o f s c a l i n g fo r m , a n d its s t y le o f c u r v a t u r e a n d b i l a t e r a l s y m
m e try c o u ld i n d e e d b e c u l t u r a l l y rie d '’to t h e s e N e w W o r l d d e s i g n s t h r o u g h a n
a n c i e n t c o m m o n o r i g in . H o w e v e r , 1 d o u b t t h a t is t h e c a s e for t h e s c a l in g c h a r - .
a c t e r is tic s . T h e P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t a r t a p p e a r s t o h a v e d e v e l o p e d its s c a l in g
s t r u c tu r e as t h e r e s u lt o f c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a r t is a n s fo r in c r e a s i n g ly e l a b o r a t e
c a rv in g s (F a ris 1 9 8 3 ) . A l t h o u g h s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a t t r i b u t e d t h e c o m p e t i
tio n pressure to E u ro p e a n trad in g influences, th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e scaling designs
was c le a rly a n i n t e r n a l i n v e n t i o n .
T h e o t h e r t w o t r a d i t i o n a l N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e s i g n s d o n o t q ua lify as fr a c
tals q u i t e as w e ll. O n e i n v o l v e s t h e s a w - t o o t h p a t t e r n f o u n d in s e v e r a l b a s k e t
a n d w e a v i n g d e s ig n s . W h e n t w o s a w - t o o t h row s i n t e r s e c t a t a n a n g le , t h e y c r e
a te a t r ia n g l e m a d e fr o m t r i a n g u l a r edges. B u t th e s e ty p ic a lly h a v e o n ly tw o i t e r
a t i o n s o f s c a l e , a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n in t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e t h a t
th e y are s e m a n t i c a l l y tie d to ideas o f r e c u r s io n o r s c a l in g (see T h o m a s a n d S lo c k -
ish 1 9 8 2 , 1 8 ). T h e o t h e r is a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f s p i r a l a r m s o f t e n f o u n d o n
c o il e d b a s k e t s . A g a i n , t h i s is s e l f - s i m i l a r o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e c e n t e r p o i n t ,
b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e n o n l i n e a r s c a l i n g v e r s i o n s ( t h a t is, d e s i g n s t h a t r a p i d l y g e t
s m a ll e r as y o u m o v e f r o m b a s k e t e d g e t o c e n t e r ) . H o w e v e r , t h e s e d e s i g n s
g e n e r a l ly a p p e a r t o b e a f u s io n b e t w e e n t h e c i r c u l a r fo r m o f t h e b a s k e t a n d t h e
cru cifo rm s h a p e o f th e arm s: a g a in m o r e a c o m b i n a ti o n o f tw o E u c lid e a n
shapes th a n a fractal.
O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n e x a m p l e s o f t h i s f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e c ir c le a n d
t h e cro ss is t h e “ b if o ld r o t a t i o n ” p a t t e r n in w h i c h t h e a r m s c u r v e in o p p o s i t e
d i r e c t i o n s , as s h o w n in fig u re 3 .4 a . F ig u r e 3 . 4 b s h o w s t h e fig u re o f 2 b a t from-
M i m b r e s p o t t e r y w i t h a m o r e c o m p l e x v e r s i o n o f t h e b if o ld r o t a t i o n . E u c l i d e a n
s y m m e t r y h a s b e e n e m p h a s i z e d in t h i s figure; for e x a m p l e , t h e e a rs a n d m o u t h
o f th e b a t h a v e b e e n m a d e to lo o k s i m i la r to in c r e a s e t h e b i l a te r a l sy m m e try , a n d
th e belly is d r a w n as a r e c t a n g l e . F ig u re 3 . 4 c s h o w s t h e figure o f a b a t fr o m a n
A fric a n d esign ; it is a zigzag s h a p e t h a t e x p a n d s in w i d t h fro m t o p to b o t t o m , r e p
r e s e n tin g t h e w i n g o f t h e b a t. H e r e w e see n e g l e c t o f t h e b i l a t e r a l s y m m e t r y o f
t h e bat, a n d a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e s c a l in g fo lds o f a s i n g le w in g. A g a i n , t h e N a t i v e
A m e r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m a k e s use o f its q u a d r i l a t e r a l / c i r c u l a r d esig n t h e m e , ju st
as th e A f r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e b a t e m p h a s iz e s s c a l i n g d e s i g n .
T h e r e is p l e n t y o f c o m p l e x i t y a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n in t h e in d i g e n o u s g e o m
etry a n d n u m e r ic - s y s te m s o f t h e A m e r i c a s (s e e A s c h e r 1 9 91 , 8 7 - 9 4 ; C lo s s 1986;
Eglash i 9 9 8 b ) , b u t w i t h t h e im p re s s iv e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Pacific N o r t h w e s t c a r v
ings, fra c ta ls a r e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a b s e n t in N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e sig n s.
A rk a n s a s p o ttery Pim a b a sk e t S o u th w e ste rn pottery m otif
(a) T h e c i r c u l a r a n d q u a d r i l a t e r a l f o r m s w e r e o f t e n c o m b i n e d i n N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e s i g n s as a
fo u rfo ld o r b ifold rota tio n .
(b) T h i s i m a g e o f a b a t , fr o m a M i t n b r e s p o t t e r y i n S o u t h w e s t e r n
N a t i v e A m e r ic a n tra dition , sh o w s an em p ha sis o n c ircu la r and
q u a d rila te r a l fo r m . T h e ear a n d t h e m o u t h , fo r e x a m p le , are m ad e
t o l o o k s i m i l a r t o e m p h a s i z e b i l a t e r a l s y m m e t r y , a n d t h e b e l l y is
d r a w n as a r e c t a n g l e . It a l s o s h o w s t h e w i n g b o n e s a s a b i f o l d
ro ta tio n pattern.
FIGURE 3 . 4
T h e bifold r o ta ti o n in N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e s ig n
( a : L e f t , fr o m Miles 19 6 3 . C e n t e r , fr om S o u t h w e s t I n d i a n C r a f t A r t s by C l m a Lee T a n n e r . C o p y r ig h t
1 9 6 8 b y the A r i z o n a B o a rd o f Regents. R e p r i n t e d b y permission 0/ the U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a Press.
Right, c o u r t e s y D o n C - r o w e - b , f r o m Z a s l o w 1 9 7 7 , c o u r t e s y o f the a u t h o r , c , cou rt esy o f D a n i e l D i e b u y c k . )
Fractals in cross-culcuTal comparison
D e s i g n s o f A s i a a n d t h e S o u t h P a c ific
S e v e r a l o f t h e S o u t h P a cific c u l t u r e s s h a r e a t r a d i t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e c u r v e d a n d
s p ira l fo rm s, w h i c h in c e r t a i n M a o r i v e r s i o n s —- p a r tic u la r l y t h e i r r a f t e r a n d t a t -
• to o p a t t e r n s — w o u ld c e r t a i n l y c o u n t a s ’f r a c ta l (s e e H a m i l t o n 1 9 7 7 ). T h e s e are
s t r o n g l y su g g e s tiv e o f t h e c u r v a t u r e o f w a v e s a n d sw irling, w ater. C l a s s i c J a p a n
ese p a i n t i n g s o f w a t e r w a v e s w e r e a ls o p r e s e n t e d as fra c ta l p a t t e r n s in M a n d e l
b r o t 's ( 1 9 8 2 ) s e m i n a l t e x t ( p l a t e C 1 6 ) . T h e s e m a y h a v e s o m e h i s t o r i c r e l a t i o n
to sc a lin g p a t t e r n s in C h i n e s e a r t (see W a s h b u r n a n d C r o w e 1988, fig. 6 .9 ) , w h i c h
are b a s e d o n s w ir lin g fo r m s o f w a t e r a n d c lo u d s , a b s t r a c t e d as s p i r a l s c a l i n g '
s t r u c t u r e s . W h i l e b o t h t h e J a p a n e s e a n d C h i n e s e p a t t e r n s a re e x p l i c i t l y a s s o c i
a te d w i t h a n effort t o i m i t a t e n a t u r e , t h e s e M a o r i d e sig n s are r e p o r t e d t o b e m o r e
a b o u t c u l t u r e — in p a r t ic u l a r , th e y e m p h a s iz e m i rro r -im a g e s y m m e t rie s , w h i c h a re
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r c u l t u r a l t h e m e s o f c o m p l i m e n t a r i t y in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s
( H a n s o n 1 9 8 3 ).
In a l m o s t all o t h e r in d i g e n o u s e x a m p l e s , h o w e v e r , t h e P a c if ic I s la n d e r p a t
t e r n s a r e q u i t e E u c l i d e a n . S e t t l e m e n t l a y o u t , f o r i n s t a n c e , is t y p i c a l l y in o n e
o r tw o ro w s o f r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d i n g s n e a r t h e c o a s ts , w i t h c i r c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t s
o f r e c t a n g l e s a ls o o c c u r r i n g i n l a n d (s e e F r a s e r 1 9 6 8 ) . T h e b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c
t i o n is g e n e r a l l y b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e c t a n g u l a r g rid s w i t h t r i a n g u l a r
o r c u r v e d a r c h roofs. O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e s e t r i a n g u l a r fa c e s a re d e c o r a t e d w i t h t r i
angles, b u t o th e rw is e n o n s c a lin g d esig n s d o m i n a te b o th s tru c tu r a l a n d d e c o
r a t i v e patterns.-^
A g a i n , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t t h i s la c k o f fra c ta ls d o e s n o t im ply a lack
o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n in t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l t h i n k i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , A s c h e r ( 1 9 9 1 )
h a s a n aly z ed s o m e o f t h e a l g o r i t h m i c p r o p e r tie s o f W a rlp ir i (P acific Is la n d e r) sa n d
d r a w in g s . S i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e s a re a ls o f o u n d ' i n " A f r i c a ; w h e r e th e y a re called"
lu so n a . Buc w h i l e t h e lu s o n a t e n d t o use s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s a t d i f f e r e n t sc a le s (as
w e w ill se e in c h a p t e r 5 ) , t h e W a r l p i r i d r a w i n g s t e n d t o use d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s at
d i f f e r e n t sc ales. A s c h e r c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e W a r l p i r i m e t h o d o f c o m b i n i n g d if
f e r e n t g r a p h m o v e m e n t s is a n a l o g o u s to a lg e b r a ic c o m b i n a t i o n s , b u t t h e A f r i c a n
lu s o n a a re b e s t d e s c r i b e d as fractals.
C o m p l i c a t i n g m y c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e S o u t h P acific as d o m i n a t e d by
E u c l i d e a n p a t t e r n s is t h e e x t e n s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f I n d i a . I t is p e r h a p s n o c o i n c i
d e n c e c h a t th e t r ia n g l e of tr ia n g le s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e is m o s t c o m m o n in I n d o n e
sia. In a r c h i t e c t u r e , a f a m o u s e x c e p t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l l y E u c l i d e a n fo r m is t h a t
o f B o rob ud ur, a te m p le o f I n d i a n re lig io u s o rig in in J a v a . A l t h o u g h n o r t h e r n I n d i a
t e n d s t o w a r d E u c l i d e a n a r c h i t e c t u r e , e x p l i c i t re c u r s iv e d e s ig n is s e e n in s e v e r a l
t e m p l e s in s o u t h e r n I n d i a — t h e K a n d a r y a M a h a d e o in K h a j u r a h o is o n e o f t h e
48 Introduction
c l e a r e s t e x a m p l e s — a n d is r e l a t e d to re c u r s iv e c o n c e p t s in re l ig i o u s c o sm o lo g y .
T h e s e s a m e a re a s in s o u t h e r n I n d i a a ls o h a v e a v e r s i o n o f t h e lu s o n a d r a w in g s ,
a n d m a n y o t h e r ex am p les o f fractal design. Interestingly, th e s e e x a m p le s from s o u t h
e r n I n d i a a r e t h e p r o d u c t s o f D r a v i d i a n c u l t u r e , w h i c h is s u s p e c t e d t o h a v e sig
n i f i c a n t h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s in A f r i c a .
E u r o p e a n desig n s
M o s t t r a d i t i o n a l E u r o p e a n f r a c ta l d e sig n s, lik e t h o s e o f J a p a n a n d C h i n a , a r e d u e
t o i m i t a t i o n o f n a t u r e — a t o p i c we w ill t a k e u p i n t h e f o l lo w in g c h a p t e r . T h e r e
a r e a t le a s t tw o s t e l l a r e x c e p t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h a t a r e w o r t h n o t i n g . O n e is t h e
s c a l in g i t e r a t i o n s o f t r ia n g l e s in t h e floor tile s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S a n t a M a r i a in
C o s t n e d i n R o m e (see p l a t e 5 .7 in W a s h b u r n a n d C r o w e 1 9 8 8 ) . I h a v e n o t b e e n
a b le to d e t e r m i n e a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e i r c u l t u r a l o r i g in s , b u t t h e y a r e c le a rly
a r t is t ic i n v e n t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i m i t a t i o n o f s o m e n a t u r a l f o r m . T h e o t h e r c a n b e
f o u n d in c e r t a i n v a r i e ti e s o f C e l t i c i n t e r l a c e d esig n s. N o r d e n f a l k ( 1 9 7 7 ) su gg ests
t h a t th e s e a re h is to ric a lly r e l a te d to t h e sp iral d e sig n s o f p r e - C h r i s t i a n C e l t i c re li
g i o n , w h e r e t h e y t r a c e t h e f lo w o f a v it a l life fo r c e . T h e y a r e g e o m e t r i c a l l y
classified as a n E u le r i a n p a t h , w h i c h is clo sely a s s o c ia te d w i t h m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o t
t h e o r y (cf. J o n e s 1 9 9 0 , 9 9 ) .
C o n c l u s io n
F ra c t a l s t r u c t u r e is by n o m e a n s u n i v e r s a l in t h e m a t e r i a l p a t t e r n s o f i n d i g e n o u s
so c ie tie s . I n N a t i v e A m e r i c a n d e sig n s, o n l y t h e P acific N o r t h w e s t p a t t e r n s s h o w
a s t r o n g f r a c ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; E u c l i d e a n s h a p e s o t h e r w i s e d o m i n a t e t h e a r t a n d
a r c h i t e c t u r e . E x c e p t fo r t h e M a o r i s p i r a l d e s i g n s , f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y d o e s n o t
a p p e a r to be a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f in d i g e n o u s S o u t h Pacific p a t t e r n s e ith er. T h a t
is n o t t o say t h a t f r a c ta l d e s i g n s a p p e a r n o w h e r e b u t A f r i c a — s o u t h e r n I n d i a is
full o f f r a c ta l s , a n d C h i n e s e flu id sw irl d e s i g n s a n d C e l t i c k n o t p a t t e r n s a re
a lm o s t c e r t a in l y o f i n d e p e n d e n t o rig in .”* T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e is t h a t t h e frac
tal d e s i g n s o f A f r i c a s h o u l d n o t b e m i s t a k e n for a u n i v e r s a l o r p a n c u l t u r a l p h e
n o m e n o n ; th e y are c u ltu ra lly specific. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r w ill e x a m i n e th e
q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l sp ecificity.
CHAPTER
B efo re w e c a n d is c u ss t h e f r a c t a l s h a p e s in A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e s as
g e o m e tric k n o w le d g e , we n e e d t o t h i n k carefully a b o u t th e re la tio n b e tw e e n m a te -
rial d e sig n s a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l u n d e rs ta n d i n g. D e s ig n s a re b e s t s e e n as p o s i ti o n e d
o n a r a n g e o r s p e c t r u m o f ^ i n t e n t i o n . A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e ra n g e a re u n i n t e n
t i o n a l p a t t e r n s, c r e a t e d a c c i d e n t a l l y as t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f s o m e o t h e r a c ti v it y .
In t h e m i d d l e o f rh e r a n g e a re d e s i g n s t h a t a r e i n t e n t ' o n n ! in tu itiv e ,
w ith n o rules o r g u id e l in e s t o e x p l a i n its c r e a t i o n . A t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e r a n g e ,
we h a v e t h e i n t e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x p l i c i t r u l e s t h a t w e a re a c c u s t o m e d to
a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s w ill e x a m i n e t h e f r a c ta l
d e s i g n s t h a t o c c u r in v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a l o n g t h i s i n t e n t i o n a l i t y s p e c t r u m .
A n e x c e l le n t e x a m p le o f u n i n t e n t i o n a l fractals c a n b e fo u n d in t h e w ork o f M ic h a e l
Batty a n d Paul L ongley (1 9 8 9 ) , w h o e x a m i n e d t h e sh a p e o f large-scale u r b a n sprawl
s u r r o u n d i n g E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n c i t i e s (fig. 4 . 1 ) . W h i l e t h e b l o c k s o f t h e s e
citie s a re ty p ic a lly laid o u t in r e c t a n g u l a r g rids, a t v e ry large s cales— a r o u n d 100
sq u a re m i le s — w e c a n see t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h h a s c r e a t e d a n
irre g u la r p a t t e r n . T h i s ty p e o f f r a c t a l , a “d if f u s i o n l i m i t e d a g g r e g a t i o n , ” also
50 In tro d u c tio n
F I G U R E 4.1
U r b a n s p r a w l in L o n d o n
L arg e-sca le urban spraw l
g e n e ra lly h as a fra ctal
stru ctu re. T h e u rb a n spraw l
fra ctals o n ly ex ist at v e ry
l a r g e s c a l e s — a b o u t 1 0 0 sq.
m ile s — a n d re s u lt fro m th e
u n co n sciou s accu m u lation
o f u rb an p o p u la tio n d yn am ics.
A t le v e ls o f co n s c io u s in te n t
( e .g ., th e grid o f c i t y b l o c k s ) ,
E u r o p e a n citie s are ty p ic a lly
E u c l i d e a n . A r e a is 1 0 x 1 0
k ilom eters.
( .R e p r in t e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n f r o m
B a tty et al. 1 9 8 9 )
o c c u r s in c h e m i c a l s y s te m s w h e n p a r t i c l e s in a s o l u t i o n a r e a t t r a c t e d t o a n e l e c
t r o d e . F ra c t a l u r b a n s p r a w l is c le a r ly t h e r e s u l t o f u n c o n s c i o u s s o c ia l d y n a m i c s ,
n o t c o n s c i o u s d esig n . A t t h e s m a ll e r sc ale s in w h i c h t h e r e is c o n s c i o u s p l a n n i n g ,
E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e s a r e ty p i c a ll y E u c l i d e a n .
I t m i g h t b e t e m p t i n g t o t h i n k t h a t t h e c o r ^ a s t j ^ t w e e n . t h e E u c li .d e jn - d e s ig n s
o f E u ro p e a n d t h e fra c ta l d e sig n s o f A f r i c a c a n be e x p l a i n e d by t h e i m p o r t a n t ro le
o f t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t in A f r i c a n s o c i e ti e s . B u t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n t u r n s o u t
to be w rong; if a n y th in g , th e r e is a t e n d e n c y for in d ig en o u s societies to .fay o r E u clid
e a n s h a p e s . P h y s i c is t K h . S . , M a m e d o v o b s e r v e d s u c h a c o n t r a s t in h i s r e f le c t io n s
o n h i s y o u t h in a n o m a d i c c u l t u r e :
My p aren ts an d c o u n try m en . . . u p to t h e s e c o n d w o r ld w a r h a d b e e n
n o m a d s . • •. O u ts i d e ou r n o m a d t e n t s we w ere liv in g in a w o n d e rfu l k in g d o m
o f variou s c u rv e d lines a n d forms. S o w h y w e re th e a e s t h e t i c signs n o t form ed
from t h e m , h a v i n g in s te a d p re s e rv e d g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s . . . ? [Jjn t h e cities
where th e straight-line geometry’ was p re d o m in a n t th e a esth etic signs were formed
. . . w ith n a tu re playing th e d o m i n a ti n g role. . . . [TJhe n o m a d did n o t n eed the
“p o rtra it” o f a n o ak to be carried w ith him elsewhere because h e co uld view all
sorts o f oaks every day and every h o u r . . . while for th e tow nsfolk th e ir in c lin a
tion to n a tu re was m ore a result of nostalgia. ( M a m e d o v 1986, 5 1 2 - 5 1 3 )
I n t e n t i o n a n d i n v e n t i o n in d e s ig n
. C o n t r a r y t o r o m a n t i c p o r t r a i t s o f t h e “n o b l e s a v a g e ” li v i n g as o n e w i t h
n a tu r e , m o s t in d i g e n o u s s o c i e t i e s s e e m q u i t e i n t e r e s t e d i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e m
selves fro m t h e i r s u r r o u q d ii ig s . I t is t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f larg e s t a t e s o c i e ti e s , s u c h
as t h o s e o f m o d e r n J i u r o p e } w h o y e a r n ,fo m i m i c t h e n a t u r a l . W h e n E u r o p e a n
de signs a r e fr a c ta l , it is u s u a l ly d u e _t_P.an .effo rt.to m i m i c n a t u r e . A f r i c a n fra c ta ls
based o n m i m i c r y o f n a t u r a l fo r m a re r e l a t i v e l y ra r e ; t h e ir i n s p i r a t i o n t e n d s to
co m e fr o m t h e r e a l m o f c u l t u r e .
H o w s h o u l d w e p l a c e s u c h n a t u r e - b a s e d d e s i g n s in o u r i n t e n t i o n a l i t y s p e c
tr um ? T h a t d e p e n d s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m i m e s is.an d.m O -d elin g^> 4 im esjs^
is a r ^ a t t e m p t to m i r r o r t h e im a g e o f a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t , a g o al e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d
by P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e as t h e e s s e n c e o f a r t , o n e t h a t w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y fo l lo w e d
in E urope for m a n y c e n tu r ie s (see A u e r b a c h 1953). A p h o to g r a p h is a goo d e x a m p le
o f m im esis. A p h o t o m i g h t c a p t u r e t h e f r a c ta l im a g e o f a t r e e , b u t it w o u ld b e
foolish to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r k n o w s f r a c ta l g e o m e try . If a r t i s a n s a re
simply try in g t o c o p y a p a rt ic u l a r n a t u r a l o b je c t, t h e n t h e sc alin g is a n .u .n in te n d e d
b y -p r o d u c t.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a t t n b u t e s j : h a t s e p a r a t e m i m e s is f r o m Q n o d e l i n g e r e
a b s t r a c t i o n a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n .( A b s t r a c ti o n ^ is a n a t t e m p t t o l e a v e o u t m a n y o f
th e c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s o f t h e s u b j e c t by c r e a t i n g a s i m p l e r figure w h o s e s t r u c t u r e
is s till'ro u g h ly a n a lo g o u s t o t h e o r i g i n a l — o f t e n c a ll e d a “stylized" r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,
in t h e a rts C jG en etaliz atio n ^ ir i e a n s s e l e c t i n g a n a n a l o g o u s s t r u c t u r e t h a t is^com-
m o n to all e x a m p l e s o f t h e s u b j e c t ; w h a t is o f t e n re f e r r e d t o as a n “u n d e r l y i n g ”
form o r law .1 F or e x a m p l e , M a n d e l b r o t ( 1 9 8 1 ) p o i n t s t o t h e E u r o p e a n B e a u x A r t s :
style as a n a t r e m p t n o t m e r e ly ro i m i t a t e n a t u r e , b u t t o “guess its law s.” H e n o t e s
th a t th e in te rio r o f t h e Paris o p e ra h o u s e m a k e s use o f scalin g a rc h e s -w ith in -a rc h e s ;,
. a p a t t e r n t h a t g e n e ra liz e s s o m e o f t h e s c a l in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n a t u r e , but- is not-
a co py o f a n y o n e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r a l o b j e c t .
S i n c e t h e u l t i m a t e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l ,, w h y d i d n ’t
d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s s u c h as t h e B e a u x A r t s s t y l e r e s u l t i n a n e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t o f
fra c ta l g e o m e t r y ? For E u r o p e a n s , s u c h l u s h o r n a m e n t a t i o n w as p r e s e n t e d —-an d
g e n e r a l ly a c c e p t e d — as e m b o d y i n g t h e opposite o f m a t h e m a t i c s ; i t w as ani e ff o rt
to c r e a t e d e sig n s t h a t c o u ld o n ly b e u n d e r s t o o d in i r r a ti o n a l, e m o t i o n a l , o r i n t u
itiv e te r m s . E v e n s o m e m o v e m e n t s a g a i n s t t h i s a t t e m p t , s u c h as t h e u s e o f d i s
t i n c t l y E u c l i d e a n fo r m s in t h e h i g h m o d e r n a r t s s t y le , s i m p l y r e i n f o r c e d t h e
a s s o c i a t i o n b e c a u s e it o n l y o f f e r e d a r e v e r s a l , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t “ m a t h e m a t i c a l ”
shapes (cubes, sp h eres, e tc .) c o u ld be e s th e tic a lly a p p re c ia te d . W i t h rare
e x c e p t i o n s ( e .g ., T h o m p s o n 1 9 1 7 ) , m i m e s i s o f n a t u r e in p r e - W W 11 E u r o p e a n
a rt t r a d i t i o n s m e r e ly f u r t h e r e d t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y w as t h e
o n ly tr u e g e o m e t r y . 2
5* In tro d u c tio n
T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n ^ m im e s js a n d m o d e l i n g p ro v i d e s tw o d i f f e r e n t posi-
t i o n s a l o n g t h e j n t e n t i o n 3 l j C y _ s g e c t r u m . T h e le a s t i n t e n t i o n a l w o u ld b e m e r e ly
h o l d i n g a m i r r o r t o n a t u r e —-for e x a m p l e , if s o m e o n e w a s j u s t s h o o t i n g , a c a m
e ra o r p a i n t i n g a realistic p ic t u r e o u td o o r s a n d h a p p e n e d t o i n c l u d e a fra c ta l o b j e c t
( c l o u d , tr e e , e t c . ) . T h i s m i m e s is d o e s n o t c o u n t as m a t h e m a t i c a l t h i n k i n g . M o r e |
i n t e n t i o n a l is a stylized r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r e . If t h e a r t i s t h a s r e d u c e d t h e n a t - i
ural im ag e t o a s t ru c tu r a ll y a n a l o g o u s c o l l e c t i o n o f m o r e s i m p l e e l e m e n t s , s h e h a s \
c re a te d a n ab stract m odel. W h e t h e r o r n o t s u c h a b stra c tio n s m o v e to w a rd m o re J
m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s is a m a t t e r o f lo c al p r e f e r e n c e .
T h e t w o e x a m p l e s o f A f r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f n a t u r e w e o b s e r v e d in
th e previous c h a p te r c e rta in ly sh o w th a t th e a rtisa n s h a v e g o n e b e y o n d
m e r e m im e s is. T h e M a n d i a c k c o b r a p a t t e r n w e saw in fig u re 3 .2 . s h o w s a s t r ic t ly
sy ste m a tic scalin g p a tte rn . T h is te x tile d esig n c o n v e y s th e sc a lin g p ro p e rty
o f 't h e n a tu r a l c o b ra s k in p a t t e r n — d ia m o n d s a t m a n y sc a le s— in a sty lized or
a b s t r a c t way. W e c a n t a k e th is- i d e a a s t e p f u r t h e r b y e x a m i n i n g a n o t h e r
B w a m i b a t s c u l p t u r e (fig . 4 . 2 ) . T h i s s p i r a l p a t t e r n is a l s o a s t y l i z e d r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l s c a l i n g o f t h e b a t ’s w in g , b u t it.is a d i f f e r e n t g e o m e t r i c
d e s i g n t h a n t h e e x p a n d i n g zigzag p a t t e r n w e s a w in fi g u r e 3 .4 c . It is m o r e s ty 1-
FIGURE 4-2
Stylized, s c u l p t u r e o f a b a t
A nother Legn bat sculpture, but unlike the zigzag design
we saw in figure 3.4c, here the scaling of the wing folds is
represented by a spiral.
(B y p erm ission o f th e M u se u m o f A f r i c a n A r t, N .Y .)
/m ention an d invention in design
iz e d i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g f u r t h e r a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l b a t ’s
w i n g . T h i s p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e sc u l p t o r s w e r e f o c u s e d o n t h e
s c a l i n g p r o p e r t i es— t h e g e n e r a l i z e d u n d e r l y i n g f e a t u r e — a n d n o t p a r t i c u l a r c o n
c r e te d etails.
f T h e g r e a t e s t d a n g e r o f t h i s b o o k is t h a t r e a d e r s m i g h t m i s i n t e r p r e t its ^
\ m e a n i n g in te rm s o f p rim itiv ism . T h e fa c t t h a t A f r i c a n j r acta ls are_rarely t h e r e s u l t 1
o f i m i t a t i n g n a t u r a l fo r m s Jh e lp s r e m i n d us t h a t t h e y a re n o t d u e t o “p r i m i t i v e s
l i v in g c lo s e t o n a t u r e . ” B u t e v e n fo r t h o s e r a r e cases i n w h i c h A f r i c a n f r a c ta ls
are re p r e s e n ta tio n s o f n a tu r e , it is c lea rly a s £ ^f'C ^scio \js,abstractiQ n , n o t a m im e tic
re f le c tio n . T h e g e o m e t r i c c h i n k i n g t h a t g o e s i n t o chesg^exam ples m a y ja g s i m p le,
b u t it is q u i t e i n t e n t i o n a l .
T h e fr a c ta l e s t h e t i c
J u s t as w e saw h o w d e s i g n s b a s e d o n n a t u r e r a n g e fr o m u n c o n s c i o u s t o i n t e n
t i o n a l , a r t i f i c i a l d e s i g n s a ls o v a r y a l o n g a r a n g e o f i n t e n t i o n , w i t h s o m e s i m p l y
th e result o f an in tu itiv e in s p ira tio n , a n d o th e r s a m o re self-conscious a p p lic a
t i o n o f ru le s o r p r i n c ip l e s . T h e e x a m p l e s o f A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s in fig u re 4 .3 d i d n o t
a p p e a r to be r e l a t e d t o a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e a r t i s a n ’s e s t h e t i c i n t u i t i o n or
s e n s e o f b e auty. A s far as 1 c o u l d d e t e r m i n e fr o m d e s c r i p t i o n s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e
a n d m y o w n fie ld w o rk , t h e r e w e r e n o e x p l i c i t ru le s a b o u t h o w t o c o n s t r u c t th e s e
d e s i g n s , a n d n o m e a n i n g w as a t t a c h e d to t h e p a r t i c u l a r g e o m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e fig u re s o t h e r t h a n l o o k i n g g o o d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , I s p e n t s e v e r a l w e e k s in
D a k a r w a n d e r i n g t h e s t r e e ts a s k i n g a b o u t c e r t a i n f r a c ta l fa b ric p a t t e r n s a n d j e w
e l r y d e s i g n s , a n d cite i n s i s t e n c e c h a t t h e s e p a t t e r n s w e r e “j u s t fo r l o o k s ” w as so
a d a m a n t t h a t , if s o m e o n e f i n a l l y h a d o f f e r e d a n e x p l a n a t i o n , I w o u l d h a v e
v i e w e d it w i t h s u s p ic io n .
S i n c e s o m e p r o f e s s i o n a l m a t h e m a t i c i a n s r e p o r t t h a t t h e i r id e a s w e r e p u re
i n t u i t i o n — a s u d d e n flash o f i n s i g h t , o r “A h a ! ” as M a r t i n G a r d n e r p u t s it— we
s h o u l d n ’t d i s c o u n t t h e g e o m e t r i c t h i n k i n g o f a n a r t i s a n w h o r e p o r t s “1 c a n ’t tell
y o u h o w I c r e a t e d r h a t , it j u s t c a m e t o m e . " E s t h e t i c p a t t e r n s c l e a r ly q u a li fy as
i n t e n t i o n a l d e s ig n s . O n t h e j i t h e r hand,, t h e r e is n ’t m u c h we c a n s a y a b o u t t h e
m a t h e m a ti c a l ideas b e h i n d th e s e p a tte rn s ; th e y will h a v e t o r e m a in a m ystery unless
s o m e t h i n g m o r e is rev eale d a b o u t t h e i r m e a n i n g o r d i e a r t is a n ’s; c o n s t r u c t i o n te c h -
niqu£S.sl t is w o r t h n o t i n g , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y d o c o n t r i b u t e to t h e f r a c ta l d e sig n
t h e m e in A f r i c a . E s t h e t i c p a t t e r n s h e l p i n s p ir e p r a c t i c a l d esig n s, a n d v ic e .y e rsa .
S i n c e a n c i e n t tr a d e n e t w o r k s w e r e w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e d if fu sio n o f e s t h e t i c p a t
t e r n s is p r o b a b l y o n e p a r t o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n for h o w fra c ta ls c a m e t o be so w i d e
s p r e a d ac ro s s t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t .
FIGURE 4 .3
E s t h e t i c fr a c ta l s
( a ) M e u r a n t ( q u o t e d in R e i f 1 9 9 6 ) r e p o r t s
t h a t t h e M b u t i w o m e n w h o c r e a t e d t h is
f r a c t a l d e s i g n , a b a r k - c l o t h p a i n t i n g , t o ld
h i m t h e d e s i g n w a s n o t “ t e l l i n g s t o r ie s , "
n o r w a s it “ r e p r e s e n t i n g a n y vp a r t i c u i a r
o b j e c t . ” ( b ) S c a l i n g p a t t e r n s c a n be
fo u n d in m a n y A f r i c a n d e c o r a t iv e designs
t h a t a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e “ ju st fo r b e a u t y . ”
U p p e r l e f t , S h o o w a R a f f i a c l o t h ; l o w e r l e ft,
S e n e g a l e s e t i e d y e ; rig ht, S e n e g a l e s e
pendant.
( a , co u rt e sy G e o r g e s M e n i a n l . b : U ppe r le ft ,
B r it is h M u s e u m ; l o w e r l e f t , f r o m M u s e c R oy al
d e l A / r i q u c C e n t r a l , Belgiu m ; right, photo
co urte sy I F A N , D a k a r .)
Im e n iio n a n d in v e n tio n in design 55
FIGURE 4 . 4
T h e q u in c u n x fra cta l
A c u s t o m e r in T o u b a , S e n e g a l , s e l e c t s a f r a c t a l q u i n c u n x p a t t e r n f o r h is l e a t h e r n e c k b a g . T h e
q u i n c u n x is h i s t o r i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f its u se b y e a r l y A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n “ m a n o f s c i e n c e "
B enjam in Banneker.
O f c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f A f r i c a n d e s i g n s t h a t a re s t r i c t l y E u c l i d e a n ,
b u t e v e n t h e s e c a n o c c u r i n “ f r a c t a l i z e d ” v e r s io n s . O n e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g
ex a m p l e is t h e quincunx (fig. 4 . 4 ) . T h e b a sic q u i n c u n x is a p a t t e r n o f five sq uares,
w i t h o n e a t t h e c e n t e r a n d o n e a t e a c h c o r n e r . T h e d e s i g n is c o m m o n i n S e n e
gal, w h e r e it is sa id t o r e p r e s e n t t h e “ li g h t o f A l l a h . ” T h e q u i n c u n x is h i s t o r i
cally i m p o r c a n t b e c a u s e t h e im a g e w as r e c o r d e d a s j a e i n g o f re lig io u s s i g n if i c a o c e
to t h e early A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n “ m a n o f s c i e n q e ” B e n j a m i n B a n n e k e r . S i n c e e v i
d e n c e s h o w s t h a t B a n n e k e r ’s g r a n d f a t h e r ( B a n n a k a ) c a m e f r o m S e n e g a l , t h e
q u i n c u n x is a f a s c i n a t i n g p o s s i b i l i t y fo r g e o m e t r y in t h e A f r i c a n d i a s p o r a (s e e
E glnsh 19 9 7 c fo r d e t a i l s ) . B e c a u s e o f t h e f r a c t a l e s t h e t i c , t h i s re l ig i o u s s y m b o l h
is o f t e n . a r r a n g e d in a r e c u r s i v e p a t t e r n — fiv e s q u a r e s q f five s q u a r e s — a s s h o w n / .
in figure 4 .4 in t h e d e s i g n fo r a l e a t h e r n e c k bag. J ‘
F in a lly , t h e r e a r e a ls o e x a m p l e s o f t h e f r a c t a l e s t h e t i c i n c o m m o n h o u s e
h o l d f u r n i s h i n g s . E u r o - A m e r i c a n f u r n i t u r e is d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by f o r m a n d f u n c
ti o n — sto o ls are s tr u c tu r e d d if fe re n tly fro m c h a irs, w h ic h are s tr u c tu r e d
d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m c o u c h e s . B u t in A f r i c a n h o m e s o n e o f t e n se e s d i f f e r e n t sizes
o f t h e s a m e s h a p e (fig. 4 .5 ). A s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e h a s b e e n n o t e d in c r o s s - c u l tu r a l
co m p a riso n s o f h o u sin g . W h e r e a s E u r o - A m e r ic a n s w o u ld n e v e r t h i n k to h a v e
a g o v e r n e r ’s m a n s i o n s h a p e d l i k e a p e a s a n t ’s s h a c k ( o r v ic e v e r s a ) , p r e c o l o n i a l
A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e ty p i c a l l y u s e d t h e s a m e fo r m a t d i f f e r e n t sizes (as w e saw
for t h e sta tu s d i s t i n c t i o n s in t h e B a -ila s e t t l e m e n t in c h a p t e r 2 ). I t is u n f o r t u n a t e \
f chat t h i s A f r i c a n s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is ty p i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f a ]
! lack— as d i e a b s e n c e o f s h a p e d i s t i n c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n a s t h e p r e s e n c e o f a se a l- /
\ ing d e s i g n t h e m e .
56 Introduction
FI GURE 4 .5
T h e fr a c t a l e s t h e t i c i n h o u s e h o l d o b j e c t s
A fr ic 3 n s to o ls , chairs, an d ben ch es are often created in a scaling series.
(P h o to co u rtesy o f A f r i c a P l a c e , I n c .)
C o n c lu s i o n
f ig u r e 4 .6
F r o m u n c o n s c i o u s a c c i d e n t to e x p lic it d e s i g n
/ n t e n t i o n a n d i n v e n t i o n in d e s ig n
c a tio n s o f n a t u r e o r p u r e l y e s t h e t i c d e s i g n s , d o s h o w i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i v i t y fo cu s ed
o n f r a c ta ls. S u c h e x a m p l e s m a y be r e s t r i c t e d in t e r m s o f g e o m e t r i c t h i n k i n g —
tja.e-mt-isans m a y o n l y r e p o r t t h a t t h e d e s i g n s u d d e n l y c a m e t o t h e m in a flash o f
in t u it io n - V -b u t th e s e a r e c le a r ly d i s t i n g u i s h e d fr o m th o s e w h i c h a re u n c o n s c i o u s
o T "a c c id e n ta l. T h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s will c o n s i d e r e x a m p l e s t h a t a re n o t o n ly
i n t e n t i o n a l , b u t also in c l u d e e n o u g h e x p li c it in f o r m a t i o n a b o u t design te c h n i q u e s
a n d k n o w le d g e sy stem s to be easily id en tifiab le as m a t h e m a t i c a l p ra ctice a n d ideas.
PA RT
-A frican------------------ —
“fractal-
-m athem atics-
CHAPTER
G eom etric
5
algorithms-
g e o m e t r y in M c in g b e tu d e s i g n
T h e M a n g b e t u o c c u p y t h e D e l e R i v e r a r e a in t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e
D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f C o n g o (f o rm a lly Z a ir e ) . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e s h o w s
ir o n s m e l t i n g in t h e are a s i n c e 2 3 0 0 b .c . e ., b u t th e M a n g b e tu , c o m in g from drier
lands a ro u n d p re s e n t-d a y U g a n d a , d id n o t arriv e u n til a b o u t 1000 c .e. T hrough
b o th c o n flic t a n d c o o p e ra tio n , th e y e x c h a n g e d c u ltu ra l tra d itio n s w ith o th e r
61
62 A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
s o c i e ti e s o f t h e a re a : B a n t u - s p e a k i n g p e o p le s s u c h a s t h e B u d a , B u a a n d L ese, a n d
U b a n g i a n - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s s u c h as t h e A z a n d e , B a n g b a , a n d B ara-m bo. A r o u n d
180 0 a n um b,er o f s m a ll c h ie f d o m s w e re c o n s o l id a t e d i n t o tjfie first M a n g b e t u k i n g
d o m . A l t h o u g h it la s te d o n l y t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , a t r a d i t i o n o f c o u r t ly p re s tig e c o n -
t i n u e d e v e n in sm all villages a n d spread t o m a n y o f th e M a n g b e t u ’s tr a d in g p artn ers.
T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l d iv e r s it y , e x c h a n g e , a n d p r e s t i g e r e s u l t e d in a
th r iv in g artistic tra d itio n .
/ A d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f M a n g b e t u h is t o r y a n d t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e f o u n d in
African Reflections: A n from Northeastern Zaire. S c h i l d k r o u t a n d K e im ( iggo) beg in
- t h e i r a n a ly s is b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e m o s t f a m o u s a s p e c t o f Man_gbe.Lti-.3rt, t h e
‘‘rjat.u ra lis tic.Jb o k ,’’ w a s a c t u a l l y q u i t e rare in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l M a n g b e t u s o c i e t y
o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . D u r i n g a r e s e a r c h e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e C o n g o in *914
( th e o rig in o f th e p h o to s used h e re ) , m a m m alo g ist
H e r b e r t L a n g b e c a m e f a s c i n a t e d w i t h life lik e c a r v i n g s
o f h u m a n figures, a n d as w o r d s p r e a d t h a t h e w a s p a y
in g h i g h p r i c e s fo r t h e m , m o r e o f t h e s e c a r v i n g s w e r e
p ro d u c e d . O t h e r co lle c to r s c a m e to b uy th ese piec e s,.an d
e v e n t u a l l y t h e e c o n o m i c r e w a r d s for p r o d u c i n g n a t u
ra l is t ic M a n g b e t u a r t b e c a m e so s t r o n g t h a t it r e p l a c e d
o t h e r s t y le s .
S c h ild k ro u t a n d K eim sh o w t h a t o rig in ally th e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t e s t h e t i c w as n o t n a tu r a lis m , b u t a b stra c t
g e o m e t r i c d esig n . T h e in d i g e n o u s f a s c t n a t i o n w i t h a r t i
fic e a n d a b s t r a c t i o n w a s j g n o r e d - by c o l o n i z e r s , a n d
t h e i r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s o f A f r i c a n s as nature_-Ioving
“ c h i l d r e n o f t f i e f o r e s t” b e c a m e a self-fu lfillin g e x p e c
t a t i o n . B u t t h e a r t if a c ts a n d p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d s f ro m
t h e 191 4 e x p e d i t i o n p r o v i d e us w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e s
o f t r a d i t i o n a l M a n g b e t u p a t t e r n s , as w e ll as a n o p p o r
t u n i t y to in fe r s o m e o f t h e i r t e c h n i q u e s .
F ig u re 5.1 s h o w s t h e d e c o r a t i v e e n d o f a n iv o ry
h a t p i n . L ik e t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d e s t h e t i c p a t t e r n s we
h a v e s e e n , t h i s is c le a r ly a s c a l i n g d e s i g n , b u t t h e p r e
c i s i o n o f t h e p a t t e r n s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e r e m a y b e a m o r e
FIGURE 5 . I
M a n g e b e t u iv o ry s c u l p t u r e
( T ra n sp a re n cy no . 3 9 3 5 , photograph b y L i n t o n G a rd in e r , co urte sy
A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f R l a t v r a l H is t o ry.)
G eom etric algorithms 63
FIGURE 5.2
Q e o m e tr i c d e sig n in M a n g b e tu p e r s o n a l a d o r n m e n t
(a) M a n g b e t u w o m a n w e a v i n g h e a d b a n d , (b ) M a n g b e t u c h i e f .
fa, negative n o . 1 1 1 9 1 9 , photograph by H . L a n g , co urtesy A m e r ic a n M u s e u m o f N a tu r a l H isto ry;
b , n e g a t i v e n o . 2 2 4 1 0 5 , p h o t o g r a p h by H . L a n g , c o u r t e s y A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y . )
64 A fr ic a n fractal m athem atics
W h i l e t h e M a n g b e t u g e o m e t r i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e b o d y m a y h a v e i n s p ir e d
t h e 4 5 'd e g re e -a n g le d esign t h e m e , th o s e desig ns were c erta in ly n o t lim ited to sim ple
m i m i c r y o f a n a t o m y . W e c a rt c l e a r l y s e e t h i s in t h e i r m u s ic a l i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e
d r u m in figure 5 .3 a, for e x a m p l e , h a s its u p p e r s u r f a c e c u t a t a 4 5 ' d e g r e e a n g l e
t o t h e v ertical. T h e s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t s h o w n in figure 5 .3 b h a s a r e s o n a t o r t h a t
m e e t s th e v e r t ic a l t u n i n g s t e m a t a 13 5 ' d e g r e e a n g le . E v e n in t h e c a s e o f a n t h r o
p o m o r p h i c d esig ns, t h e a r t is a n s e l a b o r a t e d o n t h e h u m a n fo r m in w ays t h a t s h o w
b
F I G U R E 5 .3
Q e o m e tric d esig n in M a n g b e tit m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n ts
(a) Drum, (b) Harp.
(a , negative no. t 1 1 8 9 6 , J)/Kitogm|?h b y H - L ang, c o u rtesy A m e ric a n M u s e u m o f N a tu r a l H isto ry ;
b , c o u rtesy R i c t b c r g M u se u m Z u ric h , p h o tofpaph by W euscctn a n d K a u f.)
G e o m e tric algorithms 65
FIGURE 5 .4
M a n g e b e t u iv o ry sc u lp tu r e
(Transparency n o . 3 9 2 9 , p h o to g ra p h b y L y r u o n G a rd in e r ,
courtesy A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y . )
FIGURE 5.5
Q e o m e t r i c a n a l y s i s o f a n ivory s c u l p t u r e
FIGURE 5 .6
(g e o m e tric r e l a t i o n s i n t h e M a n g b e t u ite r a tiv e s q u a r e s s t r u c t u r e
S i n c e 9[ a n d 02 a r e t h e a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r a n g l e s o f a t r a n s v e r s a l i n t e r s e c t i n g t w o p a r a l l e l lin e s ,
0 ,-6 ,.
68 A fr ic a n fractal m athem atics
A l l o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s c a n b e a c c o u n t e d fo r b y t h e s t r u c t u r e s h o w n in f i g '
u r e 5 .5 . T h i s s e q u e n c e o f s h r i n k i n g s q u a r e s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d by a n i t e r a t i v e
p rocess, b is e c tin g o n e s q u a re to c re a te t h e - l e n g t h o f th e sid e for t h e n e x t
s q u a r e , as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e d i a g r a m . W e w ill n e v e r k n o w fo r c e r t a i n if t h i s ite r-
a t i v e - s q u a r e s c o n s t r u c t i o n w as t h e c o n c e p t u n d e r l y i n g t h e s c u l p t u r e ’s d e s ig n , bu t.
it d o e s m a t c h t h e f e a t u r e s i d e n t i f i e d a b o v e . I n t h e iv o r y s c u l p t u r e , t h e le f t s id e
is a b o u t 2 0 d e g r e e s fr o m t h e v e r t i c a l . I n t h e i t e r a t i v e - s q u a r e s s t r u c t u r e , t h e le ft
s i d e is a b o u t 18 d e g r e e s f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l , as s h o w n i n fig u re 5 .6 . H e r e w e s e e s
/ t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a l g o r i t h m c a n b e c o n t i n u e d i n d e f i n i t e l y , a n d t h e r e s u lt-
I in g s t r u c t u r e c a n b e a p p li e d to a w id e v a r i e ty o f m a t h t e a c h i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , fro m /
\s im p le p ro c e d u ra l c o n s tr u c tio n to tr ig o n o m e try (E g iash 1998a).
Lusona
C o n c lu sio n
T h e s e t w o e x a m p l e s , t h e M a n g b e t u iv o ry c a r v i n g a n d t h e lu s o n a d r a w in g s , h e l p
us see t h a t A f r i c a n fractals are n o t ju s t t h e resu lt o f s p o n t a n e o u s i n t u i t i o n ; in so m e
G eom etric algorithms 69
cases th e y are c re a te d u n d e r r u le -b o u n d t e c h n i q u e s e q u iv a le n t to W e s te rn
m a t h e m a t i c s . A n d t h e i r c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t a ll m a t h e
m a t i c a l a c t i v i t y — n o m a t t e r in w h i c h s o c i e t y it i s j b u n d — is p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h
a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f r e e d o m o f lo c a l h u m a n i n v e n t i o n a n d t h e u n i v e r
sal c o n s t r a i n t s w e d i s c o v e r in s p a c e a n d lo gic.
F I G U R E 5 .7
L usona
(a) These figures, “lusona," were traditionally drawn in sand by the Chokwe people of Angola.
Successive iterations of the same algorithm were sometimes used to produce similar patterns of
increasing size, (b) The first and third iterations of another lusona algorithm carved into a
wooden box lid.
(a, based on drawings in Gerdes 1995.)
A fr ic a n fra c ta l m a th em a tics
R e c a ll t h a t in b o t h e x a m p l e s t h e role o f “c o n s t r a i n t ” w as c ru c ia l t o t h e d e v e l
o p m e n t o f t h e i r sc a lin g g eo m etry . F o r t h e M a n g b e t u ’s d e s i g n it w as t h e c o n s t r a i n t s
o f s t r a i g h t - e d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n g l e s a t m u l t i p l e s o f 4 5 degrees'.--For t h e
C h o k w e ’s lu s o n a it w as t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f a n E u l e r i a n p a t h . B u t in e a c h c a s e t h e
c h o i c e o f p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s — d e c i d i n g w h i c h o f t h e i n f i n i t e laws
o f s p a c e a n d log ic w e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h — w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y a n d fo r t h e s o c ia l
re la tio n s o f th e co m m u n ity . In th e case o f th e M a n g b e tu it w as a rtis tic c o m p e
t i t i o n , a n d in t h e c a s e o f t h e C h o k w e it w as a g e - g r a d e i d e n t i t y . I n o t h e r w o rd s,
t h e i n v e n t i o n a n d d is c o v e ry c o m p o n e n t s o f m a t h e m a t i c s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d
t h r o u g h s o c i a l e x p r e s s io n .
P h i l o s o p h i c p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e r e l a t i o n o f c u l t u r e a n d m a t h e m a t i c s will
b e f u r t h e r d is c u s s e d in p a r t 11, b u t t o d o so w e n e e d a f u l le r p o r t r a i t o f A f r i c a n
f r a c ta l ge om e try . T h e n e x t c h a p t e r w ill e x a m i n e A f r i c a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e m o s t
f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f fr a c ta ls : n o n l i n e a r s c a l in g .
CHAPTER
Scaling-
6
W e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n m a n y e x a m p l e s o f s c a l i n g in A f r i c a n d esig ns. I n t h e s e t t l e
m e n t a r c h i te c t u r e o f c h a p t e r 2, for e x a m p l e , t h e c o m p u t e r sim u la tio n s c learly sh ow
t h a t w e c a n t h i n k a b o u t t h e s e p a t t e r n s in t e r m s o f f r a c ta l g e o m e try . H o w d o t h e
A f r i c a n a r t i s a n s t h i n k a b o u t s c a l in g ? Is it j u s t i n t u i t i o n , o r d o t h e y u se e x p l i c i t
m a t h e m a t i c a l p r a c t i c e s in t h i n k i n g a b o u t s i m i l a r i t y a t d i f f e r e n t sizes? By e x a m
in in g v a r i e t i e s o f d e s i g n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s c a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s , a n d c o m p a r i n g th e s e
w ith t h e a r t i s a n s ’ d is c u s s io n s o f t h e p a t t e r n s , w e c a n g a i n s o m e i n s i g h t i n t o s c a l
ing as a m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t in A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s .
T h ^ S a h e l ^ s a b r o a d b a n d o f a r i d l a n d b e t w e e n t h e S a h a r a D e s e r t a n d t h e rest
o f s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a . S i n c e t h e r e a r e few t r e e s a n d a g r e a t d e a l o f m i l l e t c u l
ti v a ti o n , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a r t i s a n s u se m i l l e t s t a lk s to w e a v e f e n c e s , walls,
an d o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s . B u t t h e c o n s i s t e n t use o f a n o n l i n e a r s c a l in g p a t t e r n in
these stra w s c r e e n s (fig. 6 . 1 a ) isja b j t o d d . R a t h e r t h a n u n if o r m l e n g t h s , t h e row s
o f m ille t s t r a w g e t s h o r t e r a n d s h o r t e r as t h e y go up. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e are
used to t h e im a g e o f “ t h e w h i t e p i c k e t f e n c e ” as a s y m b o l o f u n c h a n g i n g , l i n e a r
r e p e t it io n , y e t h e r e t h e f e n c e s a re d i s t i n c t l y n o n l i n e a r . W h i l e 1 w as in M a l i o n
The straw windscreen in Niger.
FI GURE 6. 1
A n A f r i c a n w in d screen
(a) The diagonallengths of these rows from bottom to top-. L = 16 12 8 6 5 , 5 3 3 2 2
This pattern is quantitatively determined by the African artisans. Here we see how the bundles of
straw are first laid in long diagonal rows, then a row at the opposite angle is interlaced in back of
it. T he length of each diagonal tow— how high up you go before doing the interlace step—is
determined by counting a certain number o f diagonals to be crossed. In the first layer (c) we go
over eight, then six, then four, then three.
Each bundle is about 2 inches across the diagonal, which is why the lengths go as dovible the
number of crossings. The odd numbered lengths are created by splitting the bundles in two.
Why do the lengths repeat in pairs as we go toward the top? There is a discrete approximation to
the continuous nonlinear scale that the African artisans follow.
( a , p h o t o by p e r m i s s i o n o f G a r d i 1 9 7 3 . ) (f ig u re c o n t i n u e s )
Scaling 73
t h e o u t s k i r t s o f t h e c a p i t a l c it y o f B a m a k o , I h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to i n t e r v i e w
s o m e o f t h e a r t i s a n s w h o c r e a t e t h e s e s c r e e n s a n d w as p r o v i d e d w i t h a s t r i k i n g
e x a m p le o f in d ig en o u s a p p lic a tio n o f th e scalin g c o n c e p t.
T h e a r t i s a n s b e g a n by e x p l a i t n n g th a .t.in .'T e rd le . a r e a s ” s u c h as t h e forests
o f t h e s o u t h , t h e s c r e e n s a re n o t m a d e w i t h s c a l i n g ro w s b u t r a t h e r w i t h ro w s o f
lo n g , u n i f o r m l e n g t h . T h i s is b e c a u s e t h e l o n g ro w s use less s t r a w a n d ta k e less
t i m e to m a k e . B u t h e r e in t h e S a h e l , t h e y s a id , w e h a v e s t r o n g w in d s a n d d u st.
T h e s h o r t e s t ro w s a re t h e o n e s t h a t k e e p o u t d u s t t h e b e s t, b e c a u s e th e y a re th e
t i g h t e s t w e a v e . B u t t h e y a ls o t a k e m o r e m a t e r i a l s a n d effort. “W e k n o w t h a t . t h e
w i n d b lo w s s t r o n g e r as y o u g o u p fr o m t h e g r o u n d , so we m a k e t h e w i n d s c r e e n
t o m a t c h — t h a t w ay w e o n l y u se t h e s t r a w n e e d e d a t e a c h l e v e l . ”
T h e r e a s o n in g t h e a r r i s a n s r e p o r t e d is e q u i v a l e n t t o w h a t a n e n g i n e e r
w o u ld c a ll a “c o s t - b e n e f i t ” a n a l ysis; d e v e l o p i n g t h e m a x i m u m in f u n c t i o n ( k e e p
in g o u t d u s t ) fo r a m i n i m u m o f c o s t ( e ff o rt a n d m a t e r i a l s ) . M y p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t
h e r e is in s h o w i n g t h a t t h e sc a l i n g c o n c e p t in A f r i c a c a n b e m u c h m o r e s o p h is-
t i c a t e d t h a n j u s t a n o b s e r v a t i o n , “th e s a m e t h i n g in d i f f e r e n t sizes." T h e c r e a t i o n
• »
- 0 .4 .
^ -0 .6 .
?- ♦ ♦
♦
< -0 .8 -
♦
- 1 .0 .
♦
L o g(H )
FIGURE 6 .1 (continued)
(d) T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w i n d s p e e d a n d v e r t i c a l h e i g h t as s h o w n in t h e W in d E n g in e e rin g
H a n d b o o k , ( e ) T h e A f r i c a n w i n d s c r e e n m a k e r s say t h a t t h e y h a v e s c a l e d t h e r o w s o f s tr a w to
m a t c h t h e c h a n g e o f w i n d s p e e d w i t h h e i g h t . I f w e a s s u m e , j u s t f o r s i m p l i c i t y , t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e in
w i n d p e n e t r a t i o n is t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e l e n g t h , t h e n w e c a n g e t t h e A f r i c a n e s t i m a t e f o r a. b y
m easu rin g th e s lo p e o f ro w le n g t h v ersu s h e ig h t o n a lo g - lo g gra p h . T h is g iv e s a = 1, w h e r e a s the
e n g i n e e r s u s e Ct = 16 — n o t b a d for a b a llp a r k e s t im a t e .
N o t e t h a t t h e g r a p h is i n a v e r y s t r a i g h t l i n e , e x c e p t w h e r e t h e d i s c r e t e n a t u r e o f t h e s c r e e n
(the s c r e e n m a k e r s m u s t c o u n t in w h o l e n u m b e r u n it s d u e t o t h e s tr a w b u n d le s ) fo rce s a n a p p r o x i
m ation by re p e a tin g th e s a m e le n g th tw ic e .
74 A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
o f t h e w i n d s c r e e n as a n o p t i m a l d e s i g n r e q u i r e d m a t c h i n g t h e s c a l i n g v a r i a t i o n
o f w i n d s p e e d v e r s u s h e i g h t t o a s c a l i n g v a r i a t i o n in l e n g t h s o f straw . By t r a n s
ferring th is c o n c e p t b e tw e e n tw o c o m p le te ly d iffe re n t d o m a in s , th e - a r tis a n s
h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t th e y u n d e r s t a n d sc a lin g in t h e a b s t r a c t ; i n d e e d , t h e d e sig n
e s s e n t i a l l y p l o t s t h e r e l a t i o n o f w i n d s p e e d to h e i g h t o n a s t r a w g r a p h .
A l t h o u g h 1 w as c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e o v e r a l l r e l a t i o n o f s c a l i n g a n d
r e a s o n i n g , I m e a s u r e d t h e ro w s j u s t t o s e e h o w c l o s e t h e y c a m e t o w h a t a W e s t
e r n e n g i n e e r w o u ld d e v e l o p f o r a n o p t i m a l m a t c h w i t h w i n d s p e e d . If t h e s t r a w
s c r e e n h a d l i n e a r s c a l in g , t h e n e a c h ro w w o u ld d e c r e a s e in l e n g t h by t h e s a m e
a m o u n t (e.g., 12 in c h e s , 10 i n c h e s , 8 in c h e s , e t c . ) . B u t t h e ro w s d e c r e a s e less a n d
less w i t h h e i g h t ; it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e s c r e e n d e s i g n s h o w s a c lo s e fit t o w h a t is
c a l l e d a " p o w e r l a w " — t h a t is, it s c a l e s a c c o r d i n g t o a n e x p o n e n t (fig . 6 . 1 c ) .
F ig u re 6 . 1 b , r e p r i n t e d fr o m t h e W in d E ng in eerin g H a n d b o o k , s h o w s t h e e q u a t i o n
o f w i n d s p e e d w i t h h e i g h t m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d by e n g i n e e r s — a ls o a p o w e r law.
S o t h e S a h e l w i n d s c r e e n is n o t o n l y a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a b s t r a c t s c a l
in g c o n c e p t , it is also a fa irly a c c u r a t e o n e . O f c o u r s e , o n e m i g h t o b j e c t t h a t t h e
in d ig e n o u s e n g in e e rs d id n o t a c tu a lly se t up th e alg eb ra a n d p e rfo rm th e o p ti
m i z in g c a l c u l a t i o n . B u t I a s k e d t h r e e A m e r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c i a n s h o w t h e y w o u ld
s e t u p th e s e e q u a ti o n s to d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m a l d esig n , a n d all t h r e e said t h e s a m e
th i n g : “ 1 w o u l d n ’t so lv e it a n a l y t i c a l l y , I ’d j u s t g r a p h t h e e q u a t i o n s o n t h e c o m
p u t e r a n d see w h e r e t h e f u n c t i o n s p e a k e d . " W h e t h e r w e m a k e o u r g r a p h s o n a
c o m p u t e r s c r e e n o r a stra w s c r e e n d o e s n ’t m a tte r, as lo n g as w e g e t t h e ri g h t answ er.
S tr e tc h in g s p a c e in k e n t e c lo th
If s o m e o n e in A m e r i c a w e re a sk ed to t h i n k o f a n A fr i c a n t e x t ile, k en te c lo t h w o u ld
b e t h e m o s t likely im ag e. Its c o m b i n a t i o n o f stro jig c o lo r s ,.h o ld d e s i g n s , a n d ja s so -
c i a t i o n s w i t h a n c i e r ^ kingdoms.of-.We.s.t-Africa h a s m a d e it a f a v o r i te fo r im p o rts.
B u t m o s t o f t h e i m p o r t e d k e n t e c l o t h is c r e a t e d by a u t o m a t e d m a c h i n e , a n d w h i l e
1 w o u l d fi e rc e l y d e f e n d it a s “a u t h e n t i c , ” t h e n e e d for p a t t e r n r e p e t i t i o n in
a u to m a tio n has e lim in a te d a w o n d erfu l scalin g tr a n sfo rm a tio n th a t c a n be seen
in t h e o l d e r p a t t e r n s c r e a t e d o n h a n d lo o m s (fig. 6 .2 a ) . T h e s c a l i n g - c h a n g e is n o t
ju s t s m a ll a n d large v e r s i o n s o f t h e s a m e t h i n g ; r a t h e r , it is as if t h e d e s i g n w as
d ra w n o n a ru b b e r sh e e t, w h ic h was h a lf s tr e tc h e d a n d h a lf c o n tr a c te d . In
G h a n a I tr a v e le d to th e villag e o f B o n w i r e , w h e r e h a n d - l o o m w e a v in g is still p r a c
ticed , a n d asked th e artisan s th e r e w h y th is scalin g tr a n s f o r m a tio n was c re a te d .
^ T h e w e a v e r s r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y t h i n k o f t h e c o m p r e s s e d v e r s i o n as t h e o rig -
| in a l p a t t e r n , a n d said th e y call it “s p r e a d i n g " w h e n t h e y c r e a t e t h e s t r e t c h e d ver-
\ s i o n . T h e r e a s o n th e y g a v e for t h e s p r e a d i n g p a t t e r n c a n b e s t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h
I
I
\
FIGURE 6. 2
K e n te c lo th
(a) In this traditional kente cloth design, stretched and compressed versions of the same pattern
appear. The weavers call this “spreading” the pattern, (b) Why are weavers spreading the pattern?
They say that our eyes give "heavy looks” to the face, and only “light looks” to the rest of the body.
This is what neurobiologists call “saccadic” eye movements. Unlike “tracking” eye movements,
which are continuous, saccadic movements are discrete and tend to leap about. Since kente cloth
was traditionally worn as a toga over the shoulder, the part near the face was given a compressed
pattern, and the part along the body a stretched pattern, to match the scaling of the saccadic eye
movements, (c) T h e compression of space is used in mathematics to model scaling patterns, like
chat of the saccadic eye movements. Mathematicians call this a “contractive affine transformation."
76 A fric a n , fra c ta l ?natliernatics
l e n g t h o f t h e body.
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m for t h i s o p e r a t i o n is “c o n t r a c t i v e affin e t r a n s f o r
m a t i o n ” (fig. 6 .2 c ), w h i c h c a n be used for c r e a t i n g j r a c t a l s t h r o u g h a m e t h o d c a l led
“ i t e r a t e d f u n c t i o n s y s te m s ” ( s e e W a h l 1 9 9 5 , 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 ) . I n k e n t e c l o t h t h e r e is
n o i t e r a t i o n — t h e o p e r a t i o n is d o n e o n l y o n c e — b u t i t d o e s s h o w a c t i v e t h i n k
in g a b o u t a s c a l in g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A s in t h e case o f t h e w i n d s c r e e n , t h e w eav ers
are t a k i n g a r a t h e r a b s t r a c t o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t a t i m e - v a r y i n g q u a n t i t y a n d m a p
pin g this m o d el in to a m a te ria l design.
L o g a r i t h m i c s p ira ls
I n c h a p t e r 3 (fig. 3 . 2 ) w e e x a m i n e d t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n n o n l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c
c ir c le s a n d l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c c irc le s . I n t h e s a m e way, n o n l i n e a r s p ir a ls a re easy
to u n d e r s t a n d if w e * c o n tia * t t h e m w i t h lin e a i^ s p ira ls (fig. 6 . 3 a ) . T h e l i n e a r s p i
ral, a lso c a lle d a n A r c h e m e d e a n sp iral in h o n o r o f t h e G r e e k m a t h e m a t i c i a n w h o
fa v o re d it, is i n j h e s h a p e o f a c o il e d r o p e o r w a t c h sp r in g . E a c h r e v o l u t i o n b rin g s
y o u o u t by t h e s a m e d i s t a n c e ( j u s t as e a c h la y e r in t h e l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e
w a s t h e s a m e t h i c k n e s s ) . F o r t h a t re a s o n , a l i n e a r s p i r a l o f a fi n it e d i a m e t e r c a n
h a v e o n ly a fin ite n u m b e r o f tu r n s . A n o n l i n e a r sp iral o f fi n it e d i a m e t e r c a n h a v e
a n infinite n u m b e r o f turns, b eca u se e v e n th o u g h t h e r e is less a n d less sp ace r e m a i n
in g as o n e g o e s t o w a r d t h e c e n t e r , t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n e a c h r e v o l u t i o n c a n g e t
sm aller a n d s m a lle r,.
A g o o d e x a m p l e o f t h i s n o n l i n e a r s c a l i n g c a n b e s e e n in t h e l o g a r i t h m i c
sp ira l (fig. 6 . 3 b ) . L o g a r i t h m i c sp ira ls a r e ty p i c a l s t r u c t u r e s in t w o d i f f e r e n t c a t
e g o rie s o f natu ra l^ p h e n o m e n a . O n t h e o n e J m n d , t h e y a r e f o u n d in a s t o n i s h i n g »
v a r i e t i e s o f o r gaja.Lc--gr.o_w.th. T h e o d o r e C o o k ’s T h e C u r v e o f L ife ( 1 9 1 4 ) , fo r \
e x a m p le , s h o w s d oz ens o f lo g a r ith m ic spirals from ev e ry b r a n c h o f t h e e v o l u t io n a r y J
tree : s n a i l a n d n a u t i l u s sh e lls; t h e h o r n s o f ra m s a n d a n t e l o p e ; a lg a e , p i n e c o n e s , /
Scaling 77
FIGURE 6 .3
S pirals
( a ) I n t h e l i n e a r s p i r a l o f A r c h i m e d e s , t h e r e is a
c o n s ta n t d ista n c e b e tw e e n e a c h rev o lu tio n .
O n ly a f i n i t e n u m b e r o f t u r n s c a n fit i n t h i s
finite sp a c e , (b) In t h e lo g a r ith m ic spiral, th e re
is a n i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n e a c h
r e v o l u t i o n . A n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f t u r n s c a n fit
i n t h i s f i n i t e sp a c e .
j a n d su n flo w e rs; a n d e v e n a n a t o m i c a l p a r t s o f t h e h u m a n e a r a n d h e a r t . M a n y
I r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s p e c u l a t e d o n w h y t h i s is so; t h e i r a n s w e r is ty p ic a lly t h a t l i v
ing sy s tem s n e e d to k e e p t h e sa m e p r o p o r t i o n s as th e y grow, .and so a scaling.cu.rve
a ll o w s t h e s a m e f o r m to be m a i n t a i n e d . I p r e f e r t o t h i n k o f it as r e c u r s i o n : if we
\ l o o k a t t h e c h a m b e r e d n a u t i l u s , fo r e x a m p l e , w e c a n t h i n k o f each, n e w c h a m
b e r as t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s a m e s c a l i n g a l g o r i t h m .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , l o g a r i t h m i c sp ira ls a re a ls o f o u n d in flu id t u r b u l e n c e .
W e b e c o m e a w a re o f th is w h e n we w a t c h a h u r r i c a n e fr o m sp ac e, o r sim p ly a d m i re
th e swirls o f w a t e r a l o n g a r i v e r b a n k . E x p l a n a t i o n s for th e s e fluid c u rv e s aye m u c h
less s p e c u l a t i v e , s i n c e w e can _w rite e q u a t i o n s fo r t u r b u l e n c e a n d s h o w t h e m p r o
d u c i n g l o g a r i t h m i c s p irals in c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n s (as w e w ill see in c h a p t e r 7).
B u t t h e E u r o - A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n is n o t t h e o n ly o n e i n t e r e s t e d in sim u la c ra . T h e
a r t is t s o f w h a t is n o w G h a n a — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e A k a n s o c i e ty — lo n g ag o
/ a b s t r a c t e d t h e l o g a r i t h m i c sp iral for p re c i s e l y t h e s e tw o c a te g o r ie s . T h e i r sym -\
b o ls for t h e life fo rce (fig. 6 .4 a ) a re c le a rly r e l a te d to t h e " c u r v e s o f life,” a n d icons
\ for T a n u , t h e r i v e r g o d (fig. 6 . 4 b ) , s h o w t h e l o g a r i t h m i c sw irls o f t u r b u l e n c e .
78 A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
a b
FIGURE 6 .4
L o g a r i t h m i c spirals
(a) S e v e r a l G h a n a i a n i c o n i c figure s, s u c h as t h i s g o l d w e i g h t , l i n k a s p i r i t u a l f o r c e w i t h t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f l i v i n g s y s t e m s t h r o u g h l o g a r i t h m i c s p i r a l s . T h i s e x a m p l e is p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g s i n c e
it s h o w s h o w s p i r a l s c a n be c o m b i n e d w i t h b i l a t e r a l s y m m e t r y t o c r e a t e o t h e r s e l f - s i m i l a r s h a p e s
( t h e l a r g e d i a m o n d s h a p e c r e a t e d b y t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e la r g e s p i r a l a r m s is r e p e a t e d o n e i t h e r sid e
b y t h e s m a l l d i a m o n d a t t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e s m a l l s p i r a l a r m s ) , ( b ) T h i s figure, a g a i n b a s e d o n
l o g a r ith m ic spirals, a p p e a r s o n t h e t e m p le s o f T o n u , t h e r iv e r g o d , a n d lin k s th is s p ir itu a l fo rc e to
t h e g e o m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e o f flu id t u r b u l e n c e .
( a , pho to courtesy D o r a n Ross.)
^ A g a i n , we n e e d to a v o i d t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e G h a n a i a n lo g s p i r a ls a r e ^
' s i m p l y m i m e t i c “r e f l e c t i o n s ” o f n a t u r e , a n d e x a m i n e h o w ..they, a r e used. .a n d
< <
' d e s i g n e d . T h e A k a n a n d o t h e r s o c i e t i e s o f G h a n a c r e a t e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f specific
icons t h a t several resea rch ers h a v e c o m p a r e d to a w r it te n language . B u t r a t h e r t h a n
c o m p o s e d o f t h e v a s t n u m b e r o f s y m b o ls we c a ll “w o rd s ,” t h e G h a n a i a n s y m b o li c
v o c a b u l a r y is m u c h s m a lle r, a n d e a c h s y m b o l refers n o t t o a s in g le w o r d b u t a n
e n t i r e s o c ia l, re l ig i o u s ,.o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t . M o r e o v e r , in m a n y c a s e s t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s y m b o l is n o t a r b i t r a r y (as G r e g o r y B a t e s o n said, “T h e r e is n o t h
in g ‘s e v e n i s h ’ a b o u t t h e n u m e r a l 7 "), b u t r a t h e r is s h a p e d so t h a t e a c h ic o n 's g e o
m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e r e c a lls t h e c o n c e p t it r e p r e s e n t s . In o c h e r w o rd s , t h e y a r e n o t
o n ly a b s tra c tio n s in t h e sense o f b e i n g stylized, b u t also g e n e ra liz a tio n s in t h e sense
o f t h e d e s i g n e r s ’ i n t e n t t o find a n u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e t h a t all e x a m p l e s h a v e in
c o m m o n . F o r th is r e a s o n w e c a n a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r ib e t h e G h a n a i a n log sp iral .icons
as g e o m e t r i c m o d e l s f o r .th e p h e n o m e n a o f o r g a n i c g r o w t h a n d fluid t u r b u l e n c e .
S o m e a s p e c ts o f t h e s e d e s i g n s illu s tr a r e a c o n s c i o u s r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e i r g e o
m e tric pro pertie s. Figure 6 .4 a, for e x a m p l e , n o t o n ly displays t h e log s p ira l’s Euclid-
Scaling 79
f ig u r e 6.5
L o g a rith m ic sc a lin g
in Q h a n a ia n d e sig n s
(a) L o g a r i t h m i c s c a l i n g c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d
in a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c u r v e b y s h o w i n g
how d isc re te step s o f th e sam e vertical
in c re m e n t lead to rap id ly in c re a sin g area.
(b) O v e r h e a d v i e w o f p y r a m i d - s h a p e d
goldw eight. (c ) L o g a r ith m ic p lo t of
goldw eight tria n g le le n g th s.
(a, p h o i o f r o m the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t .
b, photo co urte sy G e o r g e A rt h u r, M a rsh a ll ‘
University.,)
no
e
-a ■
£
step o f pyram id
FIGURE 6 . 6
A d a p t i v e s c a l i n g - w i t h tr ia n g le s
(a) A n t e l o p e h e a d d r e s s c r e a t e d b y t h e K r u m b a o f B u r k i n a F a s o , ( b ) M a s k s o l d in A c c r a , G h a n a , '
b a s e d o n d e s i g n u se d in t h e S n k a r a - B m m o u r e l i g i o u s d a n c e s - ( c ) R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r s p i r i t
c r e a t e d b y t h e B a g a o f G u i n e a , ( d ) S c u l p t u r e fr o m t h e C o n g o , ( e ) A K i k u y u w o o d e n s h i e l d .
T h e w o o d h a s a n o n l i n e a r c u r v e t o w a r d t h e c e n t e r , a n d t h e t r i a n g l e s a re s c a l e d t o m a t c h .
(a, courtesy Musee <!e I ' H o m m e . c , M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t ; />liofo b y E l io t E l i s n / o n . d , D e t r o i t
M u s e u m o f A r t . c, British M u s e u m ; fr o m Z aslavsky 1 9 7 3 .)
Scaling 81
s c a l i n g to fo r m s o t h e r t h a n s p ira ls , a n d t h a t d i d i n d e e d o c c u r , as w e c a n s e e in
figure 6 .5b , o n e o f t h e A k a n g o ld w e ig h ts . A p l o t o f t h e l e n g t h o f th e s e tr ia n g l e s
(fig. 6 . 5 c ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y w as a c h i e v e d in t h i s i n d i g e n o u s
lo g arith m ic_ scajin g p ra c tic e . '
A d a p tiv e sc a lin g
+ infinity
- in f in it y
FIGURE 6 . 8
M a p p in g f r o m th e p la n e
to a s p h e r ic a l s u r fa c e
(a) M apping bars of infinite
length from the plane to a sphere,
( l i ) A Y o i n h a h a i r s t y l e , Koioba
(“hurker”) ......................... ......
(b,/nmi Sagay j 983.)
It is p o s s ib le t o m i s r e a d th e s e e x a m p l e s o f c o n f o r m a l m a p p i n g as b e i n g th e
p r o d u c t o f a r t i s a n s w h o a r e s t r o n g l y g u i d e d by c o n c r e t e f o r m s r a t h e r t h a n
a b s tr a c t th o u g h t . B u t a d a p tiv e sc a lin g c a n a ls o b e s e e n in m o re a b s tra c t
e x a m p le s : g lo b a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in w h i c h s p a c e it s e l f is d is t o r t e d . T h i s is a c o m
m o n o p e ra tio n in W e s te rn geom etry, th e m o st fre q u e n t e x a m p le b e in g a m a p
p i n g b e t w e e n t h e p l a n e a n d a s p h e r e (fig. 6 . 8 a ) . F ig u r e 6 . 8 b s h o w s a h a i r s t y l e
t h a t a p p e a r s t o h a v e a p l a n a r d e s i g n m a p p e d o n t o a s p h e r i c a l su rfac e. F ig u re 6 .9
p ro v id e s a n e v e n m o r e a b s t r a c t illu s tratio n , th e in ve rse o f t h e p re v io u s m a p p i n g —
n o w g o in g fr o m s p h e r i c a l to r e c t a n g u l a r — a n d u tiliz in g t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s in s te a d
84 A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
o f t w o . I n t h i s C h o k w e s c u l p t u r e , t h e e n t i r e h u m a n fig u re is d i s t o r t e d as if its
sp h erical v o lu m e h a d b e e n m a p p e d to a c u b ic v o lu m e; th e re s u ltin g n o n lin e a r
s c a l i n g is d r a m a t i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e d i s c r e t e s t e p s in t h e h e a d d r e s s . A r t h i s
to r ia n W illia m Fagg (1 9 5 5 ) m a d e a sim ila r su g g e stio n a b o u t o t h e r A fric a n
d e s ig n s , w h i c h h e c o m p a r e d to t h e d r a w i n g s o f n a t u r a l g r o w t h by b i o l o g i s t
D ’A r c y T h o m p s o n : “I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m o r p h o l o g y o f A f r i c a n s c u l p t u r e m a y b e
usefully s t u d ie d . . . by r e f e r e n c e to m a t h e m a t i c s . . . . F o r e x a m p l e in c e r t a i n m asks
• , FIGURE 6 .9
M a p p in g fr o m a s p h e r ic a l v o lu m e
to a r e c ta n g u la r , v o lu m e
(a ) B astin (1 9 9 2 , 6 8 ) sh o w s th a t th is C h o k w e cro w n ,
t h e C i p e n y a - M u t w e , is m a d e u p o f l i n e a r b a n d s i n r e a l
life. T h e n o n l i n e a r s c a l i n g w e s e e in t h i s s c u l p t u r e c a n
b e e x p l a i n e d as t h e i n v e r s e o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w e saw
i n figure 6 .8 a . R a t h e r t h a n s h r i n k i n g a s w e m o v e fro m
th e c e n te r to th e m arg in s, th e in v erse m a p p in g causes
e x p a n s i o n f r o m c e n t e r t o m a r g i n s . T h i s is n o t o n l y t h e
in v e rs e o f t h e p re v io u s m a p p in g , b u t also o p e ra te s o n
th re e -d im e n s io n a l v o lu m e ra th e r th a n surface. S im ilar
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a r e u s e d in n e u r o s c i e n c e t o m o d e ! t h e
ways th a t ta ctile receptors are m a p p e d from bo d y to ^
b r a i n , s i n c e t h e r e is a t n u c h g r e a t e r d e n s i t y o f s e n s o r y
n e u r o n s a t t h e e x t r e m e s , ( b ) T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is t o i n v o k e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f
p o w e r a n d s t a b ilit y ( C h a n d a 1 9 9 3 ). T h e m e a n in g h a s n o t h in g in p a r t ic u la r to d o w it h g e o m e t r ic
m a p p i n g , o t h e r t h a n a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s ir e d e f fe c t , b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r
m a t i o n is u n i f o r m l y a p p l i e d t o n l! e x t e r n a l a r e a s , e v e n t o t h e e x t e n t o f d e f o r m i n g t h e f o r e h e a d .
( a , c o u r t e s y J a c q u e s K e r c h a c h e a n d M u s e u m o f M a n k i n d , L o n d o n , b , c o u r t e s y M u s e u m o f the P h i l a d e l p h i a
C ivic C e n te r .)
Scaling 85
f o r t h e G e l d e s o c i e t y t h e n a t u r a l . . . p h y s i o g n o m y is ‘b l o w n u p , ’ so t o s p e a k , in
a w ay w h ic h c o u ld b e p lo tte d o n a set o f flarin g e x p o n e n ti a l c o o rd in a te s .”
( 1 9 1 7 . 4 3 )-
C o n c lu sio n
T h e e x a m p l e s o f s c a l i n g d e s i g n s in t h i s c h a p t e r v a ry g r e a t l y in p u r p o s e , p a t t e r n ,
a n d m e t h o d . W h i l e it is n o t difficult to i n v e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s b a sed o n u n c o n s c i o u s
s o c ia l fo r c e s— fo r e x a m p l e , t h e f l e x ib ility in c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s to m a t e r i a l s u r
fa c e s as e x p r e s s i o n s o f so c ia l f l e x ib ility — I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t a n y s u c h e x p l a n a
t i o n c a n a c c o u n t fo r t h i s d iv e rsity . F r o m o p t i m i z a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g , t o m o d e l i n g
o r g a n i c life, t o m a p p i n g b e t w e e n d if fe re n t s p a tia l s tru c tu r e s , A f r i c a n a rtis a n s h a v e
d e v e l o p e d a w id e r a n g e o f t o o l s , t e c h n i q u e s , a n d d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s b a s e d o n t h e
c o n s c i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c a l in g g e o m e t r y . I n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , w e w ill see t h a t
A f r i c a n n u m e r i c s y s te m s a ls o s h a r e m a n y f r a c t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
C H A P T E R
N um eric
-systems-
T h e c o u n t i n g n u m b e r s ( 1 ,2 ,3 • • •) c a n b e t h o u g h t o f as a k i n d o f i t e r a t i o n , b u t
o n l y in t h e m o s t tr iv ia l w a y .1 I t is t r u e t h a t w e c o u l d p r o d u c e t h e c o u n t i n g n u m
b e r s fr o m a r e c u r s i v e lo o p , t h a t is, a f u n c t i o n in w h i c h t h e o u t p u t a t o n e sta g e
b e c o m e s t h e i n p u t for t h e n e x t : X n+( = X n + 1 . B u t t h i s is a s t r i c t l y l i n e a r series,
i n c r e a s i n g by t h e s a m e a m o u n t e a c h t i m e — t h e n u m e r i c j e q u i v a l e n t o f w h a t we
sa w in t h e li n e a r c o n c e n t r i c c ir c le a n d l i n e a r s p i r a l.'- A d d i tio n e a n , h o w e v e r , pro-
d u c e n o n l i n e a r se r ie s ,2__and t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t tw o e x a m p l e s o f n o n l i n e a r a d d i t i v e
se ries in A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s . T h e t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r s ( 1 , 3 , 6 , 1 0 , 1 5 . . .) a r e u se d in
a g a m e c a l l e d " t a r u m b e t a " in e a s t A f r i c a (Z a s la v s k y j 9 7 3 , 1 1 1). F ig u r e 7.1 s h o w s
h o w th e s e n u m b e r s a re d e r i v e d from t h e s h a p e o f t r i a n g l e s o f in c r e a s i n g size, a n d
h o w t h e n u m e r i c series c a n b e c r e a t e d by a r e c u r s i v e lo o p . A s in t h e c a s e o f c er-
N u m e ric systems 87
num ber
o f s to n e s:
num ber
o f it e r a t io n s :
A g a m e c a l l e d ‘' t a r u m b e t a " i n E a s t A f r i c a m a k e s u s e o f t h e t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r s , s t a r t i n g w i t h 3
( 3 , 6 , 1 0 , 15 In th is g a m e , o n e p la y e r calls o u t a c o u n t as h e re m o v e s s to n e s co n se c u tiv e ly ,
l e ft t o r i g h t a n d b o t t o m t o t o p , w h i l e t h e o t h e r p l a y e r , w i t h h i s b a c k t u r n e d , m u s t s i g n a l w h e n e v e r
t h e f ir st s t o n e i n a r o w h a s b e e n r e m o v e d .
T h e s t o n e s i n e a c h t r i a n g u l a r a r r a y c a n b e b u i l t u p i n a n i t e r a t i v e f a s h i o n , t h a t is, t h e n e x t
tria n g le c a n be c r e a t e d by a d d in g a n o t h e r la y e r to a n y s id e o f t h e p r e v io u s tria n g le . T h e n u m b e r to
b e a d d e d i n e a c h a d d i t i o n a l l a y e r is s i m p l y t h e n u m b e r o f i t e r a t i o n s . F o r e a c h i t e r a t i o n i, a n d t o t a l
n u m b er o f sto n es N , we have:
3 = + 2
I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e n e x t n u m b e r w i l l b e g iv e n
“ '6 = + 3 b y t h e la s t n u m b e r p lu s t h e it e r a t io n c o u n t :
10 = + 4
15 = 10 + 5
FIGURE 7.1
T h e tr ia n g u la r n u m b e r s in a n E a s t A fr ic a n g a m e
t a i n f o r m a l a g e - g r a d e i n i t i a t i o n p r a c t i c e s (s e e c h a p t e r s 5 a n d 8 ) , che sim p le
ve rsion s a re u sed by s m a l l e r c h i l d r e n , a n d t h e h i g h e r i t e r a t i o n s a re p i c k e d u p w ith
increasing age. W h i l e th e r e is n o in d i c a ti o n o f a form al r e l a ti o n s h ip in this in stance,
t h e r e is s till a n u n d e r l y i n g p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e .ite ra tiv e c o n c e p t o f a g i n g c o m
m o n t o m a n y A f r i c a n c u h u r e s — e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p a s s in g t h r o u g h m u l t i p l e t u r n s
o f t h e “h f e c ycle.*.’.— a n d t h e k e r a t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r series.
A n o t h e r n o n l i n e a r a d d it iv e series was fo u n d in a r c h a e o l o g ic a l e v id e n c e from
N o r t h A fric a . B ada w y ( 1 9 6 5 ) n o t e d w h a t a p p e a rs t o .b e use o f t h e F ib o n a c c i series
in t h e la y o u t o f t h e t e m p l e s o f a n c i e n t E gypt. U s i n g a s l ig h t ly d if fe re n t a p p r o a c h ,
T h e Fibonacci series
.(I, 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 . . . ) was
found by Badawy (1965)
in his study o f the layout
o f th e temples of Egypt.
H is analysis was quite
complex, but it ismot
difficult to create a simple
visualization. Here we see
th e series in the successive
c ham be rs of the tem ple of
Karnak. G ray rectangles added
fo r m easurem ent 9
T h e Fibonacci series is
p roduced by adding the
previous n u m b e r to the
curren t n u m b e r to get the
n ex t number, starting with
1 + 1 = 2 . For each iteration
i, th e n u m b er N in th e series
is given by:
N i +1 = N i
t h a t is,
N n e x t = H cu rten t + ^previous
1 + 1 = 2
1 + 2 = 3
2 + 3 = 5
3 + 5 = 8
5 + 8 = 13
next
N previous
current
FIGURE 7 . 2
T h e F ib o n a c c i series in a n c ie n t E g y p t
N um eric systems
I f o u n d a v is u a lly d i s t i n c t e x a m p l e o f t h i s se r ie s in t h e s u c c e s s iv e c h a m b e r s o f
t h e t e m p l e o f K a r n a k , as s h o w n in figure 7 .2 a. F ig u re 7 .2 b s h o w s h o w th e s e n u m
b e r s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d u s i n g a r e c u r s i v e lo o p . T h i s f o r m a l s c a l in g p l a n m a y h a v e
• b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e n o n n u m e r i c v e r s i o n s o f s c a l i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e w e see
t h r o u g h o u t A f r i c a . A n a n c i e n t s e t o f b a l a n c e w e ig h ts , a p p a r e n t l y u se d in E gypt,
S y ria, a n d P a l e s t i n e c irca 1200 b .c .e ., also a p p e a r to e m p lo y a F ib o n a c c i s e q u e n c e
( P e t r u s o 1 9 8 5 ) . T h i s is a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g use, s i n c e o n e o f t h e s t r i k i n g
m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e se r ie s is t h a t o n e c a n c r e a t e a n y p o s i t i v e in t e g e r
t h r o u g h a d d i t i o n o f s e l e c t e d m e m b e r s — a p r o p e r t y t h a t m a k e s it id e al for a p p l i
c a t i o n to b a l a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( H o g g a t t 1 9 6 9 , 7 6 ) . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t
a n c i e n t G r e e k m a t h e m a t i c i a n s k n e w o f t h e F i b o n a c c i series. T h e r e w as u se o f
t h e F i b o n a c c i se rie s in M i n o a n d e s i g n , b u t P re zio si ( 1 9 6 8 ) c i t e s e v i d e n c e i n d i
c a t i n g t h a t it c o u l d h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t f r o m E g y p t by M i n o a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l
w orkers e m p lo y e d a t K ahun.
D o u b lin g se ries in A f r i c a
S o m e a c c o u n t s r e p o r t t h a t A f r i c a n s u se a “ p r i m i t i v e ” n u m b e r s y s te m in w h i c h
th e y c o u n t b y m u l t i p l e s o f tw o . It is tr u e t h a t m a n y c ase s o f A f r i c a n a r i t h m e t i c
a re b a s e d o n m u l t i p l e s o f tw o , b u t as w e w ill s e e , b a s e - 2 s y s te m s a re n o t c r u d e
a r t if a c ts fr o m a f o r g o t t e n past. T h e y h a v e s u r p r is in g m a t h e m a t i c a l s ig n if i c a n c e ,
n o t o n ly in r e l a t i o n t o A f r i c a n fractals, b u t to t h e W e s t e r n h is to ry o f m a t h e m a t i c s
a n d c o m p u t i n g as well.
T h e p re s e n c e o f d o u b lin g as a c u ltu ral t h e m e occurs in m a n y different A fric a n
so cieties a n d in m a n y d ifferen t social d o m a i n s , c o n n e c t i n g th e sa c re d n e ss o f tw ins,
' s p i r i i 'd o u b i e s , a n d d o u b l e v is io n w i t h m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s , s u c h a s t h e b l a c k s m i t h 's
tw in b e llo w s a n d t h e d o u b l e i r o n h o e g i v e n in b r i d e w e a l t h (fig. 7 .3 ). F ig ure 7 .4 a
s h o w s t h e I s h a n g o b o n e , w h i c h is a r o u n d 8 , 0 0 0 y e a r s o ld a n d a p p e a r s t o s h o w a
d o u b l i n g s e q u e n c e . j D o u b l i n g is f u n d a m e n t a l t o m a n y o f th e c o u n t i n g s y s te m s o f
A f r i c a in m o d e r n t i m e s as well. It is c o m m o n , fo r e x a m p l e , t o h a v e t h e w o rd for
. .* a n ' e v e n n u m b e r 2 N m e a n “N p lu s N ” (e .g ., t h e n u m b e r 8 in t h e S h a m b a a l a n
guage o f T a n z a n i a is “n e n a n e , ” literally “fo u r a n d f o u r ”). A s im ilar d o u b li n g takes
p lac e fo r t h e p re c i s e l y a r t i c u l a t e d s y s te m o f n u m b e r h a n d g e s tu re s (fig. 7 . 4 b ) , for
ex am ple, Ilfour” re p r e s e n te d by t w o gro ups o f tw o fingers, a n d “e i g h t ’’ by tw o g roups
o f four. P e t i t t o ( 1 9 8 2 ) f o u n d t h a t d o u b l i n g w as u s e d in m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d
d iv i s i o n t e c h n i q u e s in W e s t A f r i c a (fig. 7 . 4 c ) . G i l l i n g s ( 1 9 7 2 ) d e t a i l s t h e p e r
s i s t e n t use o f p o w e r s o f t w o in a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n m a t h e m a t i c s as w e l l , a n d
Z aslav sky ( 1 9 7 3 ) s h o w s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s tin g t h a t a n c i e n t E g y p t ’s
use o f b a s e - 2 c a l c u l a t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e use o f b a s e - 2 in s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a .
90 A frican fractal m athematics
D o u b l i n g practices; w e r e a ls o u se d by A f r i c a n d e s c e n d a n t s in cine A m e r i
cas. B e n j a m i n B a n n e k e r , for e x a m p l e , m a d e u n u s u a l u se o f d o u h l i n g in b is c a l-
c u l a t t o n s , w h i c h m a y h a v e d e r i v e d fr o m t h e t e a c h i n g s o f h i s A fric a iV T a th e r a n d
g r a n d f a t h e r ( E g la s h 1 9 9 7 c ) . G a t e s ( 1 9 8 8 ) e x a m i n e d t h e c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
d ou b.ling in W e s t A f r i c a n re l ig i o n s s u c h as v o d u n a n d its t r a n s f e r t o “v o o d o o ”
in t h e A m e r i c a s . In t h e r e l i g i o n o f S h a n g o , for e x a m p l e , t h e v o d u n g o d o f t h u n
d e r a n d l i g h t n i n g is r e p r e s e n t e d by a d o u b l e - b l a d e d a x e (fig. 7 . 5 a ) , u s e d by
S h a n g o d e v o te e s in t h e n e w w o rld as well (R. T h o m p s o n 198,3). F igure 7.51-) show s
figure 7 .3
D o u b lin g in A fr ic a n so c ia l p r a c tic e s
( a ) T h i s f i g u r e is u s e d b y w o m e n i n G h a n a t o e n c o u r a g e t h e
b i r t h o f t w i n s , ( b ) A d o u b l e i r o n h o e is s o m e t i m e s u s e d a s p a r t
o f th e b rid e p rice c ere m o n y , (c) T h e d o u b le b ello w s o f th e
b la c k s m ith , (d) D o u b le v is io n ; a c o m m o n th e m e .in sev eral
A fric a n sp iritu a l p ra c tic es, o fte n im p ly in g th a t o n e c a n see
b o t h t h e m a te r ia l w o rld a n d t h e s p irit w orld.
( b , M a r c a n d E v e l y n B e r n h e i m f r o m R a / d io G i u / l i o n c u e ; c o u r t e s y
o f U g a n d a N a t io n a l M u se u m , c , Jihoio c o u r t e s y I F A N , D a k a r .
d , fro n B e rjo n n e a u a n d Som tery 1 9 8 7 .)
N um eric systems 9i
10
(c) D o u b l i n g w a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d b y t a i l o r s in W e s t A f r i c a w h e n d o i n g la r g e m e n t a l
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s ; it is e s s e n t i a l l y b a s e d o n w h a t w e w o u l d c a l l f a c t o r i n g .
For e x a m p l e , 3 x 2 7 3 ( “ 3 t a k e n 2 7 3 t i m e s ” ) w o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d b y s u c c e s s i v e l y
d o u b l in g 3 ( 6 , 1 2, 2 4 . . . ) w h i l e k e e p i n g c r a c k o f t h e c o u n t e r p a r t in p o w e r s o f t w o ( 2 , 4 , 8 . . . ).
W h e n th e n e x t p ow er o f tw o w o u ld o v e r s h o o t 2 7 3 , h e t h e n h as to m em orize th e n u m b e r
re a ch e d so fa r t h r o u g h d o u b l i n g s o f 3 ( 7 6 8 ) . w h i l e s u b t r a c t i n g t h e p o w e r o f t w o t h a t w a s
r e a c h e d ( 2 7 3 - 2 5 6 = 1 7 ) . T h e n h e s t a r t s a g a i n , d o u b l i n g 3, a n d k e e p i n g t r a c k o f t h e p o w e r s
o f tw o. W h e n t h e n e x t p o w e r o f t w o w o u l d o v e r s h o o t 1 7 , h e a g a i n m e m o r i z e s t h e n u m b e r
re a ch e d t h r o u g h d o u b l i n g s o f 3 ( 4 8 ) a n d s u b t r a c t s t h e p o w e r o f t w o ( 1 7 — 1 6 — 1 ) . S i n c e o n e
is left o v e r , h e j u s t n e e d s t o a d d a n a d d i t i o n a l . 3 . T h e a n s w e r is t h e n g i v e n b y . t h e s u m o f t h e
u n d e r l in e d t e rm s : 7 6 8 + 4 8 + 3 = 8 1 9 .
D e s p it e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e m e t h o d , t h e t a i l o r s w e r e q u i t e fast a t p e r f o r m i n g t h e s e s i l e n t
m e n ia l o p e r a t i o n s .
FI GURE 7.4
D o u b l i n g in A f r i c a n a r i t h m e t i c
f t i i n t l b, f r o m F r o m Z a s l a v s k y 1 9 7 3 .)
FIGURE 7 .5
D o itb lin g in th e re lig io n o f S h a n g o
fa, courtesy / F AN, Dakar, b: hath center j>ho(os, courtesy / F A N , Dakar; lower right, courtesy Dave
C ro w ley, xoxuw.storinguy.cnm.)
N u m e r ic system s
FIGURE 7 .6
B i n a r y codes in d i v i n a t i o n
(a) This Nigerian priest is telling the future by Ifa divination, in which pairs of flat shells or seeds
split in two are tossed with each landing open-side or closed-side. They are connected hy a doubled
chain to make four pairs, giving a total of 16 divination symbols. In this version of lfa (used in the
Abigba region of Nigeria) they use two doubled chains and consider the cast more accurate if there
is a correlation between the two sets, (b) Here we see a chain using split seeds. Each half lands
eititer “closed" (meaning we see the rounded outside) or "open" (meaning we see tire interior).
By using open to represent 0 (double lines), and closed to represent 1 (single line), we can see how
the divination symbol is obtained, (c) The divination chain is interpreted as pairs summing to odd
(one stroke) or even (two strokes).
(a, j ) h o t o b y E . M. McClelland, courtesy R o y a l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e )
N u n ie r ic sy ste m s
f o i a n e v e n n u m b e r ) . T h e n a r r a t i v e s y m b o l is t h e n c o n s t r u c t e d as a c o l u m n o f four
I v e r t i c a l m a r k s , w i t h d o u b l e v e r t i c a l li n e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a n e v e n n u m b e r o f d a s h e s
i a n d s i n g l e li n e s R e p r e s e n t in g a n o d d n u m b e r . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e sy s te m is s im ila r
^ t o t h e f a m o u s I f m d i v i n a t i o n : t h e r e a re t w o p o s s ib le m a r k s in fo u r p o s i t i o n s , so
16 p o s s ib le s y m b o ls . U n l i k e lfa, h o w e v e r , t h e r a n d o m s y m b o l p r o d u c t i o n is
r e p e a t e d fo u r ti m e s r a t h e r t h a n tw o . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is q u i t e s i g n ifi c a n t. E a c h o f
t h e lfa s y m b o l p a irs a re i n t e r p r e t e d as o n e o f 2 5 6 p o s s ib le O d u , o r verses. T h e
lfa d i v i n e r m u s t m e m o r i z e t h e O d u ; h e n c e , f o u r s y m b o ls w o u ld be t o o c u m b e r
s o m e ( 6 5 , 5 3 6 p o s s ib le v e rs e s ). B u t t h e B a m a n a d i v i n a t i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a n y
verse m e m o riz a tio n ; as w e will see, its use o f re c u r s io n allows for verse self-assembly.
A s in t h e a d d i t i v e s e q u e n c e s w e e x a m i n e d , t h e d i v i n a t i o n c o d e is g e n e r
a t e d b y a n i t e r a t iv e lo o p in w h i c h t h e o u t p u t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n is used as t h e i n p u t
for t h e n e x t stage. I n t h i s c a se , t h e o p e r a t i o n is a d d i t i o n m o d u l o 2 ( “m o d 2” for
shortTT w h i c h sim p ly g iv e s t h e r e m a i n d e r a f t e r d i v i s i o n by tw o. T h i s is t h e s a m e
e v e n / o d d d i s t i n c t i o n u se d in t h e p a r i t y b it o p e r a t i o n t h a t c h e c k s for e rro rs o n
c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p u t e r sy s te m s . T h e r e is n o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l e x a b o u t
m o d 2; in f a c t , 1 w as q u i t e d i s a p p o i n t e d a t f i rs t b e c a u s e its r e a p p l i c a t i o n
d e s t r o y e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a b i n a r y p l a c e h o l d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in t h e B a m a n a
d i v i n a t i o n . R a t h e r t h a n i n t e r p r e t e a c h p o s i t i o n in che c o l u m n as h a v i n g s o m e
m e a n i n g (as w o u ld o u r b i n a r y n u m b e r 1 0 1 1, w h i c h m e a n s o n e 1, o n e 2, zero 4s,
a n d o n e 8 ) , t h e d i v i n e r s r e a p p l i e d m o d 2. t o e a c h ro w o f t h e first tw o .s y m b o l s
a n d t o e a c h ro w o f t h e last t w o . T h e r e s u l t s w e r e t h e n a s s e m b le d i n t o tw o n e w
s y m b o ls , a n d m o d 2 w as a p p l i e d a g a i n t o g e n e r a t e a t h i r d s y m b o l. A n o t h e r fo u r
s y m b o ls w e r e c r e a t e d by r e a d i n g t h e ro w s o f t h e o r i g i n a l f o u r 'a s c o l u m n s , a n d
m o d 2 w a s a g a i n r e c u r s i v e l y a p p l i e d t o g e n e r a t e a n o t h e r t h r e e s y m b o ls . .
T h e use o f a n i t e r a t i v e l o o p , p a s s i n g o u t p u t s o f a n o p e r a t i o n b a c k as
in p u t s fo r t h e n e x t s ta g e , w as a s h o c k t o m e ; 1 w a s a t le a s t as t a k e n a b a c k by t h e
s a n d s y m b o ls as t h e d i v i n e r s h a d b e e n b y t h e C a n t o r sec. It w o u ld b e n a i v e to
c l a i m t h a t th i s w as s o m e h o w a l e a p o u t s i d e o f o u r c u l t u r a l b a r r ie r s a n d p o w e r
d i f f e r e n c e s — in f a c t , t h a t ’s ju s t t h e s o r t o f p r e t e n s i o n t h a t t h e last t w o d e c a d e s
o f r e f l e x i v e a n t h r o p o l o g y h a s b e e n d e d i c a t e d a g a i n s t — b u t it w o u ld a ls o be
e t h n o c e n t r i c to ru le o u t th o s e a s p e c t s t h a t w o u ld b e a t t r i b u t e d to m a t h e m a t i c a l
c o l l a b o r a t i o n e l s e w h e r e in che w o r l d ; t h e m titiia]_ _d eh gh t in t w o r e c u r s i o n
f a n a t i c s d i s c o v e r i n g e a c h o t h e r . A n d t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e sy m b o JsJ U k L o iit in
tw o g r o u p s o f " s e v e n — t h e R o s i c r u c i a n ’s m y s t i c n u m b e r — a d d e d s o m e n u m e r -
olo g ica T icT n g o r T t h e c a k e .
T h e f o l l o w i n g d ay 1 f o u n d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n c o m p l e t e :
a n a d d it io n a l tw o sym bo ls w ere left o u t. T h e s e w e re also g e n e ra t e d by m o d 2 re c u r
s i o n u s i n g t h e t w o b o t t o m s y m b o l s t o c r e a t e a f i f t e e n t h , a n d u s i n g t h a t last
A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
s y m b o l w i t h t h e first s y m b o l t o c r e a t e a s i x t e e n t h ( b r i n g i n g t h e t o t a l d e p t h o f
r e c u r s i o n t o five i t e r a t i o n s ) . T h e f i f t e e n t h s y m b o l is c a l l e d “t h i s w o r l d , " a n d t h e
s i x t e e n t h is “t h e n e x t w o r l d , ” so t h e r e w as g o o d r e a s o n t o s e p a r a t e t h e m fro m
t h e o t h e r s . T h e final p a r t o f t h e s y s te m — c r e a t i n g a n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e s y m b o ls —
w a s s till u n c l e a r , b u t I w as a s s u re d t h a t it c o u l d b e l e a r n e d if I c a r e f u l l y fo l lo w e d
t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n s . 1 w as t o g i v e s e v e n c o i n s t o s e v e n le p e rs, p l a c e a k o l a n u t o n
1 I — 1 1 I I 1 — ^ 1
1 < — 1 1 I 1 I I — ^ 1
1 < — 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 — > 1 1
^ —
1 1 1 1 1 1 — > 1 1
c
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 (e ) A f te r th is , th e o rig in al four
a re read sid ew ay s to c re a te four
N.. m o re sy m b o ls, a n d th e e n tire
1 1 1 > 1 p r o c e s s is r e p e a t e d , p r o d u c i n g
1 1 ----- > 1 1 a n o th e r g ro u p o f sev en . In th e
fin a l s t e p , t h e first a n d la s t f r o m
1 1 1 - --- 1
e a c h g ro u p d f s e v e n a re p a ire d off
1 1 1 -
----- ^ 1 to g e n e r a t e t h e final tw o s y m b o ls.
d
FIGURE 7 . 7
B a m a n a s a n d d iv in a tio n
(a) F o u r sets o f ra n d o m d a sh e s a r e d r a w n , (b) E a c h o f t h e d a s h e s is p a i r e d , a n d t h e o d d / e v e n r e s u l t s
a r e r e c o r d e d , ( c ) T h e p r o c e s s is r e p e a t e d f o u r t i m e s , r e s u l t i n g i n f o u r s y m b o l s . E a c h r o w o f t h e firs t
tw o s y m b o ls a n d t h e last t w o s y m b o ls a re p a ire d o ff to g e n e r a t e t w o n e w s y m b o ls , (d ) T h e tw o
n e w ly g e n e r a t e d s y m b o ls, n o w p l a c e d b e lo w t h e o r ig i n a l four, a re a g a i n p a i r e d o ff t o g e n e r a t e a
s e v e n th sy m b o l.
N u m e ric system s
a p ile o f s a n d n e x t t o m y b e d a t n i g h t , a n d in t h e m o r n i n g b r i n g a w h i t e c o c k , 1^
w h i c h w o u ld h a v e t o b e s a crificed t o c o m p e n s a t e fo r t h e h a r m f u l e n e rg y re l e a s e d I
in t h e t e l l i n g o f t h e s e c r e t. I f o l lo w e d all t h e in s t r u c t i o n s , a n d t h e n e x t m o r n - i
in g b o u g h t a large w h i t e c o c k a t t h e m a r k e t . T h e y h e l d t h e c h i c k e n o v e r t h e d iv - '
i n a t i o n s a n d , a n d I w as t o l d t o e a t t h e b i t t e r k o l a n u t as th e y m a r k e d d i v i n a t i o n
s y m b o ls o n its f e e t w i t h a n i n k p e n . A l i t t l e s a n d w as r h r o w n in its m o u t h , a n d i
t h e n 1 w as to ld t o h o l d it d o w n as p ra y e r s w e r e c h a n t e d . T h e r e w as n o a c t i o n o n j
t h e p a r t o f t h e d i v i n e r ; t h e c h i c k e n s i m p l y d i e d in m y h a n d s . ^
W h i l e still a b i t s h a k e n by t h e c h i c k e n ’s d e m i s e (as w ell as e x p e r i e n c i n g
a re s p e c ta b le buzz fr o m t h e k o la n u t ) , I was to l d t h e r e m a in i n g mystery. E a c h sy m
b o l h a s a “ h o u s e ” in w h i c h it b e lo n g s — fo r e x a m p l e , t h e p o s i ti o n o f t h e s i x t e e n t h
s y m b o l is “ t n e n e x t w o r l d " — b u t in a n y g i v e n d i v i n a t i o n m o s t s y m b o ls w ill n o t
b e l o c a t e d in t h e i r o w n h o u s e . T h u s t h e s i x t e e n t h s y m b o l g e n e r a t e d m i g h t be
“d e sire ,” so we w o u ld h a v e d e s ire in t h e h o u s e o f t h e n e x t w orld , a n d so o n . O b v i
o usly t h i s still l e a v e s r o o m f o r c r e a t i v e n a r r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e d i v i n e r , b u t
t h e b e a u t y o f t h e s y s te m is t h a t n o v e rs e s n e e d to b e m e m o r i z e d o r b o o k s c o n
s u l te d ; t h e sy s te m c r e a t e s its o w n c o m p l e x variety.
T h e m o s t e l e g a n t p a r t o f t h e m e t h o d is t h a t it r e q u i r e s o n l y f o u r r a n d o m
d r a w i n g s ; a f t e r t h a t t h e e n t i r e s y m b o l i c a r r a y is q u i c k l y s e l f - g e n e r a t ed- S e lf -
g e n e r a t e d v a r i ety is i m p o r t a n t i n j n o c l e r n c o m p u t i n g , w h e r e it is c a l l e d “p s e u d o
r a n d o m n u m b e r g e n e r a t i o n ” (fig. 7 . 8 ) . T h e s e a l g o r i t h m s t a k e l i t t l e m e m o r y ,
b u t c a n g e n e r a t e v e r y l o n g li s t s o f w h a t a p p e a r t o b e r a n d o m n u m b e r s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e list w ill e v e n t u a l l y s t a r t o v e r a g a i n ( t h i s l e n g t h is c a l l e d t h e
“p e r i o d ” o f t h e a l g o r i t h m ) . A l t h o u g h t h e B a m a n a o n l y r e q u i r e a n a d d i t i o n a l
12 s y m b o l s to b e g e n e r a t e d in t h i s f a s h i o n , a m a x i m u m - l e n g t h p s e u d o r a n d o m
n u m b e r g e n e r a t o r u s i n g t h e i r i n i t i a l fo u r s y m b o l s w ill p r o d u c e 6 5 . 5 3 5 s y m b o ls
b e f o r e it b e g i n s t o r e p e a t .
A s i m i l a r s y s te m f o r s e l f - g e n e r a t e d v a r i e t y w as d e v e l o p e d as a m o d e l for
t h e “c h a o s ” o f n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s by M a r s t o n M o r s e ( 1 8 9 2 - 1 9 7 7 ) . B e fo re th e
1970s, m a t h e m a t i c i a n s h a d a s s u m e d t h a t , b e s i d e s a few e s o t e r i c e x c e p t i o n s (che
a l g o r i t h m s for p r o d u c i n g i r r a t i o n a l n u m b e r s s u c h as V 2), t h e o u t p u c o f a n e q u a
t i o n w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y s t a r t r e p e a t i n g . T h a t a s s u m p t i o n w as p a r t ly b a s e d o n
E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l id e a s a b o u t fr e e w il U - c o m p l e x b e h a v i o r c o u l d n o t b e t h e
result o f p r e d e t e r m i n e d sy ste m s (see P o r t e r 1 9 8 6 ). It was n o t u n t i l r h d ^ i Q h o s ^ o s j
t h a t m a t h e m a t i c i a n s realized t h a t e v e n sim ple, c o m m o n eq u a tio n s d escrib in g 'th in g s
lik e p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h o r.flu id flow c o u l d r e s u l t in w h d t t h e y c a l l e d “d e t e r m i n
istic c h a o s ”— a n o u t p u t t h a t n e v e r re p e a ts, g iv i n g th e a p p e a r a n c e o f r a n d o m n u m
bers fr o m a n o n r a n d o m ( d e t e r m i n i s t i c ) e q u a t i o n . M o r s e d e v e l o p e d t h e m i n i m a l
case for s u c h b e h a v io r .
98 A fr ic a n fra c ta l mathematics
I 1 1I FIGURE 7 .8
0111 P seu d o ra n d o m n u m b e r genera tio n
001 1
f r o m s h ift r e g is t e r c ir c u its
0001
(a) If we think of the two-strokes as zero and
1000
0 100 single stroke as one, the Bamana divination,
0010 system is almost identical to the process of
1001 pseudorandom number generation used by digital
0110 circuits called “shift registers.” Here the circuit
1 100 cakes mod 2 of die last two bits in the register
01 I 0 and places the result in the first position. T h e
1011 other bits are shifted to the right, with the last
0101 discarded.
1010 This four-bit shift register will only produce
1 101 15 binary words before the cycle starts over, but
1110 the period of the cycle increases with more bits
( 2 n - 1). For .the entire 16 bits (four symbols of
four bits each) that begin the Bamana
divination, 65,535 binary words can be produced
before repeating the cycle.
(b ) Electrical circuit representation of a four-bit
shift register combined with exclusive-or to
perform the mod 2 operation. W hile school
teachers are making increasing use of African
culture, in the mathematics classroom, few have
explored the potential applications to
technology education.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e M o r s e se q u e n c e b e g i n s b y c o u n t i n g f r o m z e r o j n
b in ary n o ta tio n : 0 0 0 , oot , 01 o , 0 1 1 . . . . I t t h e n t a k e s t h e s u m o f t h e d ig i ts in
e a c h n u m b e r - -o + o + o = o , n . + o + 1 = i , e t c . — a n d f i n a l l y m o d 2 o f e a c h
s u m . T h e r e s u l t is a s e q u e n c e w i t h m a n y r e c u r s i v e p r o p e r t i e s , ^ b u t o f e n d l e s s
v a r i e t y . M o r s e d id t h e s a m e “ m i s r e a d i n g ” o f t h e b i n a r y n u m b e r a s d i d t h e \
' B a m a n a — a lth o u g h h e did n o t h a v e a n a n th r o p o lo g is t sc o w lin g a t h im for j
•! i g n o r i n g p l a c e v a l u e — a n d h e d i d it for t h e s a m e r e a s o n : c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e j
• m o d 2 o p e r a t i o n , i t m a x i m i z e s v a r i e ty .
I n m y r e a d i n g o f d i v i n a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e 1 e v e n t u a l l y c a m e a c ro s s t h e d u p l i
c a t e o f t h e B a m a n a t e c h n i q u e 5 , 0 0 0 m i le s t o t h e e a s t in M a l a g a s y sik id y ( S u s s -
m a n a n d S u s s m a n 1 9 7 7 ) , w h i c h i n s p i r e d a s tu d y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f its d if fu s io n .
T h e s tr o n g jj r n i la v i ty o f b o t h s y r n b o lic t e c h n i q u e a n d s e m a n t i c c a t e g o r i e s { a . w h a t
E u r o p e a n s t e r m e d “g e o m a n c y ” w a s first n o t e d by F l a c o u r t { r 6 6 r ), b u t it w as n o t
u n t i l T r a u t m a n n ( 1 9 3 9 ) t h a t a s e r io u s c l a i m w a s m a d e for a c o m m o n s o u r c e fo r
th is A r a b ic , E u r o p e a n , W e s t A f r i c a n , a n d East A f r i c a n d i v i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e . T h e
c o m m o n a l i t y w as c o n f i r m e d in a d e t a i l e d f o r m a l a n a ly s is by J a u l i n ( 7 9 6 6 ) . B u t
w h e t e d id it o r i g i n a t e ?
N u m e ric system s
l i i d in f i i*i ;)c c o lc m
'{ iH h n n i YDi f i c f m
.p iitn r o ucT .m m . /• '
po oo J^ ? Y ) b i t R b m a - c o i t r a t . Of)
xjo oo Hjb nimcrficiipetfifi? 0 .9n hMrQ'Jr Afrufantrtbftfc
° ° A nQ° c£«wii gunXrnprc urtra n 'J ^ r ^ ^ r n b c o v t t m
(ttJtnbicurnimrptti® - ro am uhcgMctfum
nr. n u r r r c B iim M
00 00 ? y to « b w w A tttfrte u 00 0 0 •
oo c o ty S ir tf- lu r te m a f tf w jj w tcw iito iflttitin icr* *
v d imuftfl mnutesriBU (V cutiufottm ttftnt O j*»
S f tu V r w u : ' < V o ....................
FIGURE 7.9
Q eom ancy
African divination was taken up under the name “geomancy” by European mystics. This chart
drawn for King Richard u in 1391.
( F r o m S k in n e r 1 9 8 0 .)
as a p c e c u rs o r. F u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n le d L e ib n i z t o i n t r o d u c e a b a s e - 2 c o u n t i n g
s y s te m , c r e a t i n g w h a t we n o w call, t h e b i n a r y c o d e . W h i l e t h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r
N u m e r ic sy ste m s
i n f l u e n c e s i n t h e li v e s o f L u ll a n d L e i b n i z , it is n o t f a r - f e t c h e d t o see a h i s t o r
ic a l p a t h fo r b a s e - 2 c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t b e g i n s w i t h A f r i c a n d i v i n a t i o n , r u n s
th r o u g h t h e g e o m a n c y o f E u r o p e a n a lc h e m is ts , a n d is finally tr a n s la t e d i n t o binary
c a l c u l a t i o n , w h e r e i t is -n o w a p p l i e d inl,e v e r y d i g i t a l c i r c u i t f r o m a l a r m c l o c k s
to su p erco m p u te rs.
I n a 1 9 9 5 i n t e r v i e w i n W ir e d m a g a z i n e , t e c h n o - p o p m u s i c i a n B r i a n E n o
c la i m e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h c o m p u t e r s is t h a t “th e y d o n ’t h a v e e n o u g h A f r i c a n
in t h e m . ” E n o w as, n o d o u b t , t r y i n g t o b e c o m p l i m e n t a r y , s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e is
s o m e i n t u i t i v e q u a l i t y t h a t is a v a l u a b l e a t t r i b u t e o f A f r i c a n c u lt u r e . B u t in d o i n g
so h e o b s c u r e d t h e c u l t u r a l o r i g i n s o f d i g i t a l c o m p u t i n g a n d d id a n i n j u s t i c e
to th e very c o n c e p t h e was try in g to c o n v e y .
F ig u r e 7 .1 0 a s h o w s a b o a r d g a m e t h a t is p l a y e d t h r o u g h o u t A f r i c a in m a n y d if
f e r e n t v e r s io n s v a r i o u s ly t e r m e d a y o , b a o , g iu th i, lela, m a n ca la , omi v eso , ow a ri, lei,
a n d songo ( a m o n g m a n y o t h e r n a m e s ) . B o a r d s t h a t w e re c u t i n t o s t o n e s , s o m e
o f e x t r e m e a n ti q u it y , h a v e b e e n f o u n d f r o m Z i m b a b w e t o E t h i o p i a (see Z aslavsky
1 97 3, fig. 1 1 -6 ) . T h e g a m e is p l a y e d b y s c o o p i n g p e b b l e o r s e e d c o u n t e r s fro m
o n e cup, a n d placin g o n e o f th o s e c o u n te r s in to e a c h cup, s ta rtin g jv itJ x th e cup
t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e s c o o p . T h e g o a l is t o H a v e t h e last c o u n t e r l a n d in a c u p t h a t
h a s o n l y o n e o r t w o c o u n t e r s a l r e a d y in it, w h i c h a ll o w s t h e p l a y e r t o c a p t u r e
t h e s e c o u n t e r s . I n t h e G h a n a i a n g a m e o f o w a r i , p la y e r s a r e k n o w n fo r u ti li z in g
a se r ie s o f m o v e s t h e y c a ll a “ m a r c h i n g g r o u p . ” T h e y n o t e t h a t if t h e n u m b e r
o f c o u n t e r s in a se r ie s o f c u p s e a c h d e c r e a s e s b y o n e (e .g ., 4 - 3 - 2 - ! ) , t h e e n t i r e
p a t t e r n c a n - b e r e p l i c a t e d w k h a rig h c -s h ift by s c o o p i n g fr o m t h e largest c u p , a n d
t h a t if th e p a t t e r n is left u n i n t e r r u p t e d it c a n p ro p a g a te in th is way as far as n e e d e d
for a w i n n i n g m o v e (fig. 7 . 1 0 b ) . A s s i m p l e as it s e e m s , t h i s c o n c e p t o f a self-
r e p l i c a t i n g p a t t e r n is a t t h e h e a r t o f s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s .
J o h n v o n N e u m a n n , w h o p l a y e d a p i v o t a l r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t h e m o d e r n d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r , w a s a ls o a f o u n d e r o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y
o f s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g s y s te m s . I n i t i a l l y , v o n N e u m a n n ’s t h e o r y was t o b e b a s e d o n
se lf-rep ro d u c in g ph y sical ro b o ts. W h y w ork on a th e o ry o f s e lf-re p ro d u c in g
m a c h i n e s ? 1 b e l i e v e t h e a n s w e r c a n b e f o u n d in v o n N e u m a n n ’s s o c i a l o u t
look. H e i m s ’s ( 1 9 8 4 ) b i o g r a p h y e m p h a s iz e s h o w t h e d is o r d e r o f v o n N e u m a n n ’s
p r e c a r io u s y o u t h as a H u n g a r i a n Je w w a s r e f l e c t e d in h is a d u l t e ffo rts t o i m p o s e
a s t r i c t m a t h e m a t i c a l o r d e r o n v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e w o rld . I n v o n N e u m a n n ’s
a p p l i c a t i o n o f g a m e t h e o r y to s o c i a l s c i e n c e , fo r e x a m p l e , H e i m s w r it e s t h a t his
“H o b b e s i a n ” a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e “c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e h a r s h p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f
102 A fr ic a n fra c ta l mathematics
FIGURE 7 - 1 0
O w ari
(;i) T h e owari board has i 2 cups, plus one cup on each side for captured counters. This board is
hinged in the center, with a beautifully carved cover (see fig. 7.14). (b) Scoop from the first cup,
and plant one counter in each succeeding cup. (c) The Marching Group is replicated with a
right-shift. Repeated application will allow it to propagate around the board.
This initial condition produces a fixed pattern after four iterations. The patterns occurring before
it settles down to stability are called the “transient.”
BBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBB
BBBB BBB This stable pattern flips back and forch between these
BB■ BBBB BBB two states. This is called a “period-2” pattern.
BBBB BBB
BBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBB
A period-4.pattern. Periods of any length can be produced, as we saw in the previous examples
of pseudorandom number generation. Deterministic chaos, in which the pattern never repeats
(i.e., a pcrioJ-infinity pattern, like the Morse sequence), is also possible.
Ite ratio n 49
Iteration 133
I t e r a t io n 182.
FIGURE 7. 1 I
C ellu la r a u to m a ta
104 A fr ic a n fracial mathematics
o n t h e e i g h t n e a r e s t n e i g h b o r s (e.g ., if t h r e e o r m o r e n e a r e s t - n e i g h b o r s a r e full,
t h e c e l l b e c o m e s full in t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n ) . A t first, r e s e a r c h e r s e a r n e d o u t o n
t h e s e c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a e x p e r i m e n t s o n c h e c k e r e d t a b l e c l o t h s w i t h p o k e r c h ip s
a n d d o z e n s o f h u m a n h e lp e r s (M ay er-K ress, pers. c o m m . ) , b u t by 1 9 7 0 it h a d b e e n
d e v e l o p e d i n t o a sim p le c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m ( C o n w a y ’s “ g a m e o f life” ), w h i c h was
d e s c r i b e d by; M a r t i n G a r d n e r i n h is f a m o u s “M
v- a t h e m---
a t i--------
c a l G a m-e s ” c o l u m n in
/ S cien tific A m erica n . T h e “g a m e o f life" story was a n in s t a n t h i t , a n d c o m p u t e r screens
( n o m e n a p r o d u c e d o n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s te m s .- ’ E a r l i e r w e n o t e d t h a t t h e
A k a n a n d o t h e r G h a n a i a n s o c i e t i e s h a d a r e m a r k a b l e p r e c o l o n i a l u s e o f lo g a
r i t h m i c sp ira ls in i c o n i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s fo r l i v i n g s y s te m s . T h e G h a n a i a n f o u r
fo ld s p i r a l (fig. 6 . 4 a ) a n d t h e f o u r - a r m e d c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c in fig u re 7 . 1 2 b a r e
(a) Paired spirals emerge from a three-state cellular automation. Black cells are live, white cells are dead,
aiu! gray cells are in a refractory or f‘ghosc" state. The rules: Any dead nearest neighbors of a live cell
become live in the next iteration, and any live cell goes into the ghost state in the next iteration. The
refractory layer acts as a memory, providing the directed growth (i.e., the breaking of symmetry) needed
to create a spiral pattern.
(b) This four-armed logarithmic spiral from Markus (1991) was produced by a
six-state cellular automaton in which a sequence of ghost states corresponds
to increasingly dark shades of gray. The system makes use of a very high-
resolution grid as well as some random noise to prevent the tendency for
the patterns to follow the grid shape (as in the square contours of the spiral
above). Compare with che Ghanaian fourfold spiral in figure 6.4a.
(J) Recursive line replacement, as we saw for other fractal generations, can also produce such paired spirals.
FIGURE 7 . 1 2
S p ira ls in c e llu la r a u to m a ta
W e c a n v i e w t h e o w a r i b o a r d as a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t o n . O n e
d i m e n s i o n is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a d i s a d v a n t a g e ; in f a c t , m o s t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l
m a t h e m a t ic s o n c e llu la r a u t o m a t a (see W o lfr a m 19 8 4 , 1 9 8 6 ) h a v e b e e n d o n e on
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e r s i o n s , b e c a u s e it is e a s i e r t o k e e p t r a c k o f t h e r e s u l t s . T h f e y c a n
sh ow a ll th e d y n a m ic s o f tw o dim en sion s.
T h e p a ttern s n o t e d by tra d itio n a l o w a r i players offer a g re a t d ea l o f in s ig h t in to
s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g b e h a v i o r . T h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n o f a c la s s o f s e l f - p r o p a g a t i n g p a t t e r n s ,
t h e ‘' m a r c h i n g g r o u p , " p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t .
3 4 2 1 —> 5 3 2 —> 4 3 1 1 1 —> 4 2 2 2 —> 3 3 3 1 ~ » 4 4 2 —> 5 3 1 1 —> 4 2 2 1 1 —> 3 3 2 2 —> 4 3 3 —> 4 4 1 1 ~ » 4 5 5 2 —> 3 3 2 1 1 —>4321
T h e m a r c h i n g g r o u p is a n e x a m p l e o f a c o n s t a n t p a t t e r n . H e r e w e s e e c o u n t e r s in
th e in itial se q u e n c e 3421 c o n v e rg e o n th e ir in a rc h in g f o rm a tio n sim ply by re p e a tin g
t h e “s c o o p f r o m t h e left c u p " r u l e t h r o u g h 13 i t e r a t i o n s .
J u s t as w e s a w in t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a , t r a n s i e n t s o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t
l e n g t h s c a n b e p r o d u c e d . T r a n s i e n t s o f m a x i m u m l e n g t h a r e u s e d as a n e n d g a m e t a c t i c
by i n d i g e n o u s G h a n a i a n p l a y e r s , w h o c a l l it " s l o w m o t i o n ”— a c c u m u l a t i n g p i e c e s o n
y o u r side to p r e v e n t your o p p o n e n t from c a p tu r in g t h e m .In n o n l i n e a r d y n a m ic s , th e
c o n s t a n t p a t t e r n is c a l l e d a “ p o i n t a t t r a c t o r , ” a n d th e . t r a n s i e n t s w o u l d b e s a i d t o fie
in th e "b a sin of a t t r a c t i o n .”
T h e m a r c h i n g g ro u p rule c a n also p r o d u c e p e r io d ic b e h a v i o r (a " l im it c y c le " o r
“ p e r i o d i c a t t r a c t o r ” i n n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s t e r m s ) . H e r e is a p e r i o d - 3 s y s t e m u s i n g
only four counters:
2 U - » 22-* 31-» 2 1 J
FIGURE 7 .1 3
O w ari as o n e-d im en sio n a l ce llu la r a u to m a to n
N um eric systems 107
q u i r e d i s t a n t in te r m s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e m , b u t t h e r e m a y
w ell b e s o m e s u b t l e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e tw o . S i n c e c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a
m o d e l t h e e m e r g e n c e o f s u c h p a t t e r n s in m o d e r n . s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s o f li v i n g sys
tem s,, a n d c e r t a i n G h a n a i a n lo g s p i r a h ic o .n s w e r e a ls o i n t e n d e d as g e n e r a l i z e d
m o d e l s fo r o r g a n i c g r o w t h , it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s ib ility t h a t
t h e s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g d y n a m i c s o b s e r v a b l e in o w a r i .w ere a ls o l i n k e d t o c o n c e p t s
o f b i o l o g i c a l m o r p h o g e n e s i s in t r a d i t i o n a l G h a n a i a n k n o w l e d g e sy s tem s .
R a t t r a y ’s c lassic v o l u m e o n t h e A s a n t e c u l t u r e o f G h a n a i n c l u d e s a c h a p
te r o n ow a ri, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y it o n ly c o v e r s t h e rules a n d stra te g ie s o f t h e gam e.
R e c e n t l y Kofi A g u d o a w u ( 1 9 9 1 ) o f G h a n a h a s w r i t t e n a b o o k l e t o n o w a r i “d e d
ic a te d to A f r i c a n s w h o a r e e n g a g e d in t h e f o r m id a b l e task o f r e c l a im in g t h e i r h e r
it a g e ,” a n d h e d o e s n o t e its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h r e p r o d u c t i o n : w ari in t h e G h a n a i a n
n lan g u a g e Tw i m e a n s “h e / s h e m a r r ie s .” H e r s k o v i t s ( 1 9 3 0 ) , n o t i n g t h a t t h e " a w a r i ”
F I GURE 7 . I 4
L ogarith.7nie cttrv es a n d oxvari
T he cover of die hinged owari board
we saw in figure 7.10 shows concentric
circles emanating from the Adinkra
icon for the power of god, “Gye
Nyame.” A similar icon; without the
logarithmic curves, is attributed to a
closed fist as a symbol of power. The
Gye Nyame symbol thus appears to be
a pair of logarithmic curves held in a
fist: God Holding the power of life.
io 8 A fr ic a n fra c ta l matfiemntics
g a m e p la y e d by t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f A f r i c a n slave s in t h e N e w W o r l d h a d r e t a i n e d
som e o f th e p re co lo n ial cu ltu ral a sso ciatio n s from A frica, re p o rts t h a t aw ari h ad
a d i s t i n c t “ s a c r e d c h a r a c t e r 1' t o it, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n v o l v i n g t h e c a r v i n g o f t h e
b o a r d . O w a r i b o a r d s w i t h c a r v i n g s o f l o g a r i t h m i c s p ira ls (fig.^7.14) c a n b e c o m -
•of
m o n l y f o u n d in G h a n a to d a y , s u g g e s tin g t h a t W e s t e r n s c i e n t i s t s m a y n o t b e t h e
o n ly o n e s w h o d e v e l o p e d a n a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n d i s c r e t e s e lf-o r g a n iz in g p a t t e r n s
a n d b io l o g ic a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . I t is a b i t v i n d i c t i v e , b u t I c a n ’t h e l p b u t e n j o y t h e
th o u g h t o f v o n N e u m a n n , ap o stle o f a m e c h a n is tic N e w W o rld O r d e r th a t
w o u ld w ip e o u t t h e i r r a t i o n a l c a c o p h o n y o f l i v in g s y s te m s , s p i n n i n g i n h i s g ra v e
e v e ry t i m e we w a t c h a c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t o n — w h e t h e r in p i x e l s o r o w a r i c u p s —
b r i n g f o r t h c h a o s in t h e g a m e s o f life.
C o n c lu sio n
•Recursion- _ 8 _
R e c u r s i o n j s t h e m o t o r o f f r a c t a l ge o m e try; k j s j h e r e t h a t j h e , 1b as.ic,..transfor'
m a t i o n s — w h e t h e r n u m e r i c o r s p a t i a l — a re s p u n i n t o w h o l e c l o t h , a n d t h e p a t-
t e rn s t h a t e m e r g e o f t e n r e l l j h e s t o r y o f t h e i r w h i r l i n g b i r t h . W e w ill b e g i n by
d e f i n in g t h r e e ty p es o f re c u r sio n * 1 W h i l e it is p o ssib le to c a te g o riz e t h e e x a m p l e s
in t h i s c h a p t e r s o le ly o n t h e b asis o f t h e s e t h r e e ty p e s , it is m o r e i l l u m i n a t i n g
to c o m b i n e t h e a n a ly s is w i t h c u lt u r a l , c a t e g o r i e s . It is in e x a m i n i n g t h e i n t e r
a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t h a t t h e use o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y as a k n o w l e d g e s y s te m ,
a n d n o t ju s t u n c o n s c i o u s s o c i a l d y n a m i c s , b e c o m e s e v i d e n t . T h e c u l t u r a l c a t
e g o rie s b e g i n w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e i n s t a n c e s o f re c u r s iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
a n d g r a d u a l l y m o v e t o w a r d t h e a b s t r a c t i o n s o f r e c u r s i o n , . a s . s y m b o l i z e d in
A f r i c a n ic o n o g r a p h y .
T hree types o f r e c u r s io n
T h e le a s t p o w e rfu l o f t h e t h r e e , j s c a s c a d e r e c u r s i o n , in w h i c h t h e r e is a p r e - 1
d e t e r m i n e d s e q u e n c e o f s i m i l a r p ro c e s s e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e is a c h i l d r e n ’s
story in w h i c h a m a n buys a C h r i s t m a s t r e e , , b u t d is c o v e r s it is t o o tall for his
c e ilin g a n d c u ts o ff t h e t o p . H is do g s fin d t h e d i s c a r d e d t o p , a n d p u t it in t h e i r
d o g h o u s e , b u t t h e y t o o d i s c o v e r it is t o o t a l l , a n d c u t o ff t h e to p . F i n a l l y t h e
n o A fr ic a n fractal m athem atics
m i c e d r a g t h i s t i n y t o p i n t o t h e i r h o l e , w h e r e it fits j u s t f i n e — t h e r e c u r s i o n
“ b o t t o m s o u t . ” N o t e t h a t t h e s e w e r e all i n d e p e n d e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ; it is o n ly
by c o in c i d e n c e , so to s p e a k , t h a t th e y h a p p e n e d t o b e t h e s a m e . F ig u r e 8. i a s h ow s
t h e n u m e r i c v e r s i o n o f c a s c a d e r e c u r s i o n , in w h i c h w e d i v t d e a n u m b e r by tw o
in e a c h p a r t o f t h e s e q u e n c e . TTiis is n o t a v ery p o w e r f u l ty p e o f r e c u r s i o n , fo,r
t w o T e n o n s . ' F i r s t , ' i t r e q u i r e s t h a t w e k n o w h o w m a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s we w a n t
a h e a d o f t i m e — a n d t h a t is n o t a lw a y s p o ss ib le . I f t h e m o u s e w a s in c h a r g e , h e
w p.,uj,dhave sa id “j u s t k e e p d i v i d i n g u n t i l i t ’s s m a l l e n o u g h t o fit in m y . h o le . "
. S e c o n d ; w e h a v e to k n o w w h a t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o m a k e a h e a d o f t i m e , a n d t h a t
is n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e , e i t h e r . R e c a l l , fo r e x a m p l e , t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e
F i b o n a c c i series w e sa w in c h a p t e r 7 (fig. 8 .1 b ) . A l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n is ju s t
u s i n g a d d i t i o n , it c a n n o t b e c r e a t e d b y a r e c u r s i v e c a s c a d e , b e c a u s e t h e
a m o u n t t o be a d d e d i n e a c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c h a n g e s i n r e l a t i o n t o p r e v i o u s
re s u lts . G e n e r a t i n g t h e F i b o n a c c i s e r ie s r e q u i r e s a f e e d b a c k l o o p o r, as m a t h e
m a t i c i a n s c a ll it, i t e r a t i o n .
0 I n i t e r a t i o n , t h e r e is o n l y o n e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . p r o c e s s , b u t e a c h t i m e t h e
p ro c e s s c r e a t e ^ a n o u t p u t ^ it u s e s t h i s r e s u l t as t h e i n p u t f o r t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n ,
as w e ’v e s e e n in g e n e r a t i n g f r a c ta l s . A p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t v a r i e t y o f i t e r a
t i o n is “n e s t i n g , ” w h i c h m a k e s u se o f lo o p s w i t h i n lo o p s . H o f s t a d t e r ( 1 9 8 0 ,
1 0 3 - 1 2 9 ) n i c e l y i l l u s t r a t e s n e s t i n g w i t h a s t o r y in w h i c h o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s
s ta rts to tell a story, a n d w i t h i n chat s t o r y a c h a r a c t e r s t a r ts t o re a d a passag e fro m
a b o o k . B u t a t t h a t p o i n t t h e r e c u r s i o n “b o t t o m s o u t " : t h e b o o k p a s s a g e g e ts
f i n i s h e d a n d w e s t a r t t o r a s c e n d b a c k u p t h e s t o r i e s . N e s t e d lo o p s a r e v e ry
c o m m o n in c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g , a n d w e c a n i l l u s t r a t e t h i s w i t h a p r o g r a m
fo r d r a w i n g t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e j ^ f . M f l k o u l e k . (fig. 8 . 1 c ) , w e ex.arni.ned. in . c h a p t e r . .2....
T h e B a -ila a r c h i t e c t u r e we saw in c h a p t e r 2 c a n a ls o b e s i m u l a t e d t h i s way, using
o n e lo o p for th e r i n g s - w it h in - r in g s , a n d a n o t h e r for t h e f r o n t- b a c k s c a lin g
g r a d i e n t t h a t m a k e s u p e a c h o f t h o s e rin g s. In c h a p t e r 6 t h e first c o r n - r o w h a i r
s t y le (ipciko e le d e ) s h o w e d b r a i d i n g as a n i t e r a t i v e lo o p ; t h e s e c o n d c o r n - r o w
e x a m p l e a d d e d a n o t h e r i t e r a t i v e lo o p o f s u c c e s s iv e p e r i m e t e r s o f b r a i d s . 2 U is
c o m m o n for c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s to d o s u c h n e s t i n g s e v e r a l layers d e e p , a n d k e e p
i n g t r a c k o f all t h o s e lo o p s w i t h i n l o o p s c a n . b e q u i t e a .c h o re .:-
T h e t h i r d ty p e o f r e c u r s i o n is “s e l f - r e f e r e n c e . ” W e a r e all f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
w a y t h a t sy m b ols o r i c o n s c a n re fe r t o s o m e t h i n g : t h e s t a r s a n d s t r ip e s flag refers
t o A m e r i c a , t h e s k u l l - a n d - c r o s s - b o n e s la b e l re fe rs t o p o i s o n , t h e g r o u p o f l e t
ters c - a - t refers to a n a n i m a l . B u t i t ’s a ls o p o s s ib le for a s y m b o l t o re f e r t o itself.
K e l l o g g ’s c o r n f l a k e s , fo r e x a m p l e , o n c e c a m e in a b o x t h a t f e a t u r e d a p i c t u r e o f
a fa m il y s i t t i n g d o w n to b r e a k f a s t . In t h i s p i c t u r e y o u c o u l d se e t h a t t h e fa m ily
h a d a b o x o f K e llo g g ’s c o r n f l a k e s o n t h e i r h re a k f a s t ta b l e , a n d y ou c o u l d see t h a t
Recursion ill
th is b o x s h o w e d che s a m e p i c t u r e o f t h e family, w i t h t h e s a m e b o x o n t h e i r t a b l e ,
a n d so o n t o i n f i n i t y ( o r a t le a s t to as s m a l l as t h e K e llo g g c o m p a n y ’s a r t i s a n s
c o u ld draw ).
S e l f - r e f e r e n c e is b e s t . k n o w n fo r its r q l e j n Jp g ic a ] p a r a d o x . If, fo r e x a m p l e ,
yo u w ere to a c c u s e s o m e o n e o f lying, it w o u ld b e a n o r d i n a r y statement".ӣ u t s u p
pose you a c c u s e y ou rself o f lying? T h i s is t h e p a r a d o x o f E p im e n id e s o f C r e t e , w h o
d e c l a r e d t h a t “ all C r e t a n s a re liars.” If h e ’s t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h , h e m u s t b e lying,
b u t if h e ’s lying, t h e n h e ’s t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h . T h e r o l e o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e in lo g ic a l
input X 4 X
2 X output
2 2 2
previous
Nnr e Nncxt
FIGURE 8.1
p a r a d o x h a s b e e n i m p o r t a n t for m a t h e m a t i c a l th e o r y , b u t i t h a s a l s o b e e n p u t to
prac tical use in c o m p u t e r p ro g ra m m in g . M o s t p r o g r a m m i n g h a s little ro u tin e s called
“ p r o c e d u r e s , ” a n d o fte n , a p r o c e d u r e w ill n e e d t o c a ll o t h e r p r o c e d u r e s . I n self-
r e f e r e n t i a l p r o g r a m m i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e .calls itself.
P r a c t i c a l f r a c t a l s : recu rsio n in c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
f I n h is d is cu ssio n o f t h e m e t a l - w o r k i n g t e c h n i q u e s o f A f r i c a , D e n i s W i l l i a m s g iv e s \
| a p o e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f re c u r s iv e c a s c a d e in t h e e d a n b ra s s s c u l p t u r e s o f t h e I
V Y oruba: “T h e im a g e p r o l i f e r a t e s li k e l i g h t s in a b u b b l e : o n e e d a n b e a r s in its lap
a n o t h e r , s m a ll e r v e r s io n o f itself, w h i c h b e a rs in t u r n a s m a l l e r in its la p , a n d th is
b e a rs a n o t h e r in its lap , e t c . — a s o r t o f s c u l p t u r a l re la y r a c e ” ( 1 9 7 4 , 2 4 5 ) . W h i l e
t h e e d a n s c u l p t u r e s a r e u n i q u e t o t h e Y o ru b a , r e c u r s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
a re q u i t e c o m m o n in A f r i c a . For e x a m p l e , W i l l i a m s g o e s o n t o n o t e t h a t m u c h
A f r i c a n m e t a lw o rk , u n l i k e E u r o p e a n i n v e s t m e n t c a s t in g , uses a “spiral t e c h n i q u e ”
t o b u i l d u p s t r u c t u r e s fr o m s in g le s t r a n d s ( w h e t h e r b e f o r e c a s t i n g , as in t h e lost
w ax te c h n iq u e , o r a f t e r w a r d s as w ir e ) , r e s u l t in g in “h e l i c a l c o il s f o r m e d fro m
s m a l l e r h e l i c a l c o i l s .” A w ig m a d e f r o m m e t a l w ir e s (fig. 8 . 2 a ) s h o w s a s i m i l a r
i t e r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n u s i n g c o i l s m a d e o f c o ils . I n c h a p t e r 6 w e s a w s o m e
e x a m p l e s o f A f r i c a n h a i r s t y l e s in w h i c h e i t h e r a d a p t a t i o n t o c o n t o u r s o r
ab stra c t sp atial tr a n s fo rm a tio n resu lted in a scalin g p a tte r n . T h e fractal braids
; s h o w n in fig u re 8 . 2 b h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e s h a p e o f t h e h e a d ; t h e y a re
r a th e r th e result o f su ccessiv e ite ra tio n s t h a t c o m b i n e s tr a n d s o f h a ir in to
b ra id s , b r a i d s i n t o b r a i d s o f b r a i d s , a n d so o n . F i g u r e 8 . 2 c s h o w s a n o t h e r w ig,
th i s o n e fo r a s c u l p t u r e , t h a t f e a t u r e s b r a i d s o f m a n y sc a le s.
T h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f s c u l p t u r e , m e t a l w o r k , a n d h a i r s t y l i n g s o u n d s like., a
m o t l e y a s s o r t m e n t , b u t o n c e w e . s t a r t .l o o k i n g f o r r e c u r s i o n w e see a c lo s e r e l a
t i o n : a ll e x a m p l e s u s e d a s in g le t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — s t a c k i n g , b r a i d i n g , c o i l i n g —
t h a t w a s a p p l i e d s e v e r a l t i m e s . L o o k i n g a t t h e R e la tio n b e t w e e n t h e b a s i c
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d its final o u t c o m e c a n h e l p us d is ti n g u is h m n o n g j d i/ f e r e n t types
cT r e c u r s i o n . T h e b r a i d i n g p a t t e r n o f fig u re 8 .2 b , fo r e x a m p l e , is b a s e d o n i t e r
a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e w a y e a c h s t a g e is b r a i d e d d e p e n d s o n t h e b r a i d s p r o d u c e d in
p r e v i o u s sta g e s; t h e y a r e b r a i d s o f b r a i d s . T h e b r a i d s in fi g u r e 8 . 2 c , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , a r e o f d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s s i m p l y b e c a u s e e a c h s t a g e u ses d i f f e r e n t
a m o u n ts o f sin g le-h air strands— a cascade o f p re d e te rm in e d tran sfo rm atio n s.
S i m il a r l y , t h e c o i l s o f c o il s i n d i c a t e i t e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e o u t p u t o f o n e s t a g e
b e c o m e s t h e i n p u t for t h e n e x t .
R e c u r s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n .. t e c h n i q u e s a r e a l s o u s e d . f o r t h e d e c o x a t i v e
d e s i g n s o f A f r i c a n a r t i s a n s . In o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f r a c t a l e s t h e t i c in cha p'-
Recursion I
t e r 4, w e e x a m i n e d d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n s w h i c h d i d n o t p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e fo r a
fo r m a l g e o m e t r i c m e t h o d . T h a t d o e s n ’t m e a n n o f o r m a l m e t h o d c o u l d p ossibly
e x is t; i t ’s j u s t t h a t n o n e c o u l d b e r e a d i l y d i s c e r n e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n itse lf, a n d
th e a r t is a n s d id n o t r e p o r t a n y t h i n g b e y o n d i n t u i t i o n o r e s t h e t i c ta s te . B u t th e r e
a re s o m e d e s i g n s t h a t d o i n d i c a t e a n e x p l i c i t re c u r s iv e t e c h n i q u e fr o m t h e p a t
t e r n itself. F ig u r e 8 . 2 e s h o w s a M a u r i t a n i a n t e x t i l e w i t h t w o s u c h s c a l i n g p a t
t e r n s . I n t e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f i t e r a t i o n a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e is
i n d i c a t e d by t h e w a y t h e X f r a c t a l ’s s e e d s h a p e is s h o w n o n e i t h e r s i d e , a n d
by h a v i n g i t e r a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t o n t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t s e e d s h a p e s in t h e
s a m e p i e c e . T h e t r i a n g l e f r a c t a l ( c l o s e t o w h a t m a t h e m a t i c i a n s c a l l t h e “S ie r -
p i n s k i g a s k e t ” ) is a ls o f o u n d in M a u ' r i t a n i a n - S t o n e w o r k (fig . 8 . 2 f ) . A t h r e e -
d i m e n s i o n a l v e r s i o n f r o m G h a n a (fig. 8 . 2 h ) m a y h a v e b e e n i n s p i r e d b y t h e s e
d e s ig n s .
B o t h o f t h e a b o v e a re e x a m p l e s o f a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n , as w e s a w i n th e
K o c h c u r v e o f c h a p t e r i , b u t s u b t r a c t i v e i t e r a t i o n s , as w e s a w fo r t h e C a n t o r
s e t, a r e a ls o f o u n d i n _ A f r i c a n d e c o r a t i v e f r a c t a l s (fig. 8 . 2 i ) . C a r v i n g d e s i g n s
in clu d e a p p lic a tio n s o f ite ra tiv e c o n s tru c tio n , p a rtic u la rly for c a la b a sh d e c o
r a t i o n s (fig. 8 . 2 I ) . A g e o m e t r i c a l g o r i t h m fo r p r o d u c i n g n o n l i n e a r s c a l i n g
t h r o u g h f o l d i n g w as i n v e n t e d b y t h e Y o r u b a a r t i s a n s w h o p r o d u c e d t h e a d ir e
c l o t h o f fig u re 8 . 2 n . It is n o t m e r e l y a m e t a p h o r t o re f e r t o a s p e c i f i e d se rie s
o f fo ld s as a l g o r i t h m i c ; in f a c t , o n e o f t h e c la s s ic f r a c ta l s , t h e “ d r a g o n c u r v e , ”
w as d i s c o v e r e d in i 9 6 0 w h e n p h y s i c i s t J o h n H e i g h w a y e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h
i t e r a t i v e p a p e r f o l d i n g ( G a r d n e r 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e a d i r e c l o t h a l sp .s h e w -s -th g .a p p li-
c a t i o n o f r e f l e c t i o n ^ yjTuj i e t r y a t e v e ry-scale f r o m s i n g l e - s t i t c h j p w s , w h i c h are
r e f l e c t e d o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e fo ld e d g e s , t o t K F e n t i r e fa b r ic , w h i c h is c r e a t e d
by t h e j o i n i n g o f t w o m i r r o r i m a g e c l o t h s .
S o far w e h a v e o n ly discussed t h e t e c h n i c a l m e t h o d e m p l o y e d , b u t o f course
c id tiira l m e a n i n g is_.ofl.en a t t a c h ed.tp-t-hegfi. t e c h n i q u e s a s w e ll. R e c u r s i v e h a i r
styles, for e x a m p l e , e m b e d layers o f s o c i a l l a b o r w i t h e a c h i t e r a t i o n , a w a y t o
invest p h y s i c a l a d o r n m e n t w i t h socJal_.me a n i n g (s u c h as f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n sty l
ist a n d s t y l e e ) . F ig u r e 8 . 3 a s h o w s a F u l a n i w e d d i n g b l a n k e t , i n w h i c h s p i r i t u a l
e n e rg y is e m b e d d e d in t h e p a t t e r n t h r o u g h its i t e r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 1'. P r e s tig e ^
c a n a ls o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g i t e r a t i o n s , as w e f i n d f o r b ra s s c a s t i n g
a n d b e a d w o r k in t h e g ra s s la n d a r e a s o f C a m e r o o n (fig. 8 - 3 b ,c ) . T h e s c a l in g iter-
' a ti o n s in o n e o f t h e b ra s s s c u l p t u r e s (fig . 8 . 3 d ) w as r e p o r t e d t o b e s y m b o l i c as
well: it s h o w e d t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f ro y a l ty . B u t k i n s h i p g r o u p s a r e n o t j u s t
st a ti c e n t i t i e s ; t h e y c h a n g e a c ro s s t i m e , a n d in t h e f o l l o w i n g tw o s e c t i o n s we
will see t h a t A f r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s u c h t e m p o r a l p r o c e s s e s o f t e n i n v o l v e
're c u rs io n .
.e, -
FIGURE 8 . 2
R e cu rsiv e co n stritctio n te c h m q u e s
(a) Coils of coils are used to create this metal wig from Senegal, (b) A scaling cascade of
a mask from the Dan societies of Liberinand Cote d'Ivoire, (c) Iterative braiding in tiiis
from Yaounde, Cameroon, la t r e s s e cle f l , can be simulated by fractal graphics- (d) Three if
of the t r e s s e d e f l simulation.
fb, f r o m Barbier-Muelfer 1988.) (/'.far
F IG U R E 8 .2 (c o n tin u e d )
I te r a t iv e c o n s tr u c tio n
in M a u r i t a n i a n d e c o ra tio n
(e) Recursive construction with triangles and
X-shapes in'Tuareg leatherwojk. The X-slvape
is related to the quincunx discussed in chapter 4.
(f) Designs using several iterations of triangles
can also be found in Mauritanian stonework.
(g) T he use of triangles in this nomadic
architecture from Mauritania may be one
reason for the popularity of the design. Unlike
rectangles, triangles can create a rigid frame
using flexible joints— an important feature in
a landscape where long poles are scarce and
lashing is the most common joinery, (h) A single
iteration of a three-dimensional version of the
recursive triangle construction, created by Akan
artists in Ghana.
(e, f r o m Jefferson 1973 ;• f and g, photos courtesy
/FAN, D a k a r ; h, f r o m P h i lli p s 1 9 9 5 , f i g 5. J03 )
(fig u re c o n tin u e s )
A fr ic a n fra c ta l m a th e m a tic s
FIGURE 8 -2 (continued)
S c a lin g p a t t e r n fro m s u b tr a c tiv e i t e r a tio n
(i) A F a n te w o m a n p o s in g in fr o n t o f a p a in t e d s t u d io b a c k d r o p , C a p e C o a s t , G h a n a , i 8 6 0 .
(j) T h e Fante pattern can be th o u g h t of as tw o iteratio ns o f scaling su btraction ( t h a t is, erasing).
Strips are erased from an ail-black background. W h e r e th e th ick strips intersect, we get large
squares, and where the r.hin strips intersect we get small squares.
(i, photo f r o m the Notional Museum of African Art, Smit/istmfan Institution.) - ( fig u r e .c o n ijv .u
R e p r e s e n t i n g r e c u r s io n a s a p ro c e s s in tim e : p a r t I , l u c k a n d age
F I G U R E 8 . 2 (continued)
Itera tio n in c a r v in g s
j& O t) T h e B a k u b a o f Z a i r e c r e a t e d s e v e r a l c a r v i n g s t h a t f e a t u r e a s e l f - s i m i l a r d e s i g n . T i t is B a k u b a
,'fcooJen b o t t l e m a k e s u s e o f h e x a g o n s o f h e x a g o n s a s w e l l a s a d a p t i v e s c a l i n g a s it n a r r o w s i n t o c h e
n c c L ( I) C h a p p e l ( 1 9 7 7 ) r e c o r d s a w i d e v a r i e t y o f c a l a b a s h d e s i g n s , m a n y w i t h s c a l i n g a t t r ib u t e s .
<,T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e x a m p l e o f i t e r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s e c a r v i n g s . T h e d e s i g n
J iin iu la t io n n o t o n l y r e q u ir e s r e c u r s i o n b u t a d a p t i v e s c a l i n g a s w e ll - ( m ) S e e d s h a p e a n d f o u r t h
I t e r a t i o n ; f o u r t h i t e r a t i o n e n la r g e d , w i t h a d a p t i v e s c a l i n g a p p lie d .
ifk, c o u r te s y M u s e e R o y a l d c I A f r i q u e C e n t r a l , B e l g iu m . ) (figure c o n tin u e s )
F I G U R E 8 . 2 (continued)
A d i r e c l o t h : s c a l i n g fr o m i t e r a t i v e f o l d i n g
(n ) T h is Yoruba adire clo th is actually two separate pieces a tta c h e d along th e horizontal midline.
T h e dye pattern is created by sewing alon g folds before dye is applied an d th e n rem oving the
th reads so th a t th e w h ite lines are left where th e dye did n o t p e n e tra te , (o) T h e folding m etho d is
based o n reflection symmetry across a diagonal. It is easiest to understand by malting a paper model.
T h e adire artisans have n o t only
developed an algorithm fot generating
this n o n lin ear scaling series, b u t have
d on e so in a way th a t maximizes efficient
production: all folds fall along th e same
two edges, so only two edges need be
sewn. Your paper m odel c a n im itate this
effect by ru n n in g a heavy felt marker
along the two edges, so th a t the ink
bleeds th rough all th e layers (you can
c h eat by inking e a c h fold as you unfold
it). N o te th a t th e w hite lines in th e adire
are triple— this, too, is created by a
reflection symmetry, sewing n ex t to the
fold to create the tw o outer lines (on e on
each side of the fold), and sewing right
on the edge of th e fold to create the
ce n te r line.
(n, photo from Picton and Mack 1979.)
T hird,
m ark po in ts
at Zz a n d Id o f
t h e o u t e r sides
o f th e triangle.
T h e s e p o in ts c a n be
d e t e r m i n e d h y f o l d i n g , if
o n e w ish es tn m a i n t a i n th e
o rig am i e q u iv a le n t o f co m p ass a n d F o u r th , fold f ro m t h e c o r n e r s o u F in ally , f o ld in th e sm n
S traig h t-ed g e c o n s tru c tio n , h u t d o in g o p p o s ite sides a lo n g t h e lin e b e tw e e n o v erlap p in g c o rn e r on
it hy e y e b a l l w o r k s j u s t fine. the Zz rind Vt m aiks. side.
FIG.URE 8 .3
M a k i n g m e a n in g
th r o u g h ite r a tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n
(a) T h is Fulani
w e d d i n g b l a n k e t f ro m
M a l i is b a s e d o n
d i a m o n d s t h a t s c a le
f r o m e i t h e r s i d e as
we m ove tow ard the
c e n t e r ; a p a t t e r n t h a t is
eas ily s i m u l a t e d u s i n g a
f rac ta l' ( s e e " d i a g r a m ) : " "
T h e w eavers w ho
c r e a t e d it r e p o r t t h a t
s p i r i t u a l e n e r g y is
w oven in to th e pattern,
m d t h a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e i t e r a t i o n s h o w s a n i n c r e a s e in
h i s e n e r g y . R e l e a s i n g t h i s s p i r i t u a l e n e r g y is d a n g e r o u s ,
i n d if t h e w e a v e r s w e r e t o s t o p in t h e m i d d l e t h e y w o u l d
isk d e a t h . T h e e n g a g e d c o u p l e m u s t b r i n g t h e w e a v e r
o o d a n d k o l a n u t s t o k e e p h i m a w a k e u n t i l it is f i n is h e d ,
b) T h e prestige b ro n ze o f F o u m h a n , C a m e r o o n , o ften
n a k e s u se o f s e l f - s i m i l a r i t e r a t i o n s , ( c ) P r e s t i g e is als o
y m b o l i z e d by t h e l a b o r a n d a r t i s t r y r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e
th e m a n y ite ra tio n s of b ead p a tte n s for this e le p h a n t
m ask, (d ) A c c o rd in g to S alefou M b e tu k o m , th e lead in g
ca s to r of F o u m b a n , this sc u lp tu re show s th e successio n of
k i n g s in t h e r o y a l fam ily .
(c,/ro m rig en ce H o a - Q u i . )
120 A fr ic a n fra c ta l mac/iematics
h a v e alw a ys b e e n i n t e r e s t e d in t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e e l a b o r a t e p o l i t i c a l a n d
e c o n o m i c h i e r a r c h y o f E u r o p e a n s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y “c las sles s" ( s o m e
t i m e s e v e n r i d e rle s s ) s t r u c t u r e o f m a n y p r e c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s ^ J f it is n o t
p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m i c s tr u c tu r e t h a t g o v e rn s th e i r so ciety , t h e n w h a t does?
O n e p a r t o f t h e a n s w e r is ag e. A l l h u m a n c u l t u r e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n c h i l -
f i g u r e 8 .4
I f w is h e s w e r e fish e s
(a) Scaling scales: this Bamana tattoo,
created with henna, is said to represent the
scales of fish, h is good luck, .signifying ever-
larger fish catches, (b) This is an "abbia,” a
carved gambling chip from Cameroon.
Given the high stakes of the game, it could
be a more aggressive symbolism than just
luck, e.g., "just as you have swallowed others,
! will swallow you.” O ther chips appear to
carry the iteration out several more levels,
although they are less recognizable as fish (c).
(d) This print with four iterations of fish is
from northern Ghana. It was reported to be
a fertility symbol.
( d , p/iofo courtesy o f Traci Roberts a n d
A n n C am pbell.) d
Recursion 121
c lr e n , adj.iJcs,jind e ld e r s , b u t in m a n y A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s t h e d iv i s i o n s a r e m u c h
m o r e e l a b o r a t e a n d s t r u c t u r e d . I n t h e s e a g e - g r a d e sy s te m s , aH c o m m u n i t y m e m
b e r s b o r n w i t h i n a g i v e n n u m b e r o f y e a rs w ill m o v e t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h a se r ie s
o f r i t u a l i n i t i a t i o n s . In c h a p t e r 5 w e saw ,.one e x a m p l e in w h i c h t h e s e i n i t i a t i o n
sta g e s a p p e a r e d ro be a c c o m p a n i e d by a n i t e r a t i v e s c a l in g g e o m e try , t h e lu s o n a .
Figure 8 .5 a show s a n o t h e r g e o m e t r i c v is u a liz a tio n o f ag e-g ra de in itia tio n : a h e x a g
o n a l m a s k c r e a t e d by che Bassari o f t h e S e n e g a m b i a n a n d G u i n e a - B i s s a u region .
A l t h o u g h t h e niask is o n ly a l i n e a r - c o n c e n t r i c sc a lin g o f h e x a g o n s , a n d th u s
n o t a fra ctal, it d o e s suggest a n i t e r a t i v e pro cess, a n d w e m i g h t well s u s p e c t a lin k
b e t w e e n sta g e s in a g e -g r a d e a n d s t a g e s in i t e r a t i o n . T h e i n i t i a t i o n p r o c e s s is a
c lo sely g u a r d e d s e c r e t, so it is n o t s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f a s k i n g Bassari e x p e r t s , b u t
d u r i n g m y v is it w i t h t h e B assari in 1 9 9 4 1 f o u n d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f o t h e r
m a t h e m a t ic a l p a tte rn s in Bassari c u ltu re c a n b e used to m a k e so m e ed u c a te d guesses
a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e m as k . D e s p i t e t h e e x t e n s i v e m i g r a t i o n s fr o m t h e v i l
lages to c it ie s ( N o l a n 1 9 8 6 ) , t h e r e is s till s t r o n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e age g ro u p s
a n d t r a n s i t i o n rituals. T h e “fo r e st s p i r i t ” A n n a k u d i , fo r e x a m p l e , se e m s t o be
u n d a u n t e d by t h e c ity o f T a m b a c o u n d a , w h e r e a lo c al age g ro u p h o s t e d h i m a t
a w e l l - a tt e n d e d d a n c e d u r i n g m y stay. I n d e e d , I fo u n d t h e s te re o ty p e o f tr a d i t i o nal
e ld ers a n d i r r e v e r e n t y o u t h s to b e s o m e w h a t r e v e r s e d ( w h i c h w as e x p l a i n e d to
FIGURE 8 .5
S c a lin g h e x a g o n s in a Bassari m a sk
|.U) T h e B a s s a r i i n i t i a t i o n m a s k s f r e q u e n t l y f e a t u r e s c a l i n g h e x a g o n s in t h e c e n t e r . T h i s a p p e a r s t o
a lin e a r s c a l i n g , ( b ) O n e o f t h e B a s s a r i e l d e r s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t T i n g t a lle y s , w i t h
5ls in g r o u p s o f s ix .
I,p fioto f r o m a g e n c e H o a - Q u i/ M ic h e / R e n n n d e m i■)
122 A fr ic a n fractal m athem atics
m e as a n e ff e c t o f t h e s t r o n g h i e r a r c h y o f s e c r e t k n o w l e d g e : t h e y o u t h a r e o f t e n
m o r e w a ry a b o u t b r e a k i n g t a b o o s b e c a u s e t h e y a re less c e r t a i n a b o u t b o u n d a r i e s
a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s ) . T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t t h e r e is a n y o v e r t p r e s e n c e o f fear. In
« - '1 \
f a c t , it is t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e s e c r e ts t h a t a re stre s s e d , as b e c a m e o b v i o u s
w h e n e l d e r s g l e e f u ll y re f u s e d m y q u e s t i o n s w h i l e e m p h a s i z i n g t h e w o n d e r f u l ;
'. n a t u r e o f th e in f o r m a tio n th e y c o u ld n o t div u lg e.
T h e n u m b er.-S.lx is a p r o m i n a n t f e a t u r e o f B assari m a t h e m a t i c s in m a n y
a re a s o f t h e i r life. T h e y h a v e a p o p u l a r g a m e , for e x a m p l e , p l a y e d w i t h p e b b l e s
o n a s a n d p a t t e r n , w h i c h m a k e s u se o f tw o a x e s w i t h six h o l e s in e a c h li n e . In
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c a l e n d a r t h e r e a r e six m o n t h s p e r year, e a c h o f 3 0 ( 6 x 5 ) days,
w i t h a n i n i t i a t i o n a b o u t e v e ry 1 2 (6 X 2 ) y e ars ( t o a t o t a l o f n i n e i n i t i a t i o n s ) .
E ach o f th e s e rites of passage in v o lv e s a le n g th y e d u c a tio n in a n e w lev el of
t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t is t h e p a s s a g e t o a d u l t h o o d , w h i c h
las ts for six d ay s. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e t i m e m e a s u re s , t h e n u m b e r six a ls o a p p e a rs
in t h e B assa ri c o u n t i n g s y s te m . S t r i n g t a l l i e s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d f o r r e c o r d i n g
v a r i o u s c o u n t s , o f t e n u sed k n o t s g r o u p e d b y six. T h e B assari e l d e r w h o d e m o n
s t r a t e d t h e s e t a l li e s t o m e (fig. 8 . 5 b ) t o l d tne t h a t h e d i d n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t
t r a d i t i o n a l fo rm s o f c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t h e d id k n o w t h a t in p r e c o i o n i a l t i m e s it was
p e r f o r m e d by sp ecialists w h o w e re tr a i n e d in t h e m e m o r i z a ti o n o f su m s. T h i s p r a c
tice may e x p la in th e o rig in s o f th e fam ou s A fric a n A m e r i c a n c a lc u la tin g
p r o d i g y , T h o m a s F u l l e r . I n 1 7 2 4 , a t t h e a g e o f 1 4, h e w a s c a p t u r e d — q u i t e
p o s s ib ly fr o m t h e g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e B a s s a r i^ — a n d s o l d i n t o
sla v e ry in V irg in ia , w h e r e h e a s t o n i s h e d b o t h p o p u l a r a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l a u d i e n c e s
w i t h h is e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a l c u l a t i n g fe a ts ( F a u v e i a n d G erde.s 1 9 9 0 ).
• F in a lly , t h e r e is t h e Bassata d i v i n a t i o n s y s te m . A l t h o u g h t h e c a s t_sh.eHs are
i n t e r p r e t e d b y im a g e s r a t h e r t h a n a n y n u m e r i c r e a d i n g , t h e y a re c a s t sixL.times.
E a c h c a s t p r o v i d e s t h e a n s w e r t o a sp e c ific q u e s t i o n ( o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a p r e v i
o us q u e s t i o n ) r e l e v a n t t o t h e c li e n t's p r o b l e m ; t h e final s i x t h c a s t s h o w s t h e p r o b
l e m as a w h o l e . If w e c o m p a r e th i s d i v i n a t i o n to t h e i n i t i a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e
n u m b e r six c a n b e s e g n as_a m a r k e r for in fo r m a t i o n c lu s te rs ^ a pu.nctuaL i.on
p o i n t w h i c h , like t h e ta lly s y s te m , a ll o w s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s t h a t m a i n t a i n a c o m
p r e h e n s i v e s t r u c t u r e . A n d l i k e t h e i n i t i a t i o n , e a c h c y c l e o f six p r o v i d e s a n
e x p a n d i n g v ie w o f t h e w h o l e . T h u s it s e e m s lik e ly t h a t t h e s c a l i n g h e x a g o n s o f
th e in itia tio n m ask re p re se n t th is six-stage ite ra tio n o f k n o w le d g e .
N o n l i n e a r s c a l in g i t e r a t i o n s c a n a ls o b e f o u n d in A f r i c a n i n i t i a t i o n m ask s.
F ig u re 8 .6 a s h o w s a B a k w c l e m a s k in w h i c h b o t h size a n d c u r v a t u r e h a v e a n o n
lin e a r in c re a s e w ith e a c h stage. M y guess— 1 h a v e n o t fo u n d a n y c u ltu ra l
d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t c a n c o n f i r m t h i s — is r h a t it s u g g e s ts “t o o p e n y o u r e y e s ” a s a
m e t a p h o r o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d t h u s m a p s t h e s c a l in g i t e r a t i o n s o f t h e m a s k t o i t e r
Recursion 123
a t i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d in i n i t i a t i o n stages. F ig ure 8 . 6 b s h o w s a B e m b e m a s k
u se d in t h e first o f a t h r e e - s t a g e i n i t i a t i o n f o r a v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e
bioami (B ie b u y ck 1973). Before t h e c e re m o n y , t h e m a s k is h i d d e n b e h i n d a sc reen ,
a n d d u r i n g t h e ritu a l t h e s c r e e n is g ra d u a lly lifte d by a h i g h - r a n k i n g s e n i o r m e m
ber. B o th t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e mnnb_er o f eyes in t h e m ask a n d thejaufrTber
o f s t a g e s in i n i t i a t i o n , as w ell as t h i s m e t h o d o f v is u a lly e x p o s i n g t h e p a t t e r n
as a s e q u e n c e , a g a in su gg est i n t e n t i o n a l use o f a s c a l in g g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n t o r e p
r e s e n t s c a l in g i t e r a t i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e .
'•% FIGURE 8 . 6
N o n lin e a r s c a lin g in in itia tio n m a s k s
Bcmhe mask, from western Congo, used in the first of a three-stage initiation for a voluntary
Kiaiion, the biwmu. (b) Mask used in initiation by the Bakwele of Congo.
' p/ioiii courtesy Gene Isaacson; b, courtesy Musee d e I’Hornme.)
124 A fr ic a n fra c ta l mathematics
R e p r e s e n t i n g r e c u r s i o n a s a p r o c e s s in t i m e : p a r t I I , k i n s h i p a n d d e s c e n t
If a g e - g r a d e s y s te m s a r e o n e p a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n
for h o w " c la s s le s s ” s o c i e t i e s a r e s t r u c t u r e d , k i n s h i p is t h e o t h e r A K i n s h i p sy s
t e m s a r e p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o n g e n e t i c tie s ( “b l o o d r e l a t i o n s " ) a n c l j f n a r r i a g e ,
a l t h o u g h m o s t s o c i e t i e s a ls o h a v e - “f i c t i v e ” k i n ( e .g ., a d o p t i o n ) w h i c h a r e ju s t
as re a l— k i n s h i p is a c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n . D e s c e n t j s also c u lt u r a l l y b a se d . M o s t
W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n s o c i e t i e s t h i n k o f d e s c e n t as b io l o g i c a l , p u t
t h a t is b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e m h a v e b i l a t e r a l d e s c e n t , in w h i c h b o t h p a r e n t s
a r e u se d t o e s t a b l i s h k i n s h i p . U n i l i n e al d e s c e n t , w h e r e a k i n g r o u p t r a c e s t h e i r
li n e a g e t h r o u g h o n e se x o n ly , is a c t u a l l y m o r e c o m m o n ( i n a b o u t 6 0 p e r c e n t o f
t h e w o r ld ’s c u lt u re s ) . A "fclan}’ is a u n i l m e a l k i n s h i p g r° u p w h o s e m e m b e r s re p o r t
t h a t t h e y a re d e s c e n d e d fr o m a c o m m o n d i s t a n t a n c e s t o r , o f t e n a m y t h o l o g i c a l
figure.^Clapls o f t e n h a v e i m p o r t a n t re l ig i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h
t h e y a re ty p i c a ll y s p r e a d o u t a c r o s s m a n Y ^ |] i a g e s i. g n d >ujua]J_y p r o h i b i t m a r r i a g e
b_eXiveen_dan'rnein_bers.
W e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n h o w t h e B a m a n a use r e c u r s i o n t o g e n e r a t e a b i n a r y
, c o d e in t h e i r d i v i n a t i o n ; h e r e w e w ill l o o k a t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e s c e n t as
; r e c u r s i o n . T h e a n t e l o p e figure in B a m a n a i c o n o g r a p h y is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h
j h u m a n a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l fe r til it y . In t h e clti w a ra a s s o c i a t i o n , w h i c h is o p e n to
! b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n , t h e a n t e l o p e a p p e a r s in a s t r i k i n g h e a d d r e s s (fig. 8 . 7 a ) ,
!w h ic h represents th e recu rsio n o f re p ro d u c tio n : m o th e r a n d ch ild . W h e n seeing
o n e h e a d d r e s s i n d i v id u a l ly , t h e s c a l i n g s e e m s tr iv i a l, b u t w i t h s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s
: t o g e t h e r t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n s i s t e n c e o n s e lf- s im i la r it y b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t . T h i s
i c o n a c ts as t h e s e e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m j m i t e r a t i v e l o o p ^ t h e c h i l d b e c o m e s a
m o t h e r , w h o h a s a c h i l d , w h o ' b e c o m e s a m o t h e ' t r ' a n d so o n . F i g u r e 8 . 7 b sh o w s
t h e d e s c e n t c a r r i e d to a t h i r d i t e r a t i o n .
In c h a p t e r 2 w e sa w s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s in w h i c h d e s c e n t w a s t i e d t o s c a l
in g a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e B a t a m m a l i b a , w h o li v e in t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t s o f G h a n a ,
B e n in , a n d T ogo, h a v e d e v e lo p e d a n e la b o r a te sy ste m for th is re la tio n s h ip
( B li e r i 9 8 7 ) . F ig u re 8 . 8 s h o w s a d i a g r a m o f t h e i r t w o - s t o r y h o u s e , b a s e d o n che
c ir c le o f c irc les f o u n d ir. m u c h o f t h e W e s t A f r i c a n in t e ri o r. I n f r o n t o f t h e h o u se
lies t h e first o f tw o s c a l i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . It is t h e " s o u l m o u n d , ” a c i r c l e o f
c y l i n d e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s p i r i t s o f rho.se c u r r e n t l y l i v i n g in t h e h o u s e a n d
p h y s i c a ll y s t r u c t u r e d like a s c a l e d - d o w n v e r s i o n o f t h e h o u s e a r c h i t e c t u r e . As
t h e c u r r e n t fa m ily g iv e s w ay t o a n e w g e n e r a t i o n , t h e s o u l m o u n d u n d e r g o e s a
s e c o n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in w h i c h i t is d i v i d e d i n t o a s i n g l e c y l i n d e r a n d is
m o v e d in s id e . A s c a l i n g s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e s i n g l e c y l i n d e r s — o n e fo r e a c h g e n
e r a t i o n — c a n be s e e n w r a p p e d a r o u n d r h e c e n t r a ) t o w e r i n s i d e t h e h o u s e .
'■ I I
FIGURE 8.7
R e c u r s io n a n d re p r o d u c tio n in B a m a n a s c u lp tu r e
iM The chi wara figure, used in ritual dances for agricultural fertility, shows a striking self-similarity:
fiAlthough the figures vary widely, each one is similar to itself. This can be attributed to the Bamana
jtvicw of reproduction as cyclic iterations, (b) Here the cycle is carried out to three iterations.
(•: upper le ft , f r o m die de Hevenon Collection, Museum o f A f r i c a n A r t , S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ; upper
courtesy Muse'e d e I ' H o m m e ; l o w e r , f r o m C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t e 1970. b, c o u r t e s y Musee d e I ' H o m m e . )
126 A frican fra c ta l mathematics
F IG U R E 8 .8
R e c u r s io n in B a ta m m a lib a a \->v
r c h ite c tu r e
fig i > (a) Diagram or the Batammaliba two-story house. In
front of the house lies the “soul mound," representing
the spirits of those currently living in the house.
(b) Inside the house, single mounds representing
I'jK ! -
(( V 1. ..
ancestors are found in the scaling arrays, with the si2e of
the ancestral mounds increasing from youngest to oldest.
Here only one such array is shown, but typically there
are several in the same household.
( a , fro m B lier 1 9 8 7 .)
ii I ■H ]
r S J u
r* s
' T h e M i t s o g h o so c ie ty o f G a b o n i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l relig io u s a s s o c ia ti o n s t h a t
are h o u s e d in che s a m e t e m p l e (e b a n d z a }. F ig u r e 8 . 9 a s h o w s che c e n t r a l p o s t o f
a n e b a n d z a fe a tu rin g sc a lin g pairs o f h u m a n figures. A s in. t h e c h i w a ra figure, th e r e
is o n ly o n e i t e r a t io n ; t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e j i e s j p t h i s f i g u r e a s t h e se ed t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
^ ^ a d ^ Lil!§Lv.?.PJ°cess. T h e use o f a cross s h a p e m a y b e d u e t o C i u j s n a n influen c e ,
b u t t h e b ilareral scalin g is q u i t e i n d i g e n o us, as w e see in che classic B a k w e le s c u l p
tu r e (fig. 8 . 9 b ) e l s e w h e r e in G a b o n . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e e b a n d z a p o s t p r o v i d e s
a v is u a li z a ti o n for t h e i t e r a t i v e c o n c e p t o f d e s c e n t t h a t is w id ely u s e d in t h i s c u l
tu r e area. T h i s is b e a u tifu lly d e s c r ib e d by F e r n a n d e z ( 1 9 8 2 ) in a d e t a i l e d e t h n o g
r a p h y o f t h e M i t s o g h o ’s n e i g h b o r s a n d c u l t u r a l r e l a ti v e s , t h e F an g.
A l t h o u g h t h e F a n g a re p a t r i l i n e a l , t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e
o f b i r t h — a ti n y h u m a n ( w h a t w as c a l l e d a “ h o m u n c u l u s ” in early E u r o p e a n m e d
ical th e o r y ) — is c o n t a i n e d in t h e fe m a le b lo o d . T h e idea o f t h e n e w existin g w i t h i n
t h e o ld , a n d v ic e versa , is a s t r o n g c u l t u r a l t h e m e . F o r e x a m p l e , in o n e r i t u a l t h e
m o t h e r p l a c e s a n e w b o r n c h i l d o n t h e b a c k o f h e r o l d e s t s i b li n g t o sy m b o liz e
c o n tin u ity o f th e lineage. F e rn a n d e z (1 9 8 2 , 2 5 4 ) n o te s t h a t th e re b irth c o n
c e p t is so s t r o n g t h a t “F a n g f a t h e r s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e i r i n f a n t s o n s g t q ...the_
f a m i l i a r f o n n j a / . f a i b e r . ’’ I n m a n y o f t h e F a n g a n d M i t s o g o r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s ,
t h e s p i r i t is e x p l i c i t l y d e s c r i b e d a s t r a v e l i n g a v e r t i c a l c y c l i c p a t h . A n c e s t o r s
rise fr o m t h e e a r t h t o b e c o m e b o r n a g a i n , a n d by p r o p e r l i v i n g t h e y c a n rise
h ig h e r w ith each rebirth.
T h e s e c y c l i c i t e r a t i o n s a r e v i s u a l i z e d in t h e N g a n g a d a n c e o f t h e B w i ti
r e l i g i o n (fig. 8 . 9 c ) . E v e n in C h r i s t i a n - a n i m i s t s y n c r e t i s m , b i b l i c a l c h a r a c t e rs
a r e r e i n t e r p r e t e d as c y c li c _ r e b i r t h s : t h e A f r i c a n g o d s Z a m e a n d N y i n g w a n
b e c o m e A d a m a n d E v e , w h o b e c o m e C a i n a n d A b e l ( u n d e r s t o o d as m a l e a n d
fem ale), w h o b e c o m e C h r is t a n d th e V irg in .M ary . F e rn a n d e z n o te s t h a t th ese
c y c le s a re n o t m e r e r e p e t i t i o n , b u t r a t h e r i t e r a t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s : " T h e
s p i r i t u a l - f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n o f Z a m e a n d h i s s i s t e r is c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e c a r n a l
relatio n o f A d a m a n d Eve w h ic h d e g e n e ra te s in to th e m aterialistic a n d divisive
r e l a t i o n o f C a i n a n d A b e l w h i c h t h e n is r e g e n e r a t e d a s t h e i m m a c u l a t e a n d
filial r e l a t i o n s h i p o f M a r y a n d J e s u s ” (p. 3 3 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o F e r n a n d e z , t h e s e
d e g e n e r a t i o n / r e g e n e r a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s a r e v i s u a l i z e d as h o r i z o n t a l v e r s u s
v e r t i c a l J w h i c h c o u l d e x p l a i n t h e a l t e r n a t i o n in t h e e b a n d z a p o s t s . I n a p p l y
in g t h i s c y c l i c c o n c e p t i o n t o t h e e b a n d z a s t r u c t u r e (fig. 8 . pel), w e c a n s e e t h e
d e s c e n t m o d e l in its full f r a c t a l e x p a n s i o n .
T h e Tabw a, w h o occupy th e ea ste rn s e c tio n of th e D e m o c ra tic R e p u b lic
o f C o n g o ( Z a ir e ) , h a v e also d e v e l o p e d s e v e r a l g e o m e t r i c figures t o se r v e as m o d
els for t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s o f k i n s h i p a n d d e s c e n t . M a u r e r a n d R o b e r t s ( 1 9 8 7 , 2 5 )
e x p l a i n t h a t in t h e T a b w a o r i g i n story, a n a a r d v a r k ’s w i n d i n g t u n n e l re s u lts in
a
FIGURE 8.9
R e c u r.s w e k in s lu f) i n Q abon
(a) T h e central post of t h e ebandza temple in western G a b o n suggests an iterative descent
concept. T h is is actually a museum reproduction, (b) Bakwele masks from eastern G a b o n show
similar bilateral scaling.
f a , f r o m F erro is 19 8 6 ; In left, f r o m Pefrois j 9 8 6 ; rig/u, M etro p o lita n M u se u m o f A r t ; f r o m Z aslavsky
197 .}•) (figure continue*)
Recursion 129
F I G U R E 8 . 9 (continued)
R e c u rs iv e d e s c e n t in Q a b o n
(c) In many of the Fang-and Mitsogo religious practices, the
spirit is explicitly described as traveling a vertical cyclic path.
Ancestors rise from the earth to be born again, and by proper
living they can rise higher with each rebirth. These cyclic
iterations are visualized in the Nganga dance of the Bwiti
religion, (d) We can apply the explicit mapping of cyclic
generations given by the Nganga dance to the iterative posts of
the ebandza temple and see the descent model in its full fractal
expansion. T h e implication of infinite regress is discussed in
chapter 9.
(c./rom Fernandez: 1982.)
a “b o t t o m l e s s s p r i n g ” fr o m w h i c h e m e r g e s t h e first h u m a n , K y o m b a , w h o s e
d e s c e n d a n t s s p r e a d in all d i r e c t i o n s f r o m t h i s c e n t r a l p o i n t . T h i s s p r e a d is v i s u
alized by t h e m p an d e, a d is k c u t fr o m t h e e n d o f a c o n e s n a i l, w h i c h is w o r n as
a chest p e n d a n t (fig. 8 . 10a). T h e c e n tr a ! p o i n t is d rilled o u t, r e p r e s e n tin g t h e e m e r
ge n c e o f K y o m b a fr o m t h e d e e p s p r in g , a n d t h e l o g a r i t h m i c sp iral o f t h e shell
.end s y m b o lizes t h e e x p a n s i o n o f k in g r o u p s fr o m t h i s origin.®
O n e w ay ro r e p r e s e n t t h e s e e x p a n d i n g i t e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h ti m e is t o ta k e a
series of p o r t r a i t s as t h e s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e s : p r o j e c t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s a l o n g
th e ti m e axis. F ig ure 8 . 1 0 b s h o w s t h e first s t e p t o w a r d t h i s d e s ig n : a m o r e li n e a r
version o f t h e m p a n d e d isk, in w h i c h a n A r c h i m e d e a n spiral fits b e t w e e n a series
i •
•'i
A fr ic a n fr a c ta l m athem atics
o f t r i a n g l e s ( w h i c h r e p r e s e n t t h e w i v e s o f t h e g u a r d i a n o f t h e a n c e s t o r s ) . In
fi g u r e 8 . i o c w e s e e t h a t t h e l i n e a r s p i r a l h a s b e c o m e c o n c e n t r i c s q u a r e s , b u t
t h e y a r e n o w p o r t r a y e d i n a s c a l i n g s e q u e n c e , s u g g e s tin g a se r ie s o f p o r t r a i t s o f
t h e k i n s h i p s p ira l as it e x p a n d s t h r o u g h t i m e . S i m i l a r s c a l i n g s q u a r e s e q u e n c e s ,
c a r r i e d o u t t o a g r e a t n u m b e r o f i t e r a t i o n s , c a n b e s e e n i n t h e s ta ffs o f t h e i r
n o r t h e r n n e i g h b o r s , t h e B a l u b a (fig. 8 . i o d ) .
b c d
FIGURE 8 . I O
T a b w a k i n s h i p r e p r e s e n ta tio n s
(a) T h e m p and e shell worn by C h i e f M and a Kaseke Joseph, (b) A more linear version of the
m pande disk, in w hich an A rc h im e d e a n spiral fits betw een a series of triangles (w hich represent
the wives o f the guardian ancestors), (c) T h e linear spiral has become c o n c e n tric squares, hut they
are now portrayed in a scaling sequence, suggesting a series of portraits o f th e kinsh ip spiral as it
expands th ro ugh time, (d) Sim ilar scaling of square sequences can he seen in d ie sraffs of their
n o rth e rn neighbors, the Baluba.
fa-c, from Roberts anti Mai iter 1985; d, Museum f i i r V o lk e v k tm d e , F rcm hfnrt.)
Recursion
I n a ll che d e s c e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s we h a v e e x a m i n e d , k i n s h i p gro u p s tr a c e t h e m
selv es to a m y th o lo g ic a l a n c e s t o r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f- th e w o rld , a n d t h u s w e m o v e
fr o m t h e - o r ig i n s o f h u m a n i t y to t h e o r i g i n s ' b f t h e c o s m o s . A f r i c a n c r e a t io n c o n
c e p t s a r e o f t e n b a s e d o n a re c u r s iv e n e s t i n g . T h e b e s t - k n o w n e x a m p l e is t h a t o f
t h e D o g o n , as d e sc rib e d by F r e n c h e t h n o g r a p h e r M a r c e l G r i a u l e ( 1 9 6 5 ) . H is w o rk
b e g a n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 D a k a r - D j i b o u t i e x p e d i t i o n , w h e r e h e first m a d e c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e D o g o n o f S a n g a in w h a t is n o w M a l i . I n 1 9 4 7 h i s s tu d ie s t o o k a d r a
m a t i c t u r n o f e v e n t s w h e n o n e o f t h e D o g o n e ld e rs, O g o c e m m e li, a g re e d to i n t r o
d u c e G r i a u l e t o t h e i r e l a b o r a t e k n o w l e d g e s y s te m . C l i f f o r d ( 1 9 8 3 ) p r o v i d e s a
d e t a i l e d r e v i e w o f t h e s t r o n g r e a c t i o n s t o G r i a u l e ’s r e s u l t i n g e t h n o g r a p h y .
W h i l e m a n y o f che c r i t i q u e s w e re r e a l ly a b o u t t h e fa ilin g s o f m o d e r n i s t a n t h r o
p o l o g y in g e n e r a l — t h e t e n d e n c y t o p r e f e r a s t a t i c p a s t o v e r t h e p r e s e n t , o r a
s i n g u l a r “t r a d i t i o n ” o v e r i n d i v i d u a l i n v e n t i o n — t h e r e w e r e a ls o t h o s e w h o
s i m p l y d id n o t b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h e l a b o r a t e a b s t r a c t i o n s c o u l d b e i n d i g e n o u s .
F o r t h e Dogotir t h e h u m a n s h a p e is n o t o n l y a b io l o g i c a l f o r m , b u t m a p s
m e a n i n g a t a l P l e v e j s: “T h e fa c t t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e is p r o j e c t e d in t h e s a m e
m a n n e r o n a se r ie s o f d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s — t h e c o s m o s , t h e v i l la g e , t h e h o u s e , t h e
i n d i v i d u a l — p ro v i d e s a p r o f o u n d ly u n if y in g e l e m e n t in D o g o n life” (D u ly 1 9 7 9 ).
. T h e ^ Q g o n h o u s e is p h y s i c a ll y s t r u c t u r e d o n a m o d e l o f t h e h u m a n fo r m , w i t h
a la r g e r e c t a n g l e for t h e b o dy , s m a l l e r r e c t a n g l e s o n ^ e a c h , s j d e T o r a rm s , a door,
for t h e m o u t h , a n d so o n . T h e D o g o n v i l l a g e , h o w e v e r , r e p r e s e n t s t h e h u m a n
fo r m w i t h a s y m b o l i c s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n a g e o m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e : it is n o t p h y s
ically a r r a n g e d as a h u m a n s h a p e , b u t v a r i o u s b u i l d i n g s a r e a s s ig n e d m e a n i n g
a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r so cial f u n c t i o n ( t h e s m i t h y s t a n d s for t h e h e a d , t h e m e n s t r u a l
• •• lo d g e s as h a n d s y a n d ' s T r o v p T ln r v i s e 'o f ' tw o ' d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f repres..e-n t a t io n
p r e v e n t s s e l f - s im i la r it y in t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a r c h i te c t u re ^ _ b u t _ s o m e
o f t h e D o g o n ’s re l ig i o u s ic o n s d o s h o w h u m a n fo r m s m a d e o u t o f h u m a n fo r m s
Tfig. 8.1 i a ) .
r A t h r e e f o l d s c a l i n g a p p e a r s in s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e D o g o n r e l i g i o n , a n d
1 it is h e r e t h a t we f i n d a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e D o g o n a re u s i n g m o r e t h a n ju s t
V a c a s c a d e . G r i a u l e ( 1 9 6 5 , 1 3 8 ) s u m m a r i z e s O g o t e m m e l i ’s c r e a t i o n s t o r y :
“G o d . . . h a d t h r e e t i m e s r e o r g a n i z e d t h e w o r l d by m e a n s o f t h r e e su c c e s s iv e
W o r d s , e a c h m o r e e x p l i c i t a n d m o r e w i d e s p r e a d in its r a n g e t h a n t h e o n e
b e f o r e it." B u t t h e s e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e n o t m e r e l y l a y e r i n g o n e o n t o p o f che
o c h e r ; r a t h e r t h e o u t p u t o f e a c h r e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c o m e s t h e i n p u t for t h e n e x t .
T h e e a r t h g iv e s b i r t h t o t h e first s p i r it s ; t h e s e “N u m m o ” r e g e n e r a t e a n c e s t r a l
b e in g s i n t o h u m a n l i k e re p tile s; t h e r e p t i l e - a n c e s t o r s a re a g a in r e b o r n as t h e first
tr u e h u m a n s . W i t h i n r e b i r t h , t h e t h r e e f o l d i t e r a t i o n is a g a i n e n a c t e d . In t h e first
( a ) I n t h e D o g o n c o s m o l o g y , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h u m a n f o r m is
c r e a t e d fro m h u m a n form .
( h ) T h e s y m b o l i s m o f tire s t a c k e d p o t s ,
representing th e b reath o flife, w ith in the
feteus, w ith in th e w o m b . W e c a n use an
iterativ e d raw in g p ro ced u re to b e tte r
u n d e rsta n d ho w this k in d o f scaling can
resu lt from a recu rsiv e lo o p . S u p p o s e we
h a v e a ro u tin e th a t c a n draw th e circle o f
th e p o t given a d iam eter, an d o n e th a t can
d r a w a lid.
W h i l e d i a m e t e r > m i n i m u m do:
D r a w a c i r c l e o f size d i a m e r e r
I f size = m i n i m u m , d r a w a lid
S h r i n k d i a m e t e r h y 2/3
E n d of “ w h ile " loop.
T h i s p r o c e d u r e first c h e c k s t o s e e if w e a r e
p ast t h e sm a lle s t d i a m e t e r p o ssib le. If n o t,
it d raw s a po t, sh rin k s th e d ia m e te r v alu e
b y 2/ 3 S, a n d t h e n g o e s b a c k t o t h e s t a r t o f
t h e w h ile lo o p . In o t h e r w o rd s, t h e o u t p u t
o f o n e ite ra tio n — a given d ia m e te r—
b e c o m e s t h e i n p u t for t h e n e x t ite r a t io n .
(c ) D o g o n recursive im age o f m o th e r a n d
child.
FIGURE 8 . 1 I
S c a lin g in D o g o n re lig io u s ic o n s
(n, from Lau de 197 3; c o u r t e s y Leste r W io id e r m a n ; c, f r o m C a r n e g i e Institute 19 7 0 ; co u rtesy 0/
J a y C . L e ff.)
Recursion 133
r e g e n e r a t i o n , fo r e x a m p l e , e a c h a n c e s t r a l b e i n g e n t e r s t h e e a r t h 's w o m b , w h i c h
t u r n s e a c h o f t h e m i n t o a fetus, w h i c h a ll o w s t h e b r e a t h o f life (n u m m o ) t o e n te r.
T h e c o s m o lo g ic a l n a r r a tiv e su g g ests t h a t in th e D o g o n v iew t h e b ir th i n g
p ro c e s s e s a t a ll s c a l e s a r e , in s o m e s e n s e , i t e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e s a m e t r a n s f o r
m a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e s e i t e r a t i o n s a r e a c t u a l l y n e s t e d lo o ps.
W h y s h o u ld th e D o g o n req u ire s u c h d e e p iterativ e n esting? 1 su sp ect th a t
t h e r e a r e tw o m o t i v a t i o n s / F ^ r s t ^ t h e r e is a n i n s i g h t i n t o m o d e l i n g t h e w o rld :
r e c u r s i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e i n b i o l o g i c a l m o r p h o g e n e s i s , as w e l l as in
e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d s o c j a l _ c h a n g e . T h e ;s e c o n d .is t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t o f t h i s
T cn ow led ge: e l d e r s n e e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n r e s p e c t s t h e i r
au th o rity , w h ic h c a n o n ly b e d o n e by g iv jn g th e m g radual access to t h e source
o f t h i s p o w e r , w h i c h is k n o w l e d g e . A c k n o w l e d g e s y s te m in w h i c h e n d l e s s e x e
gesis is p o s s i b l e m a k e s t h e i n i t i a t i o n p r o c e s s a l i f e t i m e a c t i v i t y . B u t h a v i n g so
m u c h e x p la n a to ry elb o w ro o m also p re s e n ts a p ro b le m w ith tr a n s la tin g su c h
n a r r a t i v e s i n t o m a t h e m a t i c s . ^ W e h a d t o b e c a r e f u l w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s fo r m o r e
fo rm a l p r a c t i c e s , s u c h as i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e B a m a n a d i v i n a t i o n s y s te m as a b in a r y
c o d e , o r a d ire c l o t h as a g e o m e t r i c a l g o r i t h m . A n a r r a t i v e is n o t a q u a n t i t a t i v e
o r g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n , a n d its a m b i g u i t y r e q u i r e s ail t h e m o r e ; c a r e i n p r o d u c
in g a m a t h e m a t i c a l t r a n s l a d o n ^ t h a t . c l o e s n o t e m b e d i $ h J n d j g e j } O u s c o n c e p t s ,
firs t, we h a v e to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n m o d e lin g th e n a r r a tiv e — s o m e th in g a
s tru c tu r a l a n th r o p o lo g is t lik e C la u d e L e v i-S tra u ss w o u ld d o — a n d t h e n a r r a
t i v e as a n i n d i g e n o u s m o d e l , s u c h as t h e D o g o n ’s s y s te m for r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r
o w n a b s t r a c t ideas. T h e b e s t way t o li m i t o u r t r a n s l a t i o n to ideas t h a t t h e D o g o n
t h e m s e l v e s are t r y i n g t o c o n v e y is t o c o m p a r e t h e s e a b s t r a c t i o n s o f t h e n a r r a
ti v e w i t h o t h e r , m o r e f o r m a l D o g o n s y s te m s . T h i s m e a n s m i s s i n g s o m e id e a s
t h a t d o n o t h a v e s u c h f o r m a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , b u t it is b e t t e p t o e r r on. t h e safe. s|de.
- in t h i s c o n t e x t .
. T h e m a t e r i a l d e s ig n s o f t h e D o g o n a re m o r e r e s tr i c te d t h a n ^ t h e . n a r r a ti v e
in te r m s o f t h e i r i t e r a t i v e d e p t h . T h e b e s t c a s e is p r o b a b l y in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y
of t h e g ra n a r y , w h e r e O g o t e m m e l i e x p l a i n s a s t a c k o f t h r e e p o ts : che la r g e s t rep-
. re s e n ts t h e w o m b ; t h e o n e o n t o p o f it, c r e a t i n g its lid, r e p r e s e n t s t h e fetus; a n d
che lid o f t h a t p o t is t h e s m a l l e s t p o t , c o n t a i n i n g a p e r f u m e t h a t r e p r e s e n t s t h e
b r e a t h o f life ( G r i a u l e 1 9 6 5 , 3 9 ) . T h e s m a l l e s t p o t is c a p p e d by a n o r m a l lid; at
chis p o i n t t h e r e c u r s io n “b o t t o m s o u t . ” T h i s is n o t m erely a s t a c k o f d i f f e r e n t sizes;
in th e D o g o n vie w t h e w o m b c r e a t e s t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t give rise t o t h e fetus,
w hich is th e p re c o n d i ti o n for t h e e n tr y o f th e b re a th o f life. T h e recu rsion is e m p h a
sized in t h e way t h a t e a c h n e w poc b e g in s before che p rev io u s p o t e n d s (fig. 8.1 i b ) ,
chat is, o n e p o t ’s lid is t h e n e x t p o t ’s b o d y ( G r i a u l e 1 9 65 , 19 9 ). In t h e s c u l p t u r e
in figure 8.1 i c t h e m o t h e r ’s b re a s ts b e c o m e t h e c h i l d ’s h e a d — a g a in , a n e w o n e
134 A fr ic a n fractal m athem atics
b e g in s b e f o r e t h e p r e v i o u s o n e e n d s . A s wc saw in t h e c h i w a r a s c u l p t u r e o f t h e
D o g o n ’s B a m a n a n e i g h b o r s , r e p r o d u c t i o n is m o d e l e d as r e c u r s i o n .
T h e D o g o n v i e w o f a c o s m o s s t r u c t u r e d as n e s t e d h u m a n - f o r m is q u i t e
s im ila r to c e r t a in a n c i e n t E g y p tia n re p r e s e n ta tio n s . F igufe 8 .1 2 sh o w s a re lie f
f r o m a t o m b in w h i c h t h e c o s m o s e n c l o s e s t h e sky, w h i c h e n c l o s e s t h e e a r t h .
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e a r e a g a i n t h r e e i t e r a t i o n s o f s c a l e . A t h r e e -
i t e r a t i o n n u m e r i c l o o p is i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e E g y p t i a n g o d o f w i s d o m , T h o t h . H e
is re f e r r e d t o as H e r m e s T r i s m e g e s t u s , w h i c h m e a n s “ t h r i c e g r e a t H e r m e s , ’' b u t
h e is a ls o re f e r r e d t o a s “ e i g h t t i m e s g r e a t H e r m e s . " W h y b o t h t h r e e a n d e i g h t ?
It m a k e s sen se if we t h i n k in te r m s o f t h o s e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s o f A f r i c a n n u m e r ic
s y s te m s , r e c u r s i o n a n d b a s e - t w o a r i t h m e t i c . T h r i c e g r e a t b e c a u s e w h i l e a n
o r d i n a r y h u m a n m a y rise as h i g h as t h e m a s t e r o f m a s t e r s , H e r m e s T r is m e g e s t u s
is t h e m a s t e r o f m a s t e r s o f m a s t e r s ( t h r e e i t e r a t i o n s ) ; t h u s w e c a n s u r m i s e “e i g h t
t i m e s g r e a t ” re f e rs t o 2^ = 8.
FIG U RE 8 . 1 2
R e c u r s io n in th e c osm olog y o f a n c i e n t Egyf)t
Gelt, the Earth, enclosed hy Shu, space, enclosed hy Nut, the stellar canopy.
(From Fourier 182 1.)
Recursion 135
M a n y o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n a l c ro s se s o f E t h o p i a also i n d i c a t e a t h r e e f o l d i t e r
a t i o n (fig. 8 .1 3 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e cro sse s a r e n o w u sed in C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h p r o
c e e d in g s , P e rc z e l ( 1 9 8 1 ) r e p o r t s t h a t r e l a t e d d e sig n s c a n b e f o u n d o n o r n a m e n t s
e x c a v a t e d f r o m t h e c it y o f A x u m in n o r t h e r n E t h o p i a in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e
first m i l l e n n i u m b .c . e ., so w e s h o u l d n o t a s s u m e t h a t t h e t h r e e f o l d i t e r a t i o n was
o riginally re la te d to th e C h r is ti a n trinity, a lth o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n m ay h a v e
oc curred later (fig. 8 .1 3 b ). C o u l d th e r e be a c o m m o n history b e h in d all th e s e o c c u r
r e n c e s o f tr i p l e i t e r a t i o n s in t h e re lig io u s i c o n s o f t h e S u d a n a n d N o r t h A fric a ?
I t h i n k t h e c o m m o n u se o f r e c u r s i o n it s e l f is d u e to a m u t u a l in f lu e n c e , b u t t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o f tr i p l e i t e r a t i o n m a y b e o n l y d u e to t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s
r a t h e r t h a n d if fu s i o n . F o r o n e t h i n g , g i v e n t h e m a t e r i a ls t h e a r t is a n s a r e w o r k
ing w i t h , m i n u t e s c a le s a re d if fic u lt, so t h a t t h e t e n d e n c y t o be l i m i t e d t o t h r e e
ite ra tio n s m a y sim p ly b e a p ra c tic a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e c ra f t m e t h o d s . It m a y also
be t h a t if o n e w is h e s t o g e t t h e c o n c e p t o f i t e r a t i o n across, tw o is t o o f e w ^ w h ile
m o re t h a n t h r e e is u n n e c e s s a r y ( w h i c h is w h y m o d e r n m a t h e m a t i c i a n s o f t e n r e p
r e s e n t a n in f in i te series by t h e first t h r e e e l e m e n t s , e.g., " 1 ,2 ,3 . . .”). O n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , t h e r e a re ca ses w h e r e m a n y s u c h “ u n n e c e s s a r y ” i t e r a t i o n s are m a d e in t h e
m o s t d iffic u lt o f c r a f t m a t e r i a ls . F ig u r e 8 .1 4 s h o w s a n a n c i e n t E g y p ti a n d e s ig n ,
c a rv e d in s t o n e , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o rig in m y t h in w h i c h t h e lo tu s flow er (its petals-
w ith i n - p e t a ls illu s tra te d by a m u l t i t u d e o f sc a lin g lines) b eg ins che se lf-g e n e r a tin g
c r e a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o rld .
-reference
S e l f - r e f e r e n c e is t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l ty p e o f r e c u r s i o n . T h e a b il it y o f a s y s t e m to
re fle c t o n it s e l f is a t t h e h e a r t o f b o t h che li m i ts o f . m a t h e m a t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n
as w ell as o u r s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . B u t t h e r e a re r e l a t i v e l y
triv ial a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e as w ell ( o n e c a n a lw a y s use a b l o w t o r c h to
lig h t a c a n d l e ) . S e l f - r e f e r e n c e first c a m e to t h e a t t e n t i o n o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s in
s im p le e x a m p l e s o f lo g ic a l p a r a d o x ; for e x a m p l e , t h e “ li a r ’s p a r a d o x ” w e e x a m
in ed e a rlie r . T o s e e h o w s e l f - r e f e r e n c e c a n b e m o r e t h a n j u s t a l o g i c i a n ’s j o k e ,
le t’s e x a m i n e h o w it w o r k s in p r o g r a m m i n g . R e c all t h a t j i s i in p j e c a s c a d e c o u ld
n o t b g . u s e d ■if we.,did- n ot.-k no w . h o w ..m a n y j_ t ^ n 5 fp r m a ti o n s _ w e re . n e e d e d .a h e a d
of tim e. T h e s a m e p r o b l e m o c c u r r e d for t h e B a t a m m a l i b a a n c e s t r a l m o u n d s ; sin c e
t h e first d e s c e n d a n t d i d n o t k n o w h o w m a n y w o u ld b e n e e d e d , t h e s y s te m h a s
to allow for i t e r a t i v e resizing. W e a lso saw t h e possibility o f n e s t e d it e ra t iv e loops,
illustrated by t h e t w o - l o o p d r a w i n g p r o g r a m fo r M o k o u l e k a r c h i t e c t u r e . B u t su p
pose we d i d n ’t k n o w h o w m a n y n e s t e d lo o p s we were g o in g t o n e e d ? I n t h e s a m e
way t h a t t h e r e c u r s i v e c a s c a d e c o u l d n o t d e a l w i t h a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r o f iter-
S e e d sh a p e
( a ll tin e s are
a c tiv e lin es) S e c o n d iteration
FIGURE 8 . 1 3
F r a c t a l s in E t h i o p i a n
p ro c e s s io n a l c ro sse s
(a) Fractal simulations for Ethiopian
processional crosses through three iterations-
(b) Ethiopia converted to Christianity in
333 c.ti., and in the thirteenth century King
Lalibela directed the construction of churches
to be cut from massive rocks in one of the
mountain regions. T he church of St. George
{at right) shows a triple iteration of nested
crosses:
(a, a l l Ethiopian processional crosses f r o m P o r t l a n d
Museum in Oregon; pliotos c o u r t e s y o f Cs ilia
P e r c z e l , b, photo hy Georg Gerstcr.)
Recursion 137
FIGURE 8.14
T h e l o t t t s i c o n in a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n cosm ology
In the origin story of ancient Egypt the lotus flower was often used as an image of the unfolding of
the universe, its petals-within-petals signifying the expansion of scales. This is a very stylized
representation used in the capitals of columns in temples.
(From F ourier 1 8 2 1 .)
a t i o n s , n e s t e d i t e r a t i o n h a s t r o u b l e w i t h a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r o f l o o p s . 10 H e r e
is w h e r e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e c a n h e l p o u t . A n e x a m p l e o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e in p r o g r a m
m i n g is il l u s t r a t e d for t h e D o g o n p o t s t a c k in fig u re 8 .1 5 .
W e k n o w t h a t t h e D o g o n p o t s t a c k c a n b e d r a w n w i t h a s i n g le i t e r a t i v e
l o o p — it d o e s n o t re q u ire s e l f - r e f e r e n c e . B u t t h e ta s k c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d by
s e l f - r e f e r e n c e , a n d w e m i g h t s i m d a r l y ask if t h e r e a re 'c a s e s o f s c a l in g in A f r i c a n
d e s i g n s in w h i c h s e l f - r e f e r e n c e p la y s a ro le , re g a r d le ss o f w h e t h e r it is re q u i r e d .
In. E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y , s e l f - r e f e r e n c e b e g i n s w i t h t h e s t o r y o f E p i m e n i d e s o f
C r e t e , t h e “ li a r ’s p a r a d o x . ” S i m i l a r u t i l i z a t i o n s o f n a r r a t i v e se lf-r e fe re n c e t o c r e
a t e u n c e r t a i n t y c a n be f o u n d in c e r t a i n A f r i c a n t r i c k s t e r s to rie s . F o r e x a m p l e , '
iii a n A s h a n t i s t o r y o f A n a n s e ( w h o b e c a m e “A u n t N a n c y ” in A f r i c a n A m e r i
c a n f o l k l o r e ) , a m a n n a m e d “ H a t e s - t o - b e - c o n t r a d i c t e d ” is t r i c k e d i n t o c o n
tr a d ic tin g h im self. P e ito n (1 9 8 0 , 5 1 ) n o te s t h a t th e a p p lic a tio n o f such
s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l p a r a d o x is a t h e m e in m a n y A n a n s e st o r ie s : “T h u s A n a n s e
r e j e c ts t r u t h in f a v o r o f ly in g , b u t o n l y for t h e s a k e o f s p e e c h ; t e m p e r a n c e in
fav o r o f g l u t t o n y for t h e s a k e o f e a t i n g ; c h a s t i t y in f a v o r o f la s c i v i o u s n e s s for
t h e s a k e o f s e x ." T h e f o l l o w i n g t a l e is n o t n e a r l y a s sp a r s e b u t c a r r ie s t h e f l a
v or o f s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l p a r a d o x q u i t e w ell:
FIGURE 8 . 1 5
D r a w in g th e D o g o n p o t s ta c k by s e lf-re fe re n c e
T h e symbolism of the stacked pots represents th e b reath of life,
w ith in th e fetus, w ithin th e wotnB.' W e have aready seen h o w this
can be drawn using an iterative loop; now let’s see h ow it ca n be
drawn using self-reference.
Suppose we h av e a ro u tin e th a t can draw the semicircle of th e
p o t given a diameter.
Procedure D R A W -P O T
If size = m inim um , draw a lid.
Else
Draw a circle of size diam eter
S h rin k diam eter by V3
D R A W -P O T
End of "else" clause
End o f procedure
b r o u g h t m e h e r e , ” th e sk u ll re p lie s. N a t u r a l l y t h e h u n t e r is a m az ed a n d
q u ic k ly ru n s b ac k to his village, e x c la im i n g a b o u t w h a t h e h a s fou nd . E v e n
tu ally t h e kin g h ea rs ab o u t th is w o n d e r an d d e m a n d s t h a t th e h u n t e r ta k e h im
/ to see it. T h e y re t u r n to th e p la c e in t h e b u s h w h e r e t h e sk u ll is s ittin g , a n d
t h e h u n t e r p o in t s ir o u t to h is k in g , w h o n a t u r a l l y w a n t s to h e a r t h e s k u ll’s
message. T h e - h u n t e r r e p e a t s .t h e question.:..“H y w d i d you g e t h e re ? ” h u t th e
skull says n o t h i n g . T h e k ing, angry now, accu se s t h e h u n t e r o f d e c e p t io n , an d
o rders his h e a d c u t off o n th e sp ot. W h e n t h e royal p a rty d e p a rt s , t h e skull
speaks o u t, asking th e h u n t e r “W h a t is this? H o w d id you get h e re ? ” T h e he ad
replies, “T a lk i n g b ro u g h t m e h e r e ! ” ( A b r a h a m s 1983, 1)
tu r e . S i n c e t h e p ip e is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l o f ro y a l p re s tig e in F o u m b a n , it m ay
be t h a t t h e a rtisa n s w ere m a k i n g p u rp o s e fu l u se o f t h e in fin ite regress: “T h e k i n g ’s
p o w e r is n e v e r - e n d i n g . ”
Figure 8 .1 6 c s h o w s a B a m a n a h e a d d r e s s , t h a t is, a s c u l p t u r e w o r n o n t h e
h e a d d u r i n g c e r e m o n i e s . Fag g ( 1 9 6 7 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t t h i s e n a c t s s e l f - r e f e r e n c e :
a h e a d d re s s of a p erson w e a rin g a h e a d d re s s of a p erson w earin g a h e ad d ress.
O t h e r s (cf. A r n o l d i 1 9 7 7 ) h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h i s as a s y m b o l o f f e r til it y sp irits, b u t
th e tw o in te r p r e ta tio n s m ay n o t be m u tu a lly ex c lu s iv e . R e tu r n in g to th e
FIGURE 8 . l 6
S e l f 't e f e r e n c e in A f r i c a n i c o n s
1) The abbia carvings from C am e ro o n show a wide variety o f images, but this abbia carving is
icon lor itself— it is an abbia of abbia. (b) A life-size bronze statue of the king of Foumban.
ere wc sec the king smoking his pipe, .die bowl of w hich is a figure of the king sm oking his pipe.
Bamana headdress.
Jwu'ing Iwsed on a b b i a p i c t u r e d on th e c o v e r o f Cameroon Cultural Review, 1979; c, photo courtesy
iu University Museum o f A f r i c a n A r t.)
140 A fr ic a n fra c ta l ?nacliema£ic5
B a m a n a ’s c lo s e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v e s t h e D o g o n , w e se e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s u g g e s te d by
O g o t e m m e l l i ’s d e s c r i p t i o n o f h o w t h e e i g h t h a n c e s to r, “w h o w as W o r d itself,” was
a b le to use W o r d ( t h a t is, t h e b r e a t h o f life) t o s e l f - g e n e r a t e i n t o ..the n e x t i t e r
a t i o n o f h u m a n i t y . I n e x a m i n i n g t h e s e lf-s im ila r it e r a t io n s * o f t h e D o g o n m o t h e r
a n d c h i l d in fi g u r e 8 . 1 1 c , w e n o t e d a s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t c a n b e
e x p re s s e d in t h e p h r a s e “ a n e w o n e b e g in s b e f o r e t h e o l d o n e e n d s . " T h i s w o u ld
also d e scrib e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e pip e in t h e s t a t u e o f t h e k i n g o f F o u m b a n , w h i c h
w e k n o w t o b e e x p l i c i t l y s e l f - r e f e r e n t ia l . P e r h a p s t h e s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l v e r s i o n o f
t h e D o g o n p o t s t a c k w a s t h e c o r r e c t o n e a fte r all.
I c o n i c r e p r e s e n t a tio n s o f r e c u r s io n
T h e a b b i a o f a b b i a , as a s y m b o l o f ( ^ e p r o d u c t i o n , ’.”>is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n a p p l i
c a t i o n o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e ; it r e p r e s e n t s ~ t h e c o n c e p £ , i t s e l f . I f r e c u r s i o n is r e a l l y a
c o n s c i o u s ( t h a t is, s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ! ) a s p e c t o f A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s , t h e n
w e s h o u l d e x p e c t s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t i n s t a n c e s in w h i c h t h e
c o n c e p t is a p p l i e d . F i g u r e 8 . 1 7 a s h o w s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e c u r s i o n in t h e t r a -
fig u re 8 .1 7
R e /lu x
(a) This sketch from the notebook of a nineteenth-century ethnographer in southern Senegal
shows an indigenous apparatus for the distillation of liquor from palm wine using a scaling cascade.
(b) A ncient Egyptian alchemists drew this snake symbol to represent their reflux technique.
A tube comes out of a heated pot and reenters after cooling. This cyclic refinement was used in
the creation of dyes and perfumes, bur it also symbolized the alchemists’ goal of refinement of the
human soul.
(a, pfioto c o u r t e s y /FAN, D a k a r - , b, drawing b a s e d on T o y lor 1 930.)
Recursion 141
d i t i o n a l d i s t i l l a t i o n o f p a l m w i n e i n t o l i q u o r in t h e C a s a m a n c e r e g i o n o f
S e n e g a ! . S u c h d i s t i l l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d t o s o p h i s t i c a t e d le v e ls
in a n c i e n t E g y p t, w h e r e t h e p r o c e s s b e c a m e a n i t e r a t i v e l o o p w h i c h m o d e r n
c h e m i s t s c a ll a “re f lu x ” a p p a r a t u s . F ig u r e 8 . 1 7 b shovirs-the i c o n i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f t h e reflu x sy s te m in t h e o ld e s t k n o w n a l c h e m i c a l w r i t i n g s (first c e n t u r y c .e .),
w h i c h a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o M a r i a ( w h o w r o t e u n d e r t h e n a m e o f M i r i a m , s is te r o f
M o s e s ) , C l e o p a t r a ( n o t t h e f a m o u s q u e e n ) , C o m a r i u s , a n d t h e m y t h i c figure
o f H e rm e s T rism eg estu s ( T h o t h ) . T a y lo r (1 9 3 0 ) n o te s t h a t a lth o u g h th ese
w e r e w r i t t e n in G r e e k , “t h e re l ig i o u s e l e m e n t . . . l i n k s t h e m t o E g y p t r a t h e r
t h a n t o G r e e c e , ” a n d h e s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e m o s t li k e ly o r i g i n is f r o m t h e t r a d i
t i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t E g y p ti a n p r i e s t h o o d . 11 I n t h e s e w r i t i n g s w e f i n d t h e re flu x
i c o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a p h o r i s m “ as a b o v e , so b e l o w , ” r e c a l l i n g t h e self-
s i m i l a r s c a l in g c o s m o lo g y w e h a v e s e e n in s u b - S a h a r a n A fric a , as well as its lin k s
t o t h e r e c u r s i o n o f s e l f - f e r t i l i z a t i o n . 1^
O f c o u r s e , o n e c a n go t o o far in a t t r i b u t i n g li n k s b e t w e e n a n c i e n t E gy pt
a n d s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a (see O r i t z d e M o n t e l l a n o 1 9 9 3 ; M a r t e l 19 94; L efk o w itz
1 9 9 6 ). T h e r e is goocf_e_yidence for th e o r i g in s o f t h e E g y p ti a n b a s e - tw o a r i t h m e t i c
sy s te m fro m s u b - S a h a r a n A fric a , a n d for t h e p e r s i s t e n t use o f r e c u r s io n in k n o w l
e d g e sy stem s acro ss t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . B u t it w o u ld b e u n w is e to a ss u m e t h a t
o n e c a n a t t r i b u t e m o r e sp ecific f e a t u r e s t o d if fu s i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , it is h ig h l y
u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e s a m e fig u re o f a s e r p e n t b i t i n g .its ta i l, a p p e a r i n g as a n ic o n
for t h e g od D a n in t h e v o d u n r e l i g i o n o f B e n i n (fig. 8 . 1 8 a ) c o u ld h a v e d e r i v e d
f r o m tlie E g y p t i a n i m a g e , o r v i c e v e r s a . A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e
v o d u n ic o n h a s n o t h i n g to d o with, t h e E g y p t i a n reflux c o n c e p t .
In A u g u s t 1994, t h a n k s to t h e a id o f M a r t i n e d e S o u s a ( o n e o f t h e A f r i c a n
d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e fa m e d F r a n c i s c o d e S o u z a ) , 1 was g r a n t e d a n i n t e r v i e w w ith
t h e c h i e f o f t h e D a n t e m p l e in O u i d a h , B e n i n . B o t h t h e c h i e f a n d his wife w e re
q u i t e r e s p o n s iv e to my i n t e r e s t in t h e g e o m e t r i c fe a tu re s o f D a n ’s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
a n d identified th e sinusoidal ico n in ir o n (fig. 8. j 8 b ) as " D a n a t w ork in t h e w o rld ,”
p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t h e c r e a t e s o r d e r in w i n d a n d w a te r. T h e c y c li c D a n w as m o r e
a b s t r a c t , e x i s t i n g in a d o m a i n w h e r e h e w as in c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r gods
o f v o d u n . M a u p o i l ( 1 9 8 1 , 7 9 ) a is o f o u n d t h a t D a n ( D a n g b e ) w as t h e r e “to
ass u re t h e r e g u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e fo r c e s ,” a n d B li e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) s u m m a r i z e s his ro le as
“p o w e r s o f m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h life, a n d n a t u r e ’s b le s s in g s .” R e g u l a r p h e n o m e n a
in n a t u r e — t h e p e r i o d i c a s p e c t s o f w e a t h e r , w a t e r w a v e s , b i o l o g i c a l c y c le s,
e t c . — a re a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e a c t i o n o f D a n .
T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n d u l a t o r y D a n “a t w o r k in t h e w o r l d ” a n d _ th e
c i r c u l a r fo rm o f D a n as a m o r e a b s t r a c t s p i r i t u a l f o r c e m a p s n e a t l y o n to t h e d i f
f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s i n u s o i d a l w a v e s w e s e e in s p a c e a n d t i m e — w a v e s in
noise {external temperature changes)
input (desired
temperature)
T h e t h e r m o s t a t t h a t re g u l a t e s t e m p e r a t u r e in a h o u s e is a n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k l o op . T h e w o r d “ n e g a t i v e "
is used b e c a u s e we s u b t r a c t t h e c u r r e n t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e fro m t h e d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e s e t by t h e
t h e r m o s t a t c o n t r o l . O v e r t i m e t h i s wi ll t e n d t o p r o d u c e cy cles o f h e a t a n d co ld .
D r i v i n g a c a r c a n als o be m o d e l e d by a n e g a t i v e fe e d b a c k lo o p . T h e d r i v e r a t t e m p t s t o stay in t h e c e n t e r
o f t h e la n e , a n d will c o r r e c t t o a d j u s t for b u m p s . A g a i n , g i v e n e n o u g h b u m p s ,' w e will t e n d to see cy cles
o f s w e rv i n g t o g e t b a c k to t h e c e n t e r .
FIGURE 8 . l 8
T h e v o d u n god D a n
I n t h e v o d u n r e l i g i o n o f B e n i n , t h e s n a k e g o d D a n r e p r e s e n t s t h e c y c l i c o r d e r o f n a t u r e . D a n 's
s h a p e r e fle c ts t h i s i d e a in t w o w ay s . A s a n a b s t r a c t f o r c e , h e is r e p r e s e n t e d as a f e e d b a c k l o o p ( a ) .
A s a c o n c r e t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n , h i s b o d y is a l w a y s o s c i l l a t i n g in a p e r i o d i c w a v e ( b ) . T h i s s a m e id ea
o f a p e r i o d i c t i m e s e r i e s f r o m c y c l i c f e e d b a c k is a l s o u s e d in W e s t e r n m o d e l s o f n a t u r e (c ).
( a , p/ioto courtesy J F A N , D akar.)
R ecursion 143
w a t e r a n ti c ir r u s c lo u d s , d a il y f l u c t u a t i o n s in h e a t a n d li g h t, t h e b i a n n u a l ra i n y
seaso ns, e tc .— a n d th e a b s t r a c t id e a o f a n i t e r a t iv e l o o p t h a t g e n e ra te s th e s e w a v e
fo rm s. T h e a s s o c i a t i o n c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m i:he k i n d o f e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n
o n e . g e ts in e v e r y d a y o c c u r r e n c e s . A d o p s i d e d w h e e l w ill p r o d u c e u n d u l a t o r y
t r a c k s in s a n d ; f r i e n d s w h o p e r i o d i c a l l y g i v e gifts a r e in a “c y c le o f e x c h a n g e , ”
a n d so f o r t h . W h a t d id t a k e g r e a t i n s i g h t a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l lab o r, h o w e v e r , was
t h e re l ig i o u s p r a c t i t i o n e r s ’ g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f s u c h o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t o s p e c ific ,
a b s t r a c t , u n iv e r s a ll y a p p l i c a b l e c a t e g o r i e s , r e p r e s e n t e d by i c o n s w i t h t h e a p p r o
priate g eo m etric stru ctu re. ^
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u i v a l e n t s i n n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s a r e li m i t c y c le s a n d
p o i n t a t t r a c t o r s — t h e re s u lts o f w h a t e n g i n e e r s c a ll a “n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k l o o p . ”
W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n s u c h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s in c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a a n d o w a r i,
w h e r e s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s r e m a i n b o u n d e d w i t h i n a c y c le o r fr o z e n in a s t a t i c p a t
te rn . Figure 8 .1 8 c sh ow s s o m e c o m m o n p l a c e e x a m p l e s o f n e g a ti v e fee d b a c k loops,
a n d h o w th e y a c t to k e e p th e b e h a v io r o f system s b o u n d e d o r stabilized, e v e n
in che p r e s e n c e o f n oise . B u t che v o d u n s y s te m w o u ld n o t b e c o m p l e t e if it c o u ld
o n l y a c c o u n t fo r r e g u l a r i t y — w h a t c a u s e s d e v i a t i o n in t h e first p l a c e ? H e n c e
t h e ro le o f L g g b a, g o d o f c h a o s . F igu re 8 . 1 9 a s h o w s a n o t h e r i r o n i c o n , t h e fo r k e d
p a t h o f L e g b a , “g o d o f t h e c r o s s r o a d s . ” A s e x p l a i n e d to m e by K a k e S . A l f r e d ,
1
- ; I------ ------- -..w
a d i v i n a t i o n p r i e s t o f v o d u n i n C o t o n o u , B e n i n , L e g b a is r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e
fork b e c a u s e " t h e a n s w e r c o u l d b e yes o r n o ; y o u d o n ’t k n o w w h i c h p a t h h e wilt
t a k e . ” F or d i v i n a t i o n , in w h i c h a “p a t h ” ( q u e s t i o n ) is o f t e n p u r s u e d fo r f u r c h e r
q u e s t i o n s , t h e im a g e b e c o m e s o n e o f e n d l e s s b i f u r c a t i o n s . A t t h e P a l a i s R o y a l
in P o r t o N o v o , B e n i n , I w a s t o l d t h a t t h e s h r i n e t o L e g b a w as p l a c e d a t t h e
t h r e s h o l d b e c a u s e h is f o r c e w a s so d i s r u p t i v e t h a t it w o u ld u n d o b o c h g o o d a n d
e v il, c r e a t i n g a p u r i f i c a t i o n a t the-er.trav.-ce-; K-akc a ls o e x p l a i n e d t h a t w h i l e t h e
m u sic o f D a n was slow a n d re g u la r, t h e m u s ic o f L e g b a w as b o t h fast a n d s lo w —
sig n ify in g h i s u n p r e d i c t a b l e n a t u r e — a n o b s e r v a t i o n 1 was a b l e to c o n f i r m by
r e c o r d i n g t h e d r u m m i n g t h a t w a s u se d t o c a l l e a c h g o d a t t h e t e m p l e o f D a n in
O u i d a h . 1-5 A s t h e c o n v e r s e to D a n , t h e b i f u r c a t i n g u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f L e g b a are
like a p o s i t i v e fe e d b a c k l o o p , a m p l i f y i n g d e v i a t i o n a n d n o is e (fig. 8 . 1 9 b ) .
C o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n a n e g a t i v e fe e d b a c k lo o p , c r e a t i n g stability, a n d t h e p o s
itive f e e d b a c k o f u n c o n t r o l l e d d i s o r d e r a r e a l s o f e a t u r e d in t h e .ico n ic c a r v i n g s
o f t h e Battle. V o g el ( 1 9 7 7 , 5 3 ) n o t e s t h a t t h e B a u le c h i e f is c h o s e n by c o n s e n -
T iisT a h d t h a t in all i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s h e s e r v e s as m e d i a t o r in p u b li c m e e t i n g s
r a t h e r t h a n as a n a u t o c r a t . T h e B a u le c a r v i n g in figure 8 .2 0 a s h o w s t w o c a i m a n s
(relativ es o f th e a llig a to r) b i t i n g e a c h o t h e r ’s tails. It is said to r e p r e s e n t t h e c h i e f
a n d t h e p e o p l e in b a l a n c e — if o n e b i t e s , t h e o t h e r will b i t e b a c k , k n i c e l y
recalls th e k in d s o f n e g a tiv e fe e d b a c k lo op m o d e l s th a t a re o fte n p ro p o s ed in W est-
FIGURE 8.19
L egba
(a) T h e v o du n god Legba represents th e forces o f disorder.
Vodun d iv in a tio n priests explain this icon as'the p a th to the
future: w ith Legba there is no way to’h n o w w h ic h p a th will be
caken. S in c e o n e crossroad leads to another, th e resulting image
is o n e o f bifurcating u n know ns, th e u n certain ty multiplying with
ea c h crossroad.
In contrast to negative feedback, which wili help stabilize a system, positive feedback will destabilize it.
A drunken driver, for example, can overshoot the center line and create increasingly large oscillations,
eventually running off the road.
FIGURE 8 .2 0
F e e d b a c k loops in B a u l e ic o n o g r a p h y
(a) This Baule carving shows two crocodiles biting
e ac h other’s tails. It is a symbol showing the chief and
the people in equal power, the idea of social forces in a
cycle of balance, (b) Baule door. Holas (1952, 49-50)
describes this as a c i r c u i t f e r i n e of f e c o n d i t e (closed
tircuir of fecundity); Soppeiasa (1974) and Odica
(ii;71) identify these animals as symbols of ‘‘increase.’’
(a,md b, [iliots) courtesy of 1FAN, Dakar.)
orn p o li ti c a l th e o r y , h u t t h i s f l o w c h a r t is a p u r e l y in d i g e n o u s i n v e n t i o n . S o , coo,
is th e B au le p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k l o o p o f figure 8 . 2 0 b , s h o w i n g t h a t “ p o w e r c r e a t e s
the a p p e t i t e for m o r e p o w e r ”— l i t t l e fish a r e e a t e n by b ig g e r fish, w h o t h e n
b e c o m e e v e n b ig g e r fish, T h e f i s h - w i t h i n - f i s h a b b i a f r o m C a m e r o o n we saw
earlier m ay h a v e h a d s i m i l a r c o n n o t a t i o n s .
[C o n c lu sio n
i t e r a t i o n — a n d in s o m e c a s e s t h e t h i r d t y p e , s e l f - r e f e r e n c e , is a ls o m a d e e x p l i c i t
by t h e i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e s y s te m . W e h a v e s e e n s e v e r a l c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e
i t e r a t i v e lo o p s a r e n e s t e d , b u t t h e s e a r e ra r e ly m o r e t h a n t w o lo o p s d e e p , so it
w o u l d n o t a p p e a r t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e is t n o t i v a t e a by t h e c o m
p le x ity o f th e c o m p u t a t i o n . T h e o n l y p o t e n t i a l e x c e p t i o n is t h e c o s m o lo g i c a l n a r
r a t i v e o f t h e D o g o n , a n d t h i s n a r r a t i v e is t o o v a g u e t o s e r v e as a m a t h e m a t i c a l
f o u n d a t i o n . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r r o u t e t o t h e l i m i t s o f c o m p u t a t i o n . A s
w e will find in c h a p t e r 10, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k
in d ic a te d , by c e r t a i n r e c u r s i o n icons, p r o v i d e s / a n o t h e r p a t h t o t l ^ . h e l g h t s . o f c o m
p u t a t i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y , o n e we w ill e x p l o r e in d e t a i l . B u t first, w e n e e d t o t a k e
a 's K o rt’d e t o u r t h r o u g h ~ m f i n ky.
CHAPTER
-Infinity-
“t h e in f in i te " in its C a n t o r u m s e n s e as a c o m p l e t e d w h o l e . T h i s is h y n o m e a n s
a m ore so p h istic a te d o r ela b o ra te d d e fin itio n th a n th a t o f p r e - C a n to r ia n E u ro
p e a n m a t h e m a t i c s ; i t is r a r e ly l i n k e d to m u c h m o r e t h a n e i t h e r a . n a r r a t i v e o r a
g e o m e t r i c v is u a li z a ti o n . B u t far f r o m b e i n g n o n e x i s t e n t , t h e s e c u l t u r a l l y sp ecific
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s sh o w a s tro n g e n g a g e m e n t w ith th e sam e c o n c e p ts t h a t c o u p led
in f in i ty a n d fr a c ta ls in c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n m a t h e m a t i c s .
T h e m o s t c o m m o n A f r i c a n v i s u a li z a ti o n s for in f in i ty a r e s n a i l s h e l ls . T h e
( B n lu b a ) fo r e x a m p l e , u s e s p ira l la n d s n a i ls (fig. 9 . 1 ) , a n d t h e r e i n itse t h e spiral
e n d o f a sea s n a i l, w h i c h fo r m s a d r i n k i n g c u p t h a t c a n o n l y b e u se d by th e ch ief.
U n l i k e t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k a s s o c ia tio n s w i t h t r o u b l i n g p a r a d o x a n d p a th o l o g y , th e
Africa_n in f i n ite is typi c a l l y a p o s i ti v e a s s o c ia tio n , in th is c a s e t o in v o k e p ro s p e rity
w i t h o u t e n d . I f j h e s e in f in i ty i c o n s w e r e o n ly m e a n t t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h i s d e s ire
t h e y w o u l d j i t ' A r i s t o t l e ’s d e f i n i t i o n : a p ro c e s s w i t h o u t e n d . B u t t h e s p i r it u a l e l e
m e n t qf_these i c o n s .a d d s a n o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t : t h e ic o n s n e e d t o c o n v e y t h e se nse
t h a t th ex ar.e.d raw .in g o n t h e p o w e r o f in f in ity jt_self{ S n a i l s h e l ls a re used b e c a u s e
o f t h e sc a lin g p ro p e r tie s o f t h e i r l o g a r it h m i c spirals; o n e c a n c le a rly see th e p o t e n
tial for th e spiral to c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t e n d d espite its c o n t a i n m e n t in a finite space—
i n d e e d , it is o n l y b e c a u s e o f its c o n t a i n m e n t in a fi n it e s p a c e t h a t t h e r e is a sen se
o f h a v i n g g a i n e d a c c e s s to o r g r a s p e d a t t h e in f in ite )
W e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a n in f i n i t y i c o n in t h e N a n k a n i
a r c h i t e c t u r e d is c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 2. T h e r e t h e c o i l s o f a s e r p e n t o f i n f i n i t e
FIGURE 9 . J
B a l u b a u s e o f s n a il s h e lls
to sy m b o lize in /im ty
Davidson (197 1, 120) describes this as a fertilit
figure, and notes that the snail shells represent
endless growth.
( CoUecfifW Tm;m: T zara, Pnrii; }>lv>ii> hy Elio!
Eliso/on.)
In fin ity 149
l e n g t h , s c u l p t e d i n t o t h e h o u s e w alls, m a d e u s e o f che s a m e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n
p r o s p e r it y w i t h o u t e n d , a n d a g e o m e t r i c l e n g t h w i t h o u t e n d . ^ h e c o n s c i o u s
c r e a t i o n o f t h i s in f in ity c o n c e p t is m o r e c le a r t h a n in t h e c ase o f t h e sn a il sh ells,
b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o t a c t u a l l y se e t h e i n f i n i t e c o ils 'tr f-th e s n a k e . A n d u n l i k e t h e
n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g sh e lls , t h e p a c k i n g o f t h i s i n f in i te l e n g t h i n t o a fin ite s p a c e
( t h e N a n k a n i d e s c r i b e it as “c o i l i n g b a c k o n i t s e l f i n d e f i n i t e l y ” ) c a n n o t be m i s
t a k e n for m e r e m i m i c r y o f n a t u r e ; it is r a t h e r t h e artifice o f f r a c t a l s ^ T h i s s n a k e
ic o n d o e s n o t e x is t in is o la t io n ; we saw t h a t - t h e N a n k a n i m a p o u t a s c a l in g p r o
g r e s s io n t h a t p a s s e s ' t h r o u g h t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e za h in g a a n d t h e k itm p io ,
w h i c h p r o v i d e s a re c u r s iv e p a t h w a y to t h i s c o n c e p t o f in finity.
In c h a p te r 8 we d iscu ssed th e M i ts o g h o a n d F an g ite r a tiv e m o d e l o f
d e s c e n t . F e r n a n d e z ( 1 9 8 2 , 3 3 8 ) n o t e s t h e c o n t r a s t to C h r i s t i a n th e o l o g y : “T h e
q u e s t i o n as t o w h e t h e r G o d w a s o n e o r m a n y m a y h a v e b o t h e r e d t h e m i s s i o n
aries i n t h e i r c o n t a c t s w i t h F a n g m o r e t h a n t h e F a n g t h e m s e l v e s . H o l d i n g C h r i s
ti a n b eliefs in t h e ‘U n c r e a t e d C r e a t o r ’ a n d ‘U n m o v e d M o v e r , ’ m i s s i o n a r i e s w ere
c h a l l e n g e d by t h e ‘i n f in i te re g r e ss’ o f t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l m o d e l e m p l o y e d by t h e
F a n g — t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t che G o d o f t h i s w o r ld is o n e o f a l o n g li n e o f g o d s a n d
like m a n h a s h is o w n g e n e a l o g y .”
f T h e F a n g th e o r y o f in f in ite regress is a c o m p l e t e , c o h e r e n t view ; it d o e s n o t
n e e d f u r t h e r a m e n d m e n t , for t h e C h r i s t i a n th e o r y o f u n c r e a t e d c r e a t o r is n o m o r e
free o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n — a n d p e r h a p s less s o A O f c o u r s e , as F e r n a n d e z h i m s e l f
warns, o n e c a n n o t simply p ro c laim t h a t a p a rtic u la r A fric a n n a rr a tiv e is just a n o t h e r
w o rk o f t h e o l o g y o r p h i l o s o p h y — or, f o r t h a t m a t t e r , m a t h e m a t i c s . R e c e n t w orks
s u c h as M u d i m b e ’s In v e n tio n o f A fr ic a ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a v e s h o w n t h a t s u c h t r a n s l a t i o n s
to specific E u r o p e a n d is c ip lin e s are alw ays p a rt ia l , hig h ly in t e r p r e tiv e , a n d in d a n
ger o f m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e in d i g e n o u s view. Yet M u d i m b e is also res p e ctfu l o f th e
w ork t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e . O f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e h e r e a re h is c i t a t i o n s o f A f r i c a n
th eo lo g ian E n g elb ert M v en g .
Y M v e p g i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l n o t e s o n i n f i n i t y in his s t u d i e s o f t h e r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e A f r i c a n a n d C h r i s t i a n view s. H is b e a u ti f u l te x t, L 'A rt d 'A /r(que N oire
( 1 9 6 4 ) , c o n t a ins d i a g r a m s (p p . 1 0 0 - - 1 0 3 ) s h o w i n g w h a t h e t e r m e d “r a d i a t i o n
a m p l i f i c a t i v e ,” s c a l i n g p a t t e r n s in_Afncan_art_a_hd mus_i_c_that he_ i n t e r p r e t e d as
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p a t h to in fin ity . “U n e fois d e plus, n o u s
d e c o u v r o n s q u e le m o u v e m e n t r y t h m i q u e , d a n s n o t r e a r t , n ’esc a u t r e c h o s e
q u ’u n e c o u rs e v e rs 1'i n f i n i ” ( O n c e a g a i n , w e d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e r h y t h m i c m o v e
m e n t in o u r a r t is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e p a t h t o w a r d i n f i n i t y ) (p. 1 0 2 ). F a t h e r
M v e n g w as a w o n d e r f u l i n s p i r a t i o n d u r i n g m y r e s e a r c h in C a m e r o o n , b o t h fo r
his d e e p c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e as w ell as fo r his c o u r a g e o u s w o r k as a c ro s s - c u l tu r a l
m e d ia to r. D u r i n g o u r last m e e t i n g we d is c u s s e d M u d i m b e ’s b o o k , a n d 1 p ro m is e d
A fr ic a n fra c ta l mathematics
t o s e n d h i m a cop y- S h o r t l y a f t e r d o i n g s o a r e p l y c a m e f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n
C u l t u r a l C e n t e r in Y a o u n d e M v e n g h a d b e e n m u r d e r e d “u n d e r s u s p i c i o u s
c i r c u m s t a n c e s ”— a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e s u l t o f o p p o s i t i o n t o h i s c r o s s - c u l t u r a l
a c t i v i s m . H e h a s f i n a l l y t a k e n t h e course vers V in f ini. ^
CHAPTER
Com plexity
IO
In o r d i n a ry s p e e c h C ^ c o m p I g ^ ” j u s t m e a n s t h a t t h e r e is a lo t g o i n g o n . B u t for
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s t h e t e r m is p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d , a n d it g iv es us a n e w w ay to
a p p r o a c h m a t h e m a t i c s in A f r i c a n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . In c h a p t e r 7 we saw h o w c e r
ta i n A f r i c a n s y m b o l i c s y s t e m s , l i k e t h e B a m a n a d i v i n a t i o n c o d e , c o u l d be
g e n e r a t e d b y a r e c u r s i v e l o o p . S u c h n u m e r i c s y s te m s c l e a r l y t r a n s l a t e i n t o th e
W e s t e r n d e f i n i t i o n s o f w h a t it m e a n s t o “c o m p u t e . ” B u t t h e t r a n s l a t i o n w as less
c le a r for s o m e of t h e p h y s i c a ll y re c u r s iv e s t r u c t u r e s in A f r i c a n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e .
C a n a s y s t e m o f p h y s ical d y n a m i c s b e s a i d t o “c o m p u t e ” ? M a t h e m a t i c a l c o m
p le x i ty t h e o r y , w h i c h is b a s e d o n f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y , p r o v i d e s a w ay to m e a s u r e
th e c o m p u t a t i o n e m b e d d e d in p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t s y m b o l sy s
tem s. By l o o k i n g a t A f r i c a n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e in t h e f r a m e w o r k o f c o m p le x ity ^
th eory, we c a n b e t t e r im d e rs ta n .d j.h e . p r e s e n c e o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y as a n A f r i c a n ) j
k n o w ledg e sy stem ..
A n alo g c o m p u tin g
By th e mid.-,.i_p6ps it w as c l e a r t o m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s c h a t d ig ita l c o m p u t e r s w o u ld
be th e w a v e o f t h e fu tu re . B u t be fo re t h e n , a n a l o g c o m p u t e r s h e l d t h e i r o w n , a n d
th ey m a y y e t m a k e a c o m e b a c k . I n d i g i ta l sy s tem s , i n f o r m a t i o n is r e p r e s e n t e d by
A fr ic a n fra cta l m athematics
A n a l o g c o m p x ita tio n
Dewdney (1985) shows a great variety of simple physical devices that demonstrate analog
computing. This device, created by J. H. Luerh of the U.S. Metals Refining Company, solves the
following optimization problem; a refinery must be located to minimize its costs. If transportation
in dollars per mile of ore, coal, and limestone are values of O, C, and L, and disrances of these
sources are o, c, and !, then the refinery should be located at the point where oO + cC + 1L is at
;t minimum. T he holes through which the strings pass are at the source locations, and the weights
on the ends of the strings are proportionate to O, C, and L. T h e brass ring attached tc the strings
ijitickly moves to the optimal location on the map.
iC o u n e s y A . K. D e w d n e y )
its s t a t i o n ( w h a t is o f t e n c a l l e d “w h i t e n o i s e " ) w o u l d h a v e t h e h i g h e s t a l g o -
rith m ic co m p lex ity.
O n e p r o b l e m w i t h d e fi n in g c o m p l e x it y in te r m s o f r a n d o m n e s s is t h a t it does
n o t m a t c h o u r i n t u i t i o n . W h i l e i t ’s t r u e t h a t t h e p e r i o d i c s i g n a l o f a t i c k i n g
m e t r o n o m e is so s i m p l e t h a t it b e c o m e s h y p n o t i c a l l y b o r i n g , t h e s a m e c o u l d be
said for w h i t e n o i s e — in f a c t , 1 s o m e t i m e s t u n e m y r a d i o b e t w e e n s t a t i o n s if 1
w a n t t o fall a s l e e p . B u t if I w a n t t o s t a y a w a k e 1 l i s t e n t o m u s ic . M u s i c s o m e-
h o w sa tisfie s o u r j n t u i t i v e c o n c e p t o f c o m p l e x i t y : it is p r e d i c t a b l e e n o u g h t o fo l
low a lo n g , b u t s u rp ris in g e n o u g h t o k e e p us p l e a s a n t l y a t t e n t i v e . M a t h e m a t i c i a n s
e v e n t u a l l y c a u g h t u p w i t h t h e i r i n t u i t i o n a n d d e v e l o p e d a n e w m e a s u r e in
w h i c h t h e m o s t c o m p l e x s i g n a ls a re n e i t h e r c o m p l e t e l y o r d e r e d n o r c o m p l e t e l y
d i s o r d e r e d , b u t r a t h e r a r e h a l f w a y in b e t w e e n . T h e s e p a t t e r n s ( w h i c h i n c l u d e
a l m o s t e v e r y ty p e o f i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c ) a ls o h a p p e n to b e f r a c t a l s — in fa c t, as
w e ^ l T s e e , th e n ew c o m p le x ity m easu re e x a c tly c o in c j d e s j v it h th e m easure-of
fractal d im e n sio n .
T h e first ste p in this d i r e c ti o n was t h r o u g h stu dies o f c e llu la r a u to m a ta . R eca ll
fr o m c h a p t e r 7 t h a t c o m p u t e r s c i e n t i s t s in t h e early( i g 8 g s-t\ad s t a r t e d t o t h i n k
N e u r a l n ets
(n) Suppose we balance a ball on a teeter-totter. Unless the ball is at the precise center, the
teeter-totter wtl! start to slope toward one side, which will cause the ball t o roll even farther
toward that side. In other words, there are two stable states, and anything in between (except ft
tiny neutral point) will get caught up in the positive-feedhack loop leading rapidly to a stable st
(b) This is an electrical circuit that works much like the teeter-totter. Each triangle is an ampli
with two outputs, one normal and the other (black circle) an inverted output. Since the inverte
output is connected to the input of the other amplifier in each, they will balance out like the b;
at the exact center of the teeter-totter, but rapidly flip to one of the two stable states in which t
amplifier is at its maximum (“saturated”). T h a t means that this circuit can solve a simple task:
which of two numhers is larger? By putting an initial charge proportionate to one of the two
numbers at each inpur, the system rapidly (lips to the saturated stable state favored hy the larget
number. Linking thousands of these simple amplifiers Together allows computer scientists to m;i
sophisticated machines for pattern recognition and other artificial intelligence tasks.
C o m p le x ity
155
a b o u t c e llu la r a u t o m a t a as t h e s i m u l a t i o n o f c o m p l i c a t e d p h y s ic a l d y n a m ic s , s u c h
as t h a t j e e n in l i v in g o rg a n i s m s . P h y s i c i s t S t e p h e n W o l f r a m b e g a n to w o n d e r :
ju s t h o w c o m p l i c a t e d is it? C le a r l y , li v i n g s y s te m s a r e m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n r a n
d o m n o is e , so h e k n e w t h a t t h e o ld c o m p l e x i t y m e a s u r e o f K o l m o g o r o v w o u ld
n o t do. B ut W o lfram h a d studied a good d e a l o f c o m p u te r science, a n d h e re a l
ized t h a t ch e way in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t ty p es o f r e c u r s i o n s a re used t o m e a s u r e c o m -
p u t in g p o w e r c o u ld a ls o be a p p l i e d t o p h y s i c a l d y n a m i c s . R e c a l l fro m c h a p t e r 8
t h a t we d iv i d e d re c u r s io n in t o t h r e e types: c a sc a d e s , it e ra t io n s , a n d self-reference.
FIGURE IO.3
K o n n o g o r o a t - C h u / t m c o m p le x ity m e a s u r e
( j) W h e t h e r it is in d i g i t a l o r a n a l o g s i g n a l s , c o m p l e x i t y c a n b e
measured in t e r m s o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t . T h e first s u c h
measure w as t h a t o f K o l m o g o r o v a n d C h a i t i n , w h o t h o u g h t o f £
co m p lexity in t e r m s o f r a n d o m n e s s . T h e s i n e w a v e is a b o u t as
n o n r a n d o m as w e c a n g e t . H e r e it is g i v e n a s a t i m e - v a r y i n g |
signal, a l t h o u g h t h e s a m e w o u l d a p p l y t o a s p a t i a l p a t t e r n , s u c h ^
as waves in w a t e r o r s a n d ( i n w h i c h c a s e w e c o u l d m e a s u r e it as
w aveleng th, w h i c h is s i m p l y t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f f r e q u e n c y ) ,
lb) T h e s a m e s i g n a l i n a s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y p l o t . T h i s t e l l s y o u
how m u c h p o w e r is a t e a c h f r e q u e n c y . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e s i n e w a v e , all t h e s i g n a l p o w e r js a t o n e
frequency, ( c ) W h i t e n o i s e is a c o m p l e t e l y r a n d o m s i g n a l , s u c h as t h a t p r o d u c e d by t h e s o u n d o f
bacon fry ing . By t h e K o l m o g o r o v - C h a i r i n d e f i n i t i o n , w h i t e n o i s e is t h e m o s t c o m p l e x s i g n a l .
Again, t h is w o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o a s p a t i a l p a t t e r n , s u c h as d u s t s p r i n k l e d o n a t a b l e , ( d ) S p e c t r a l
density p l o t for w h i t e n o i s e . B e c a u s e it is c o m p l e t e l y r a n d o m , t h e r e is a n e q u a l l i k e l i h o o d o f a n y
wav elen gth o c c u r r i n g a t a n y t i m e , s o t h e s i g n a l ’s p o w e r is e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e s p e c t r u m ,
(c) In s u m m a r y , t h e K o l m o g o r o v - C h a i t i n c o m p l e x i t y m e a s u r e is s i m p l y a m e a s u r e o f r a n d o m n e s s .
Ic.c'uiivtesy R. F. Voss.)
i5 6 A fr ic a n (racial mathematics
T h r e e t y p e s o f re c u r s io n : t h e C h o m s k y h ie r a r c h y
I n a re c u r s iv e s y s te m , p r e s e n t b e h a v i o r d e p e n d s o n p a s t b e h a v i o r . I t is t h e c a p a
b il i t y o f th i s a c c e s s t o m e m o r y t h a t d e fin e s t h e r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e in re c u r s iv e
^ pQAyer. T h e s c a l i n g c a s c a d e , fo r e x a m p l e , c o u l d n o t p r o d u c e t h e F i b o n a c c i '
I s e q u e n c e , b e c a u s e it c o u l d n o t r e c a l l p re v i o u s m e m b e r s o f t h e s e q u e n c e . S i m i -
\ ^ l a r d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e u se d in c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e to r a n k c o m p u t a t i o n a l p o w e r i n t o
t h r e e ty p es o f a b s t r a c t m a c h i n e s , re f e r r e d t o as “C h o m s k y ’s h i e r a r c h y . ” T h e s e
a b s t r a c t m a c h i n e s a re c o m p a r e d b y t h e i r . a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n j z e c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s
o f c h a r a c t e r s t r in g s . A m a c h i n e t h a t c a n r e c o g n i s e p e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r s t r i n g s
s u c h as “a b a b n . . o c c u r s a t t h e lo w e s t le v e l o f t h e h i e r a r c h y , t h e F i n i t e S t a t e
A u t o m a t o n ( F S A ) . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e F S A is s h o w n i n figure 10.4.
W h a t w o u ld it b e li k e t o be a n F S A ? S i n c e t h e F S A h a s n o m e m o r y s t o r
ag e, t h e e x p e r i e n c e w o u ld be s o m e w h a t a n a l o g o u s t o n e u r o s u r g e r y p a t i e n t s w h o
h a v e h a d b i l a t e r a l h i p p o c m n ji a X I e s io n s { M i l n e r 1 9 6 6 ) . T h e s e p a t i e n t s a r e fu lly \
■[ a w a r e a n d i n t e l l i g e n t b u t h a v e lost t h e c a p a c i t y t o t r a n s f e r k n o w l e d g e t o lo n g -
FIGURE IO .4
input tape a b a a b a b b
T h e fin ite s t a te
read only au to m a to n
T h e finite state a u to m a to n
(F S A ) has a list of transition
Transition table rules t h a t tell it how to change
from o n e state to th e next,
Current symbol d ep e n d in g o n its curre n t state
Current state on input tape New state
an d th e symbol it is reading on
s, n Si tire inp ut tape. It has n o mem
h ory, o th e r th a n th a t implied hy
Si S2 •
its c u re n t state. T h is FSA will
s2 a S2 en d up in the “a cc ep t” state S,
S2 b Si it th e tape ends after an even
n u m b er of h’s.
Complexity 157
T h e sec o f p a l i n d r o m i c s t rin g s (e .g ., a a b b a a ) is a g o o d e x a m p l e o f t h e l i m
i t a t i o n o f_ th e F S A : it l a c k s t h e a b i l i t y to m e m o r i z e t h e first h a l f o f t h e s t r in g
a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t c o m p a r e it w i t h t h e s e c o n d . T h e le a s t p o w e r f u l m a c h i n e
c a p a b l e o f - t h i s m e m o r y s t o r a g e is t h e P u s h - D o w n A u t o m a t o n f(T O A )\ illus- T t ; ^
t r a t e d in figure 10.5. T h e s t a c k m e m o ry _ o f t h e P D A is u su a lly c o m p a r e d to t h e \
s p r in g -lo a d e d tray s t a c k o f t e n u sed in c a fe terias; o n c e a sy m b o l is read fro m m e m - /
'ory it is g o n e . A s a k n o w l e d g e a n a lo g y , w e m i g h t t h i n k o f a r e a d e r w h o a c c u
m u l a t e s s t a c k s o f b o o k s b u t g e ts rid o f e a c h b o o k a f t e r it is re a d . T h i s is a
t e m p o r a r y e x p l i c i t m e m o r y , s i n c e t h e P D A ca n ,,m a k e . tw o d i f f e r e n t t r a n s i t i o n s
g i y e n t h e s a m e s t a t e . a n d i n p u t , d e p e n d i n g o n its p a s t . It is i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r
s t a n d t h a t g r e a t e r re c u r s iv e c a p a b i l i t y d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y j i p p l y larger m e m
ory storage; it m e a n s a n im p ro v e d ability to interact w i t h m em ory. Size on ly m a tte r s
in s o fa r as it r e s t r i c t s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n .
A l t h o u g h t h e P D A c a n r e c o g n i z e all sets o f s t r in g s r e c o g n i z e d by a n F S A ,
as w e ll as m a n y o t h e r s , t h e r e a re still ( in f i n i t ely ) m a n y sets o f s t rin g s t h a t jt_ c a n -
n o t r e c o g n i z e / F o r exam ple;, i t j z a n n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e s e t o f all s t rin g s o f t h e form
a ^ b ^ c N ( w h e r e we h a v e N r e p e t i t i o n s o f a, fo l lo w e d by t h e s a m e for b a n d c),
b e c a u s e it h a s to w ip e o u t its m e m o r y in t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m p a r i n g t h e n u m b e r
o f a ’s a n d b ’s, le a v i n g n o i n f o r m a t i o n fo r c h e c k i n g t h e n u m b e r o f c ’s. ___^
A t t h e t o p o f t h e h i e r a r c h y (fig. 1 0 . 6 ) , t h e T u r i n g M a c h i n b t( T p I ) c a n “ t VA
re c o g n iz e a ll c o m p u t a b l e f u n c t i o n s . It is s i m p l y a P D A w i t h ' u n r e s t r i c t e d m e m
ory, b u t b e c a u s e o f t h i s c a p a b i l i t y i t , c a n a c h i e v e f u ll s e l f - r e f e r e n c e : t h e a b i l
ity tp ,g p.9iyze J.ts.,pw n p r p g r a m . A g a i n , it is n o t a d i f f e r e n c e in m e m o r y size,
b u t in m e m o r y a c c e s s — u n l i k e t h e P D A s t a c k , t h e T M m e m o r y i n t e r a c t i o n s
c a n o c c u r o v e r a n.y.past s e q u e n c e s o f a n y l e n g t h , a n d it d o e s n o t lose m e m o r y
F IG U R E IO.5
input t a p e a b a a b a b b
T h e p u s h -d o w n
rea d only a u to m a t o n
T he push-down automaton
read/write (PDA) has a list of transition
rules, but these make use of an
explicit memory storage as well
as internal states.
“S ta c k " m em o ry . T h i s a llo w s n e w s y m b o ls
to be p o s h e d d o w n o n to p o f th e s ta c k , h u t
sym bols c a n b e re a d o n ly by p o p p in g t h e m
o f f t h e t o p , a n d e a c h o n e p o p p e d is l o s t .
158 A fr ic a n fra cta l m a them atics
a f te r it is re a d . T o c o n t i n u e t h e t e x t a n a lo g y , if t h e F S A is a p e r s o n w h o a c c o m
p l i s h e s t a s k s w i t h n o b o o k s , a n d t h e P D A is a p e r s o n w h o s e s i m p l e t a s k s a r e
lim ite d to b o o k s t h a t are re m o v e d a fte r th e y are read , t h e n th e T M w o u ld be
a b l e t o c o l l e c t a n d r e c a l l a ll b o o k s , i n a n y o r d e r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s d o e s n o t
s o l v e a ll o f o u r p r o b l e m s , b e c a u s e t h e u n b o u n d e d n a t u r e o f t h e T M m e a n s
t h a t it fooIishly_acceRt§...s.p.me..tasks. t h a t . r e q u i r e a n i n f i n i t e Jibrary. T h i s is c a lle d
t h e “ h a l t i n g p r o b l e m , ” a n d T u n n S h i m s e l f p r o v e d t h a t jt is u n a v o i d a b l e .
M a t h e m a t i c i a n R o zsa P e t e r s h o w e d t h a t o n e _ c a n d e f i n e a r e s t r i c t e d s e t o f p r o -
g ra m s _ th a t^ a r.e _ h a l.t.a b le ( w h i c h s h e c a l l e d t h e s e t_ o f _ “ p r i m i t i v e re c u r s i v e
f u n c t i o n s " ) , b u t i n d o i n g s o w e w o u l d a l w a y s s a c r i f i c e s o m e o f t h e T M ’s
c o m p u t i n g p o w e r.
T h e s e t h r e e m a c h i n e s, F S A , P D A , a n d T M , i l l u s t r a t e t h e a s c e n t u p t h e
C h o m s k v _ h i e ta r c h y . T h e y d if fe r in h a v i n g i m p l i c jj ^ m e m o r y , t e m p o r a r y e x p l i c i t
m e m o ry, a n d p e rm a n e n t^ x p l .ic j ^ t m e m o r y . By l o o k i n g a t m e m o r y as t h e basis for
t h e re c u r siv e lo o p in th e s e s y s te m s— t h a t is, as t h e e l e m e n t t h a t g o v e r n s t h e a b i l
ity o f th e system to p e rf o rm in t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n its p r e s e n t i n p u t a n d p a s t b e h a v
ior— w e c a n see t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in c o m p u t a t i o n a l p o w e r for th e s e m a c h i n e s
d e p e n d s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in re c u r s iv e po w er.
M e n s u r i n g a n a lo g c o m p l e x i t y w i t h d ig ita l c o m p u t a t i o n
N o w l e t ’s r e t u r n to W o l f r a m a n d h is ce l l u la r a u t o m a t a . A f t e r r u n n i n g t h o u s a n d s
o f tr ials, W o l f r a m f o u r u T t h a t all c e llu la r a u t o m a t a g e n e r a l ly d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s p e
cific c lasses. C la s s e s 1 a n d 2 w e r e t h o s e t h a t e i t h e r d i e d o u t , o r w e n t i n t o a p e r i
o d i c c y c le . C la s s 3 w as j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e : it w a s u n c o n t r o l l e d g r o w t h t h a t led to
a p p a r e n t l y r a n d o m b e h a v i o r , li k e w h i t e n o is e . B u t cla s s 4, w h i c h i n c l u d e d th e
“g a m e o f life” c e llu la r a u t o m a t o n , h a d s o m e t h i n g t h a t W o lf ra m d e sc rib e d as “c o m
p l e x ” b e h a v io r : n o t as ra n d o m as w h i t e no ise, b u t n o t as b o r i n g as a p e rio d ic cycle.
W o l f r a m f o u n d t h a t th is h i g h e s t c o m p l e x i t y a ls o d e m a n d e d t h e h i g h e s t c o m -
Complexity 159
p u t a b i li ty : w h ile p u r e o r d e r a n d p u r e d i s o r d e r c o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d by a n F S A ,
che p acte rn s_ o f che c o m p l e x b e h a v i o r r e q u i r e d a T u r i n g m a c h i n e .
M a c h e m a c ic a l p h y sic ist J a m e s C r u t c h ffe ld (1 9 8 9 ) fo u n d a n e v e n
s i m p l e r e x a m p l e o f r e c u r s i v e c o m p l i c a t i o n in a p h y s i c a l s y s t e m . C r u t c h f i e l d
u s e d che p o p u l a t i o n e q u a t i o n m a d e f a m o u s b y b i o l o g i s t R o b e r t M a y ( 1 9 7 6 ) :
Pn + 1 = P»R (1 - Pn ) ( w h e r e P is a p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r , sc a le d so t h a t it is b e t w e e n
0 a n d f, a n d R is t h e b i r t h r a t e ) . M a y f o u n d t h a t w h e n R is low , t h e p o p u
l a t i o n is s i m p l y a p e r i o d i c c y c l e , s w i t c h i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e
s a m e s e q u e n c e o f le v e l s . A s y o u i n c r e a s e R , ch e l e n g t h o f c h e c y c l e ( t h a t is,
th e n u m b e r o f d iffe re n t p o p u la tio n lev els you pass th ro u g h before re tu rn in g
t o t h e fir s t o n e ) i n c r e a s e s e x t r e m e l y f a s t . A t R = 3 . 1 , t h e p o p u l a t i o n is in a
tw o - l e v e l cy c le , a t R = 3 .4 in a f o u r - l e v e l c y c le , a n d a t R ~ 4 -0 t h e c y c le l e n g t h
is a t i n f i n i t y : d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s . C r u t c h f i e l d w a s a b l e t o m e a s u r e t h e c o m
p u ta b ility o f th e s e c h a o tic flu c tu a tio n s a n d fo u n d resu lts sim ila r to th o s e of
W o lfram : b o th c o m p le te ly p e rio d ic w av es a n d c o m p le te ly d iso rd e re d w aves
w e r e c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y q u i t e s i m p l e , b u t t h o s e in b e t w e e n , w i t h a m i x o f
o rd e r a n d d iso rd e r, h a d a h ig h d e g r e e o f c o m p u t a ti o n a l c o m p le x ity . T h e
sim p le e q u a ti o n e x a m in e d by C r u tc h f ie l d re q u ire d o n ly a P D A , b u t o c h e r
research ers (B lu m , S h u b , a n d S m a le 198 9 ) d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t m o re c o m p le x
a n a l o g f e e d b a c k s y s te m s w o u l d b e c a p a b l e o f s i g n a l c o m p l e x i t y e q u i v a l e n t t o
T M c o m p u ta b ility .
F ig ure 10.7 sh o w s h o w t h e s e c o m p l e x w a v e f o r m s , c a ll e d “ 1/ F n o is e ," c o m
p a re to p e r i o d i c a n d w h i t e n o i s e w a v e f o r m s . T h i s is e a s i e s t t o see in t h e s p e c - j
tra l d e n s i t y p lo ts. A p e r i o d i c s i g n a l h a s all its p o w e r a t o n e w a v e l e n g t h , w h ile!
a w h i t e - n o i s e s i g n a l h a s t h e s a m e p o w e r a t a ll w a v e l e n g t h s . 1 / F n o is e is a c o m - j
•|iio'inise l)ciw ee iv t h e tw o — b ia s e d so t h a t it h a s t h e g r e a t e s t a m o u n t o f p o w er!
a t t h e lo n g e s t w a v e l e n g t h , a n d t h e le ast a t t h e s h o r te s t . For th is reas o n , I / F noise*
is fr a c ta l; it h a s f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h i n f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h i n f l u c t u a t i o n s . W h e n we
t h i n k o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s e w a v e f o r m s in t e r m s o f m e m o r y , w e c a n b e g i n to
see a c o n n e c t i o n t o c o m p u t a t i o n a l p o w e r. If a sy s te m h a d t h e s a m e b e h a v i o r ov er
a n d o v e r a g a in , it w o u ld b e coo f i x e d o n m e m o r y . If it r a n d o m l y p i c k e d a new)
b e h a v i o r e v e ry t i m e , t h e n it w o u l d b e t o o free fro m m e m o r y . B u t useful b e h a v - ]
ior is g e n e r a l l y a m i x t u r e b e t w e e n t h e t w o . F o r e x a m p l e , t h i n k o f s o m e t h i n g /
u n u s u a l you d id t o d a y — m o v i n g so c k s to a n e w side o f t h e d raw er, o r e a t i n g p r e t ;
zels i n s t e a d o f c r a c k e r s . W h a t e v e r it w as, c h a n c e s a re it w a s p r e t t y tr iv i a l. If w.e
to o k t h e s a m e w h im s ic a l a p p r o a c h t o m a j o r li f e - e v e n ts e a c h d a y — “ to d a y 1 t h i n k
I ’ll m o v e to S p a i n , o r g e t p r e g n a n t , o r b e c o m e a p o d i a t r i s t ”— w e w o u l d b e in-
tr o u b le . O u r life is ty p ic a lly a r r a n g e d as 1 / F n o is e : h i g h - p o w e r e v e n t s s h o u l d be'
lo n g - te r m c h a n g e s , a n d lo w - p o w e r e v e n t s s h o u l d be s h o r t - t e r m c h a n g e s . 3 In fact,
FIGURE I O . 7
C r u t c h / i e l d - S m a l e c o m p le x ity m e a s u r e
( a -b ) P e r i o d i c noise: A simple signal, ( c -d ) White noise:
From the viewpoint o f the Crutchficlcl-Smnle measure,
this is also of low complexity. An FSA, for example,
could define this noise by making all state transitions
equally probable, ( e - f ) Fractal noise: The most complex
signals in the-Crutchfield-Sinale measure are “scaling
noises" in which there are fluctuations within fluctu periodic fractal random
noise noise noise
ations. These signals have the greatest amount of their
power in the lowest frequencies (longest wavelength).
Since power is rbe reciprocal of frequency, it is often referred to as 1/F noise, (g) In summary, the
Ctutchfield-Smale complexity measure is a reflection of the fractal dimension. T he “most fractal”
(e.g., dimension of 1.5) will be the most complex, and the function decreases with both higher and
lower dimensions.
(c a n d e, courtesy R. F. Voss.)
Complexity
m a n y o f t h e a n a l o g w a v e f o r m s p r o d u c e d by i n t e l l i g e n t h u m a n b e h a v i o r a p p e a r
t o b e 1/ F s ig n a ls (V oss 1 9 8 8 ; E g la s h 1 9 9 3 ) .
A s m o r e j i c i e m i s t s b e g a n t o t h i n k o f c o m p l e x i t y in te r m s o f c o m p u t a t i o n
a n d 1 / F n o is e , t h e y b e g a n t o a c c u m u l a t e e x a m p l e s t h a t s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s w as
w h a t it m e a n t t o h a v e a " s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g ” s y s te m . In t h e e v o l u t i o n o f life, fo r
i n s t a n c e , m o s t o f t h e g e n e t i c i n f o r m a t i o n s to re s l o n g - t e r m e v e n t s , s u c h as t h e
p h y s i o lo g y t h a t u n d e r w e n t c h a n g e in l i f e ’s e v o l u t i o n fr o m w a t e r t o l a n d . M o r e
s h o r t - t e r m a d a p t a t i o n s , s u c h as s k i n co lo r, t a k e up very li t t l e o f t h e g e n e t i c m a t e
rial. H e r e a g a in , w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g li k e 1/ F n o is e , w i t h l o n g - t e r m e v e n t s t a k
in g u p t h e b u l k o f t h e s y s te m , a n d s h o r t - t e r m e v e n t s t a k i n g u p p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
less. P h y s i c is t s P e r B a k a n d C h a o T a n g ( B a k a n d C h e n 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d s e v e r a l
e x a m p l e s o f s i m p l e p h y s i c a l s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g s y s te m s t h a t p r o d u c e d 1 / F n o i s e . , I n
fo rest'fiT eS T 'forex'am p le, v e r y d ry w o o d s w o u ld s p r e a d fire in a n o r d e r l y c ir c le ,
w h i l e fires in w e t w o o d w o u ld b e t o o s p o r a d i c o r r a n d o m , a n d t h u s d ie o u t. B u t
i n - b e t w e e n fires s p r e a d i n a f r a c t a l p a t t e r n , w i t h m o s t o f t h e fire in l o n g - l e n g t h
p a t c h e s , less o f t h e fire in m e d i u m p a t c h e s , e v e n less in s m a l l e r p a t c h e s , a n d so
o n . In w a t e r we h a v e o r d e r l y c r y s ta ls a n d d i s o r d e r l y li q u id s , b u t in b e t w e e n w e
c a n get th e fractal p a tt e r n s o f snow flakes.
S in c e we are fam iliar w ith o u r o w n recu rsiv e in te ra c tio n s w ith m em ory,
we h a v e a _ g p o d J.n tu i t ive s e n s e f q r w h y 1 / F n o i s e s h o u l d a c c o m p a n y c o m p l e x
b e h a v i o r , a n d c l e a r l y it c a n c h a r a c t e r i z e m a n y v a r i e t i e s o f s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g sy s
tem s— ;p erh ap s all o f t h e m if w e use t h e p r o p e r d e f i n i t i o n . B u t h o w d o e s this h a p
p e n ? W h a t is t h e m e c h a n i s m t h a t m a k e s it w o rk ? C o m p l e x i t y t h e o r i s t s h a v e n o t
h e s i t a t e d t o su g g e s t i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r w o r k for-/c u i t u r e ; ) h e r e I w o u l d lik e to
su g g est t h e re v e r s e : t h a t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e c a n p r o v i d e i m p o r
t a n t im p l i c a t i o n s for c o m p l e x i t y th e o ry . M o r e so rhan-.any o f t h e p re v i o u s e t h r . c -
m a t h e m a t i c s m o d e l s w e h a v e s e e n , t h i s p a r t o f m y r e s e a r c h w as m u c h m o r e o f
a c o lla b o ra tio n , m u c h clo ser to m y sen se o f th e “p a r tic ip a n t s im u la tio n ”
m e t h o d — a l t h o u g h if t r u t h b e k n o w n 1 h a d t o b e d r a g g e d k i c k i n g a n d s c r e a m
ing m u c h o f t h e way.
C h ristia n S in a D i a t t a : a n A f r i c a n p h y s i c i s t looks at c u l t u r e
a n i n s p ir i n g p l a c e t o be. I h a d a lr e a d y b e e n a b le t o sit in o n a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t ’s
p r e s e n t a t i o n ; a fte r h a v i n g w i t n e s s e d t h e s a m e r i t u a l in t h e p h y s i c s d e p a r t m e n t
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t S a n t a C ru z , it m a d e fo r a fascinatin.g: b i t o f cross-
c u lt u r a l c o m p a r is o n . I tr ie d to m a k e m y s e lf useful by s e t t i n g u p a d e m o o f a n e l e c
t r ic a l c i r c u i t t h a t p r o d u c e d d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s ( “C h u a ’s c i r c u i t ”) a n d i n s t a l l i n g
variou s types o f so ftw are for s i m u l a ti o n s o f n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s . It w as o n e o f th e s e
s o f tw a r e d e m o s , R u d y R u c k e r ’s c a l a b , th a t caused our m ultiling ual exchange.
A s n o t e d in c h a p t e r 7, s o m e o f R u c k e r ’s m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g p r o g r a m s a re th o s e
h e c a lls * |Z h a b o ti n s k y C A s , " w h i c h c a n p r o d u c e p a i r e d log s p i r a ls . I n a d d i t i o n
t o t h e tw o s t a t e s o f li v e c e l l a n d d e a d c e l l , t h e s e c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a r e q u i r e a t
l e a s t o n e “gh ost..,state.” S i n c e s o m e o n e h a d p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d t h e i n d i g e
n o u s t e r m for. g h o s t , -rhab, it s e e m e d l i k e a n o p p o r t u n i t y fo r c r e a t i v e t r a n s l a
t i o n . 1 e x p l a i n e d (i n F r e n c h , t h e official la n g u a g e o f S e n e g a l ) t h a t a fte r I'eta t m ort
( t h e d e a d s t a t e ) t h e c e ll w e n t t o i ’ e ta t r h a b . T o m y s u r p r i s e , D i a t t a c o r r e c t e d
rh a b b a c k to t h e F r e n c h : “p h a n t o m . ” W e w e n t b a c k a n d f o r t h a c o u p l e o f ti m e s
b e f o r e I re a l iz e d t h a t i t ' w a s n o t j u s t m y p o o r p r o n u n c i a t i o n . O n l y l a t e r d id
I d is c o v e r m y b l u n d e r : D i a t t a was n o t fr o m t h e Is la m i c W o l o f m a j o r i t y ( i n w h o s e
l a n g u a g e rha b o c c u r s ) b u t f r o m o n e o f t h e a n i m i s t m i n o r i t y g r o u p s , t h e Jo la.
U s i n g W o l o f w as n o m o r e o f a c u l t u r a l t r a n s l a t i o n fo r h i m t h a n i t w o u l d h a v e
b e e n t o u se E n g li s h .
T h i s w as o n l y t h e s t a r t o f m y m i s t r a n s l a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h D r. D i a t t a w as
g reatly e n th u s ia s tic a b o u t my w o rk o n fractals in A fr ic a n a r c h ite c tu r e , he
s e e m e d d i s i n t e r e s t e d in t h e f r a c t a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f t w a r e . B u t h e p e r s i s t e n t l y
b r o u g h t u p A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e d u r i n g t h e c e ll u la r a u t o m a t a d e m o s . I f o u n d th is
e n t i r e l y t o o f r u s t r a t i n g : t h e w h o l e p o i n t o f rnv r e s e a r c h o n A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s was
to e x p lo re th e i n t e n t i o n a l side o f th e s e designs. C e llu la r a u to m a ta c re a te p a t
t e r n s n o t b y p r e p l a n n e d j d e s i g n , b u t r a t h e r by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f its a g g r e g a t e
c e lls. F r o m m y p o i n t o f v iew , h a v i n g f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e a s t h e r e s u l t o f a g g r e
g a te s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s t r o y e d t h e p o s s ib il it y o f i n t e n t i o n a l i t y . By fo c u s in g o n
c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a as a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d e l , D i a t t a s e e m e d t o h e u n d o i n g all
m y c a r e f u ll y p r e p a r e d r e s e a r c h . H i s e n t h u s i a s m w a s u n b e a t a b l e , h o w e v e r , a n d
1 b e g a n to s tu d y a e r i a l p h o t o s o f h i s p l a c e o f o r i g i n , t h e J o l a s e t t l e m e n t s s o u t h
o f th e C a s a m a n c e R iver. F ig ure 10.8 s h o w s t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f M l o m p , n o t far fro m
D i a t t a ’s h o m e t o w n ; its p a i r e d lo g s p i r a l s t r u c t u r e c o u l d h a v e c o m e r i g h t o u t o f
R u c k e r ’s Z h a b o t i n s k y C A s .
A t r i p to t h e C a s a m a n c e w as c le a r ly c a l l e d for. 1 w as f o r t u n a t e in fi n d in g
N fally B a d ia n e , a Jo la g ra d u a te s t u d e n t w h o h a d d o n e h is m a s t e r ’s th esis o n in d ig e
n o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e s o u t h e r n C a s a m a n c e , as a g u id e . N f a l l y ’s b a c k g r o u n d is
ideal for a n a n t h r o p o lo g i s t: raised a m o n g th e I s la m ic m a j o r i ty in D akar, h e is b o t h
FIGURE 1 0 . 0
T h e J ola s e t t l e m e n t o f M l o m p , S e n e g a l
Ump. (b, Mlomp model generated by com b.n»tior.of s t o ^ s t i c and recursive process,
[nstitut Geogmlskique tie Senega!; b. courtesy o f Egondu Onyejelt.ve.)
A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athematics
s t r a n g e r t o a n d m e m b e r o f t h e Jo la so c ie ty . A s w e t r a v e l e d t h e d e l t a a r e a o f che
C a s a m a n c e R i v e t , u s i n g c a t s , tr u c k s , c a n o e s , a n d a n y t h i n g else t h a t m o v e d , h is
w a r n in g s a b o u t t h e se c re c y o f J o l a religious k n o w l e d g e w e r e re p e a t e d ly c o n firm e d .
S e c u l a r i n fo r m a t i o n a b o u t t e c h n i c a l m e t h o d s o f h o u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , p r e c o l o n i a l
a n d p o s t c o l o n i a l s o c i a l c h a n g e s , k in s h ip , g to p p s ,.,.a .n d .jp a n y o t h e r , a s p e c t s „ p f
J o l a s o c i e ty w e r e readilY f o r t h c o m m (E g la s h e t al. 1 9 9 4 ) . ' W e w e r e to ld t h a t t h e
c ircu lar b u ild in g c o m p le x e s w ere n o t p re p la n n e d , n o r w e re th e b ro a d cu rv es of
t h e s e c o m p l e x e s in e a c h n e i g h b o r h o o d , b u t t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t te ll us a n y t h i n g
a b o u t th e se q u e n c e o f c o n s tr u c tio n because, u n lik e t h e W o lo f, "w e d o n o t h av e
a griot (oral h i s t o r i a n ] in J o l a so c ie ty ." T h e s p i r a l s t r u c t u r e v is ib l e in t h e p h o t o
w as m a i n l y d u e t o t h e c a r e f u ll y m a i n t a i n e d s a c r e d f o r e s t ^ L n T o u n d i n g e ^ h J _ o c a l
n e i g h b o r h o o d . B u t t h e m e c h a n i s m s for c r e a t i n g s u c h c o h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s o v e r
s u c h a n e n o r m o u s r a n g e o f sc a le s r e m a i n e d h i d d e n . A t a n t a l i z i n g g l i m p s e o f t h e
J g] a ry, h o w e v e r , led us t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e r e w a s a ^ c o n sc io u s ele-
m e n t t o t h e C A - l i k e s e t t l e m e n t s t r u c t u re. F ir s t, t h e r e w a s t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e
c h i e f ’s d r i n k i n g vessel: a s p ir a l s h e l l . S eco n d,(K ifalfy ^h ad s e e n t h e i n t e r i o r o f o n e
o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t a lt a r s , a n d sa id t h a t it c o n s i s t e d o f a s p i r a l p assag e.
T h e b e s t c l u e w e - f o u n d was f r o m D i a t t a h i m s e l f , w h o d e s c r i b e d a lo g s p i
ral p a t h in c e r t a i n r i t u a l s t h a t t o o k p l a c e in t h e s a c r e d f o r e s t . B u t h o w t o r e c
o n c ile th is self-co n scio u s m o d e lin g w ith w h a t a p p e a re d to be th e e m e rg e n c e
o f th e s e t t l e m e n t s tru c tu r e th r o u g h ag g reg ate s e lf-o r g a n iz a tio n ? 1 finally c o n
f e s s e d m y d is t u r b a n c e to D i a t t a , a n d a sk e d h i m b o w I m i g h t u n d e r s t a n d t h e a p p a r
e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n . H e s u g g e s t e d y e t a n o t h e r s i m u l a t i o n : t h e J o l a f u n e r a l ritu a l
(fig. 1 0 .9 a ) . 'W e h a d b e e n a le r te d to th i s c e r e m o n y as a r e s u lt o f a su spicio us d e a t h
d u r i n g c u r - v is i t, b u t w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o a t t e n d . D i a t t a d e s c r i b e d t h e r i t u a l in
d e ta il. T h e body o f th e d eceased was p la c e d o n a p la tfo rm , a n d posts at e a c h o f
t h e f o u r c o r n e r s a r e h e l d a lo f t b y p a l l b e a r e r s . If c r i t i c a l k n o w l e d g e is t h o u g h t
to h a v e b e e n h e l d b y t h e d e c e a s e d (e.g., a s in t h e c a s e o f a m u r d e r ) , a p r i e s t asks
q u e s t i o n s . T i r e p a l l b e a r e r s , r e a c t i n g t o t h e f o r c e o f t h e d e c e a s e d , m o v e che p l a t
fo r m t o t h e r i g h t for yes, le ft for n o , a n d f o r w a r d fo r “ u n k n o w n . "
T h e s i m u l a t i o n for t h i s ritual..(fig. J0..9.b) is b a s e d o n a n a n a l o g f e e d b a c k
n e t w o r k . W e d o n ’t n e e d t o m a k e a n y a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e p a l l b e a r
ers a r e e x e r t i n g f o r c e d u e t o c o n s c i o u s o p i n i o n s o r s u b c o n s c i o u s b eliefs; it is o n ly
n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e y e x e r t f o r c e in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h i s m o t i v a t i o n -
S i n c e th e y c a n b o t h e x e r t fo rce a n d sen se it f r o m o t h e r s , t h i s w o u ld th e o r e t i c a l l y
a ll o w t h e s u m m a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a m o n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o b e e x p re s se d in t h e
m o s t e ff e c ti v e w a y p o ss ib le . I n f a c t , t h e t e c h n i q u e is m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n a v o t e ,
s i n c e v o t i n g c a n le a d t o t h e p a r a d o x o f a m i n o r i t y o p i n i o n w in if t h e r e a re m o r e
t h a n t w o o p t i o n s . ^ T h e i n f o r m a t i o n e m e r g e d fr o m t h e b o t t o m - u p i n t e r a c t i o n o f
Complexity 165
t h e p a rt s , y e t it w as a ls o i n t e n t i o n a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h i s m e c h a n i s m fo r aggre-
g a te s e l f-o r g a n iz a t io n o f k n o w l e d g e h a d b e e n c o n s c i o u s ly d e s i g n e d . T h i s w a s n o t
i n t e n t i o n a l i t y as I k n e w it; it s o u n d e d m o r e lik e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n e u r a l n e t
w o rk j n . c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e :
FIGURE I O . 9
N e u r a l n e t m o d e l for t h e J o la f u n e r a l r itu a l
c o n n e c t i o n s i n t o th e re s t o f t h e n e tw o r k . T h e e ff e c t is a b i t lik e s e n d i n g
s h i p lo a d s o f g o o d s i n t o a few p o r t c itie s a l o n g t h e s e a c o a s t, a n d t h e n l e t t i n g
a zillion trucks c a r t t h e stu ff .along th e h ig h w ay s a m o n g t h e i n l a n d c ities. But
if t h e c o n n e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n p r o p e r ly a rr a n g e d , t h e n e t w o r k w ill so o n s e t t l e
i n t o a s e l f - c o n s is t e n t p a tc e r n o f a c t i v a t i o n t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s to a c la s sif ic a
t i o n o f th e sce n e . “T h a t ’s a c a t ! ” ( W a l d r o p 1 9 92 , 2 8 9 - 9 0 )
T h e t r i c k y p a r t is “ if t h e c o n n e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n p r o p e r l y a r r a n g e d . ”
C l e a r l y i t c o u l d b e a r r a n g e d fo r f o u r p e o p l e , b u t c o u l d it f o r t h i s ' c i t y o f M l o m p ,
w i t h d o z e n s o f l o c a l n e i g h b o r h o o d s a n d h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e in e a c h ? A n d
M l o m p is n o t a n a n o m a l y . W h i l e w e sa w a m o r e e x p l i c i t f o r m a l s y s t e m in t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f se v e ra l f r a c ta l s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e s in c h a p t e r 2, t h e r e a re also
m a n y A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s t h a t h a v e a larg e, diffuse f r a c ta l s t r u c t u r e (see D e n y e r
1978, 1 44). S elf-o rg a n izin g m e c h a n ism s t h a t arran g e su c h vast ag greg atio n s
i n t o c o h e r e n t p a t t e r n s w o u l d h a v e t o b e m o r e g l o b a l a n d less e x p l i c i t .
O n e k ey m e c h a n i s m i n c o m p l e x i t y t h e o r y is m e m o r y : t h e t h e o r y p r e d i c t s
t h a t s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g s y s te m s will u tiliz e 1 / F d.is.tpi.bu.tiQns. in m e m o r y l e n g t h . T h e
lu kasa, a visual “m e m o r y b o a r d ” d e v e l o p e d by t h e B a lu b a o f C o n g o (Z a ire ), sh ow s
ju s t s u c h f r a c ta l s c a l i n g (fig. 1 0 .1 0 ) . T h e m e m o r y s y s t e m o f t h e l u k a s a is p a rtly
b a s e d o n d i g i ta l ( t h a t is, p h y s i c a ll y a r b i t r a r y ) c o d i n g , s u c h as c o lo r , b u t R o b e r t s
( 1 9 9 6 ) n o t e s t h a t m u c h o f t h e lukasa is a “g e o m e try o f id e a s ,” m a p p i n g th e J a e a d e d
s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e t o a n a l o g o u s h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e
i n t e r p r e t i v e a n d c o d i n g v a r i a t i o n , t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y t o h a v e s i n g l e b e a d s r e p
r e s e n t i n g i n d i v id u a l s , g r o u p s o f b e a d s r e p r e s e n t i n g r o y a l c o u r t s , a n d la r g e r be ad
a r r a n g e m e n t s s h o w i n g t h e s a c r e d fo r e sts t h a t h a v e b e e n g r o w i n g o v e r m a n y
g e n e r a t i o n s . T h i s v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f a 1/ F - l i k e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m e m o r y s u g g e s ts at
le a s t t h e p o s s ib ility o f i n d i g e n o u s a w a r e n e s s o f s c a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s in m a i n t a i n
in g s e l f - o r g a n iz e d c o m p l e x it y .
T h e s t r o n g e s t c a n d i d a t e f o r a m e c h a n i s m u n d e r l y i n g s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n is
th e c o m p le m e n ta ry p air o f in d ig e n o u s-fe e d b a c k c o n c e p ts, w e e x a m i n e d j n
c h a p t e r 8. I n t h e v o d u n r e l i g i o n o f B e n i n , w e f o u n d D a n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t a
b i l i z i n g fo r c e o f n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k , a n d L e g b a r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e d i s r u p t i v e
fo r c e o f p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k . S i m i l a r f e e d b a c k p a ir s w e r e f o u n d in t h e B au le
d o o r c a r v i n g s ; t h e c a i m a n s b i t i n g e a c h o t h e r ’s t a i l s a r e a s y m b o l o f n e g a t i v e
f e e d b a c k , a n d t h e fish e a t i n g e v e r l a r g e r fish r e p r e s e n t p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k . T h i s
c o m b i n a t i o n o f o p p o s i n g f e e d b a c k l o o p s a ls o a p p e a r s t o h e a t t h e h e a r t o f th e
c o n d i t i o n s t h a t s u s t a i n s e l f-o r g a n iz i n g s t r u c tu r e s . O f c o u r s e , in o s t-s e lf-o rg a n iz in g
s y s t e m s w ill h a v e m o r e t h a n t w o lo o p s ; b u t in e v e r y c a s e 1 h a v e e x a m i n e d , at
le a s t o n e o f e a c h is p r e s e n t , a n d it is t h r o u g h t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t s u s t a i n e d
c o m p l e x i t y c a n a rise.
FIGURE 1 0 . 1 0
Lukasa
( F w m R o b e r ts a n d R o b e r ts 1996; photo b y D i c k D e a u lie u x .)
African fra c ta l m a th em a tics
R e t u r n i n g t o t h e m o s t b a s i c e x a m p l e o f c o m p l e x b e h a v i o r , M a y ’s p o p u l a
t i o n e q u a t i o n , w e h a v e tw o c o m p o n e n t s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e is p o p u l a t i o n
g r o w t h : f*n+1 = Pn R. N e x t y e a r ’s p o p u l a t i o n w ill b e th i s y e a r ’s p o p u l a t i o n tirn es^ "
t h e g r o w t h r a t e . A s l o n g as R is a p o s i t i v e n u m b e r , t h i s w ill b e a p o s i t i v e f e e d
b a c k lo o p . B u t t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e e q u a t i o n , m u l t i p l y i n g b y (1 - Pn ), w as a neg-,; F-
a t i v e f e e d b a c k lo o p , a c t i n g lik e a n e p i d e m i c t h a t k ills m o r e p e o p l e w i t h la rg e r
p o p u l a t i o n size.-* T o g e t h e r th e y c r e a t e d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s : t h e p o s i ti v e f e e d b a c k \
k e e p s e x p a n d i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k k e e p s it w i t h i n j
b o u n d s . T h i s w o r k s for o t h e r c h a o s e q u a t i o n s as w e ll. F ig u r e i o .i j show s a •'
c h a o s e q u a t i o n c a l l e d t h e " R o s s le r a t t r a c t o r ’’ m o d e l i n g a c a r w i t h tw o d riv e rs . ^
^ O n e is d r u n k a n d o v e r c o m p e n s a t e s by s t e e r i n g t o o far w i t h e a c h c o r r e c t i o n ; t h e )
C o t h e r is s o b e r a n d p u lls it b a c k o n t h e r o a d w h e n t h e d r u n k e n o s c i l l a t i o n s g e t \ .
{ t o o larg e. B e c a u s e it a lw ay s s t e e r s b a c k t o a s l ig h t ly d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n , t h e o scil- \
) l a t i o n s n e v e r r e p e a t — d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s .^
FIGURE 10 .1 1
R o s s le r a t t r a c t o r as fe e d b a c k i n a u t o m o b i l e d r iv in g
T he Rossler attractor is a set- of three simple equations whose output is derprminisric chaos, thar_i.s«.
a signal with variable oscillations which remain bounded but never repeat the exact same pattern.
How can such a simple system produce infinite variation? A n automobile driving model can help
us see what these equations are doing.
(a) Positive f e e d b a c k . First, there is a part of the system that provides a positive feedback loop;
this acts like a drunken driver who swerves farther and farther off the road. N ote that the car is not
properly aligned with the direction of travel; this skidding is the nonlinear relationship between
road position X and steering angle Y.
(b) N e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k . T he other part of the system is a negative feedback loop; given a swerving
input, this cautious driver steers back toward the center of the road. “C aution” is represented by
the third variable, 2.
(c) Combination o f n e g a t i v e a n d positive f e e d b a c k . Here we see the complete Rossler system at
work. T he "caution" variable Z controls the facial expression (diameter of eyes and mouth, angle of
eyebrows). Note that after the oscillation gets large enough, the negative feedback kicks in, and we
go hack toward the center of the road. Because the car never steers back to exactly the same
position on the road, the behavior never repeats. If, for example, you looked at the number of
increasing oscillations that occur before the negative feedback dampens it hack toward the center,
it would appear to he completely random, with no predictable pattern. Yet the pattern is entirely
deterministic (that is, determined only hy this set of equations); it could be predicted if you knew
the initial conditions with infinite precision.
Driver (mis)observation
noise
Driver observation: YES Move steering angle in ( Y)
road hos car been deviating?
poslllon
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A fr ic a n fra cta l macliematics
y t o w a r d l o n g - t e r m o r d e r in t h e s e A f r i c a n c o s m o l o g i e s .
A l t h o u g h f r a c ta l s r e s u l t i n g f r o m g e o m e t r i c a l g o r i t h m s :a r e u s u a lly s e e n as
s t a t i c s t r u c t u r e s , t h e y t o o c a n b e v i e w e d as t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f f e e d b a c k lo o p s .
A s e e d s h a p e w i t h a h u g e n u m b e r o f t i n y l i n e s e g m e n t s (fig. 1 0 . 1 2 a ) w_ii_l t e n d
t o b e s h a p e - p r e s e r v i n g u n d e r s e l f - r e p l a c e m e n t i t e r a t i o n s ; h e r e d e v i a t i o n s due_tp
r e p l a c e m e n t a r e d a m p e d —-(the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a l i n e s e g m e n t a n d t h e s e e d
s h a p e is u s u a l ly n o t i m p o r t a n t ' ( a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g g r a p h w ill h a v e a lo w f r a c
ta l d i m e n s i o n , i.e., t e n d i n g t o w a r d j . o ) . B u t fo r s e e d s h a p e s m a d e u p o f o n l y
a few la r g e l i n e s (fig. 1 0 . 1 2 b ) , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a l i n e s e g m e n t a n d its
FIGURE l o . 1 2
F r a c t a l g r a p h ic s a s fe e d b a c k
172 A fr ic a n fra c ta l m athem atics
r e p l a c e m e n t s h a p e w ill b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . L a r g e d e v i a t i o n s t e n d t o b e a m p l i
fied in a q u i c k p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k , s o m e t i m e s e x p l o s i v e l y g r o w i n g o u t o f b o u n d s
in o n l y a few i t e r a t i o n s . F i g u r e 1 0 . 12 b h a s ' b e e n s c a l e d d o w n t o fit o n t h e p a g e ,
b u t t h e a c t u a l f r a c t a l g r a p h w ill q u i c k l y g r o w o u t o f b o u n d s a n d b l a c k e n t h e
s c r e e n e n t i r e l y (i .e . , a f r a c t a l d i m e n s i o n c l o s e t o 2 . 0 ) . F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 2 c s h o w s a
f r a c ta l d i m e n s i o n c lo s e tjo 1.5, t h e " m o s t f r a c t a l " m e a s u r e , w h i c h r e s u l t s fr o m
a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k o f s m a ll s e g m e n t s h a p e p r e s e r v a t i o n
a n d t h e p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k o f la r g e s e g m e n t r e p l a c e m e n t d e v i a t i o n .
T h e r e is n o q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e o f f r a c t a l d i m e n s i o n in p r e c o l o n i a l
A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e sy s te m s . B u t t h e i d e a o f a s p e c t r u m p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m m o r e
o r d e r ly t o less o r d e r l y is v i v i d ly portraye r! in c e r t a i n m a t e r i a ! d e s i g n s . T h e best
e x a m p l e s a re in t h e Taffia p a l m t e x t il e s o f t h e B a k u b a (fig. 1 0 .1 3 a ). T h e se t e n d to
s h o w p e r i o d i c t i h n g a l p n g o n e axis, a n d aperiodic.t.i.ling,— o f t e n m o v i n g fr o m o rd e r
to d iso rd er— a lo n g th e o th e r. S im ila r g e o m e tric v is u alizatio n s o f th e sp e c tru m
f ig u r e 1 0 .1 3
F r o m o r d e r to d is o r d e r in a B a k u b a c l o t h
( a ) T h e B a k u b a o f t e n c r e a t e c l o t h d e s i g n s t h a t s t a y fa i rl y c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s , b u t
g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x is . I n m a n y c a s e s, t h e h o r i z o n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t s
a n o rd er-d iso rd er range, (b ) C o m p u t e r sc ie n tist C liffo rd P ic k o v e r c r e a te d th is p a t t e r n to sh o w
h o w a s p e c tru m from o r d e r to d is o rd e r c o u ld b e v isu a lize d by a llo w in g a r a n d o m v a r ia b le to h a v e
i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o n t h e g r a p h ’s e q u a t i o n . T h u s it, t o o , m a k e s u se o f p e r i o d i c r i l i n g a l o n g t h e
v e r tic a l axis a n d a p e r i o d i c a l o n g t h e h o r iz o n ta l.
(a, from Me u r a n t 1986, b y perniis.u'on o f the author; b , f r o m Pick over 1990, b y permission o f the author.)
C o m p le xity *73
fig u re 1 o . 14
B lo c k p r in t t e x tile
This print from West Africa suggests the full spectrum from order to disorder.
(From S i e b e r 1972.)
174 A fr ic a n fra c ta l mathematics
o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s u c h a s s u m p t i o n s a r e u n f o u n d e d .® T h e r e
is, fo r e x a m p l e , a f o r m o f m u s ic i n d i g e n o u s t o N i g e r i a t h a t h a s s o m e t h i n g lik e
a w h i t e n o is e d i s t r i b u t i o n of-sounds. A k p a b o t (-1975) d e sc rib e s “ t h e r a n d o m m usic
o f t h e B i r o m , ” a f l u te e n s e m b l e d e s i g n e d to a llo w e a c h m u s i c i a n t o e x p r e s s i n d i
v i d u a l fe elin g s t h r o u g h w h a t e v e r i d i o s y n c r a t i c n o i s e ( o r e v e n s ile n c e ) _ h e o r sh e
c h o o s e s , r e s u l t i n g in " a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e p r o c e s s [in w h i c h ] t h e s o u n d s p r o d u c e d / .
b y t h e p la y e rs a re n o t o b s t r u c t e d by a c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t t o o rg a n i z e t h e r h y t h m s ^
a n d h a r m o n i e s ” ( p . 4 6 ) . P e l t o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) re fe rs t o t h e N i g e r i a n ( Y o r u b a ) t r i c k s t e r ^
E s h u as t h e “lo r d o f r a n d o m , ” a n d n o t e s t h a t t h e r e is a c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e
o rd erly w o rk of O lir u n a n d th is u n p r e d ic ta b le sp irit, sim ila r to t h e n e g a tiv e
fe e d b a c k /p o sitiv e feed b ack c o m b in a tio n s we n o te d earlier. T h e c h a ra c te riz a
ti o n o f e x tr e m e d is o rd e r m i g h t w ell b e a p p lie d to t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f c o lo n ia l
rule, b u t w e s h o u ld n o t assu m e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t was u n k n o w n b e fo re th e n . A
s u m m a r y o f s e l e c t e d A f r i c a n c o m p l e x i t y c o n c e p t s is s h o w n i n f ig u re 1 0 .1 5 ; n o t e
t h a t t h e c e n t r a ! p e a k o f s p i r i t u a l p o w e r is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e c e n t r a l p e a k o f c o m
p u t a t i o n a l p o w e r in t h e C r u t c h f i e l d - S m a l e c o m p l e x i t y m e a s u r e .
C o n c lu s io n
T h i s c h a p t e r is o n l y t h e b a r e o u t l i n e o f w h a t I h o p e w ill b e f u t u r e a r e a s o f
r e s e a r c h , e x a m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t e c h n i c a l , c u J t u raJ j . a,p d - P 9 ]it i? ? i
s y s te m s t h r o u g h t h e n e w f r a m e w o r k s o f f e r e d b y c o m p l e x i t y , t h e o r y . F o r t h e
m o m e n t , w e w ill h a v e t o l i m i t o u r s e lv e s t o t h e few f r a g m e n t s t h a t m y S e n e g a le s e
c o l l e a g u e s p o i n t e d o u t so d i l i g e n t l y i ^ F i r s t ^ t h i s d o e s n o t . n e g a t e t h e p r e v i o u s
e x a m p l e s o f e x p l i c i t a l g o r i t h m i c d e s i g n in A f r i c a n fractals,,?..buj..j_t..docs su g g e s t
t h a t a t le a s t in t h e c a s e o f se ttle_ m en t a r c h i t e c t u r e t h e y c a n . a r i s e f r o m a n o t h e r
s o u r c e as w ell. T h e c r e a t i o n o f f r a c ta l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s t h r o u g h a g g re g a t e self
o rg a n iz a tio n , w h ile u n li k e t h e p l a n n e d s tru c tu r e s we saw in c h a p t e r 2, d o n o t seem
t o b e t h e r e s u lt o f u n c o n s c i o u s s o c i a l d y n a m i c s (a s w e sa w j b r t h e u r b a n sp r a w l
o f E u r o p e a n c itie s in c h a p t e r 4 ). T h i s m a y b e d u e t o a differ e r v c ^ b e t w e e n A.fr i ca n
c o n c e p t s o f i n t e n t i o n , w h i c h c a n a p p ly t o a g r o u p p r p j e c t_ c r e a te c l.p v e r . s e v e r a l
g e n e r a t i o n s , v e rs u s t h e W e s t e r n fo c u s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m i n g i m m e d i a t e
a c t i o n in d e f i n i n g i n t e n t i o n a l i t y . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t th is
p a t t e r n c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h g r o u p a c t i v i t y is s u p p o r t e d by c o n s c i o u s m e c h a n i s m s
s p e c i f ic t o s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n as d e f i n e d in c o m p l e x i t y t h e o r y . B o t h t h e s c a l i n g
( ' d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h m e m o r y a n d che s p e c t r u m fr o m o r d e r t o d i s
o r d e r h a v e a t le a s t s o m e g r a p h i c c o u n t e r p a r t s in A f r i c a n d e s i g n s . T h e b e s t c a n
d i d a t e for a c o n s c i o u s m e c h a n i s m is t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e
fe e d b a c k . W e d id n o t e x a m i n e e v ery possible case o f d e te r m i n is t ic c h a o s an d
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A f r i c a n c o m p l e x i t y c o n c e p ts i n r e l i g i o n
176 A fr ic a n fractal m a th em a tics
a g g r e g a t e s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e g
a t i v e a n d p o s i ti v e fe e d b a c k lo o p s , w h i c h fo r m t h e basis o f s e v e r a l A f r i c a n k n o w l
e d g e s y s te m s , a ls o f o r m ' a k e y m e c h a n i s m o f g e n e r a l s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g s y s te m s .
A s n o t e d in t h e first c h a p t e r , it is j u s t as i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d w h a t is m i s s
i n g as it is to f i n d w h a t is p r e s e n t . W h i l e fo u r o f t h e fiv e b a s i c c o n c e p t s o f f r a c
t a l g e o m e t r y — s c a l i n g , s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y , r e c u r s i o n , a n d i n f i n i t y — a r e a ll p o t e n t
aspiects o f A f r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c s , a q u a n tita tiv e m ea su re o f d im e n sio n (th e H a u sd o rf-
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~J P a r t s 1 a n d 11 o f t h i s b o o k e m p h a s i z e d t h e g e o m e t r i c , s y m b o li c , a n d q u a n t i t a - ^
| t i t a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t s . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c l a i m s m a d e in p a r t s i a n d n s h o u l d i
■, be fulsifiah le in t h e s e n s e o f K a r l P o p p e r ; t h e d a t a e i t h e r s u p p o r t s t h e h y p o t h e - j
\ sis o r re fu te s it.* B u t th e c h a p t e r s in th i s last s e c t i o n w ill s w i t c h t o to p ic s in c u l- '
t u r a l p o l i t i c s a n d o t h e r h u m a n i t i e s . T h e s e is s u e s a r e t o o c o m p l e x a n d
m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l to b e r e d u c e d t o f o r m a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ; t h e y c a n o n l y b e
a p p r o a c h e d b y e x p l o r i n g t h e i r j u u e r p r e t a r i y e d e p _ th s (P o e tr y ' a n r e v e a l as m u c h
t r u t h a b o u t t h e w o r l d as a n y s c i e n c e ; w e o n l y n e e d t o k e e p in m i n d t h a t it is a
d i f f e r e n t w ay o f g o i n g a b o u t it. W h i l e t h e p h i l o s o p h y , p o l i t i c s , a n d p o e t i c s o f
c u l t u r e a r e n o t s t r ic t ly fa jsjfia b le, t h e y c a n o f t e n a p p r o a c h t h e j i r e a s o f l i f e j h a t
P o p p e r i a n p o s i t i v i s m c a n n o t - — a r e a s w e c a n n o t li v e w i t h o u t .
G i v e n t h a t o n e c a n m a k e a g o o d c a se fo r a t lea st f o u f o f t h e five b a sic e le - ^
m encs o f f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y in A f r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c s , w h a t s h o u l d we m a k e o f it \
in te r m s o f c u l t u r e ? T o ask t h i s q u e s t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y w e n e e d t o a v o j d tw o p i t
falls. T h e first is t h e p o s s ib il it y o f “o v e r d e t e r m i n e d ” e x p l a n a t i o n s fo r A f r i c a n
fractals, e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t s e e m t o b e w a i t i n g f o r us b e f o r e w e ’v e e v e n b e g u n
i8 o Im plications
t o e x a m i n e t h e e v i d e n c e . T h e s e c o n d is t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f s u s t a i n i n g s k e p t i c i s m
in a r a c i a l l y c h a r g e d e n v i r o n m e n t . j t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w e m i g h t sh y a w a y fr o m
c r i t i q u e o v e r fe ars t h a t e x p r e s s i n g a n e g a t i v e v i e w c o u l d b e t a k e n <is h a v i n g a n
e t h n o c e n t r i c o r r a c i s t m o t i v a t i o n ^ B o t h fa ilin g s a r e e q u a ll y d a m a g i n g . R e c e n tl y ,
re s e a rc h e rs h a v e d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e w ays t h a t th e o r ie s o f k n o w le d g e
( e p i s t e m o l o g y ) c a n s n e a k u n e x a m i n e d i n t o c u l t u r a l p o r t r a i t s . If we a r e to a v o id
t h e t r a p o f s e e i n g A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s as a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t A f r i c a n s a r e “c l o s e r to
n a t u r e , ” o r c o n c r e t e r a t h e r t h a n a b s t r a c t t h i n k e r s , o r u n i f i e d in a s i n g l e h o m o
g en eo u s c u ltu re, t h e n we n e e d to k n o w ..a .b it a b o u t th e orig in o f th ese m is
c o n c e p t i o n s . T h e fir s t s t e p i n th a t\p v o c e s s ,.is t o e x a m i n e t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l
f r a m e w o r k s t h a t a re a p p l i e d t o t h e s t u d y o f c u l t u r e .
T h e u n i t y j d i v e r s i t y d e b a t e a n d t h i n d e s c r ip t io n
A c c o r d i n g to M u d i m b e j r i 9 8 8 ) , t h e c o n c e p t o f a u n i t a r y , t r a d i t i o n a l “A f r i c a n c u l
t u r e ” is a n i n v e n t i o n c r e a t e d first b y c o l o n ia l is ts , w h o s o u g h t t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r
c o n q u e s t w i t h t h e m y t h o f th e p rim itiv e, a n d s u b s e q u e n tly by a n ti c o lo n i a li s ts s e e k
ing to c o n so lid a te t h e i r o p p o sitio n . A s im ilar c ritiq u e is p ro v id e d b y (A p p ia h (1 9 9 2 ) ,
’w h o su gg ests t h a t t h e d if fe re n c e s a m o n g v a r i o u s A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s w e re m u c h to o
b r o a d to a llo w a n y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s (p . 2 5 ) : “S u re l y d i f f e r e n c e s in re lig io u s o n t o l
ogy a n d r i tu a l , in t h e o rg a n i z a ti o n o f p o l i t i c s a n d t h e fam ily, in r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n
t h e sex es a n d in a rt , in sty les o f w a rfa re a n d c u is in e , in la n g u a g e — surely all th e s e
are f u n d a m e n t a l k i n d s o f d if f e r e n c e s ? ”
A p p i a h a n d M u d i m b e p r o m o t e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f s o l i d a r i t y in c o n t e m p o r a r y
A f r i c a ( a s w e ll as i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y in t h e d i a s p o r a ) ; t h e y o n l y c a u t i o n t h a t t h i s
c u l t u r a l u n i t y is o f r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n , a n d t h a t a t t e m p t s to s e e a n A f r i c a n
‘‘e s s e n c e ” o r a u n i f i e d A f r i c a n c u l t u r e p r e c e d . i n g . m a j o r E u r o p e a n i n t e r v e n t i o n
(i.e., p re v io u s to t h e First W o r l d W a r ) will e v e n t u a l l y h a v e t o fall b a c k o n racjaMy
d e f i n e d c a t e g o r i e s , w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y a s e l f - d e f e a t i n g b a s i s f o r a n t i r n c i s t
m o v e m e n t s . F r o i n A p p i a h ' s a n t i e s s e n t i a l i s t p o i n t o f v i e w o n e c a n n o t d is c u s s
p r e c o l o n i a l “A f r i c a n c u l t u r e ; " o n l y “A f r i c a n c i i j t u r e s . ”
O n t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e o f t h e u n i t y v e r s u s d i v e r s i t y d e b a t e 1ies t h e A f r o -
c e n t r i c p o s i t i o n . W h i l e its p r o p o n e n t s a ls o a g r e e t h a t t h e r e was_n.o_.single,
homogerie.0115 A fricarT o T lT u T e, t h e y e m p h a s i z e ^ t h e ^ h j p x e d - . e l e m e n t s . A s a n t e
a n d A s a n t e ’s A fr ic a n C u l t u r e : R hythm s o f U n ity ( 1 9 8 5 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , b e g i n s by
ti. s t a t i n g t h a t w h ile b la c k u n it y c a n n o t be b ased o n g e n e t i c g r o u n d s , b ro a d ly s h a r e d
c u l t u r a l u n d e r c u r r e n t s w e r e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d i v e r s e s o c i e t i e s o f p re -
/ co lo n ia l A frica:
T heoretical fra m e w o rk s in cultural studies 181
io rs a m o n g s o m e A f r i c a n e t h n i c g r o u p s w h i c h m a y h a v e t h e o p p o s it e m e a n
i n g a m o n g o t h e r s . T w i n n e s s is c o m m o n l y c O A s i d e r e d a p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
in A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s , y e t t h e r e a r e s o m e e t h n i c g r o u p s w h i c h a c c e p t t w i n n e s s
as a n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . . . .Y e t t h is p a r t ic u l a r is t ic e m p h a s i s w o u l d n o t m a k e
th e e th n ic g ro u p u n re la te d to th e o th e rs . P a tte rn e d b e h a v io rs by A f r ic a n e t h
C u l t u r e c a n v a r y o v e r t i m e , b u t in t h e c a s e o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e , it w i l l a l w a y s
b e a r t i c u l a t e d in t h e s a m e w ay.
T h e r e is a lo t g o in g o n in th i s p a ra g r a p h , b u t t h e cru cia l p o i n t fo r m y a n a l y
sis is A s a n c e a n d A s a n t e ’s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e .sur/ace p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f
v a r i o u s e t h n i c g ro u p s , w h i c h m a y d iffer, a n d d eep er c u l t u r a l s e n s i b i l i t i e s o r p a t
tern s o f a r tic u la tio n (w h ic h th e y la te r illu strate w ith “ th e th r e e tr a d itio n a l
v a lu e s : h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e , 2 h u m a n e n e s s , a n d r h y t h m ” [p. 7]). In t h i s A f r o -
c e n t r i s m , it is o n ly a t t h e d e e p le v e l in w h i c h we fin d i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l a t t r i b
u te s h e l c H n c o m m o n .
p p p i a h also m a k e s t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b_etween m v i a l su rfa c e ^ a n d t h e ‘T u n-
d a m e n t a T ‘ d e p t h s . T h e o n l y d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n h i m a n d t h e A s a n t e s is
w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e d e p t h s r e v e a l d i f f e r e n c e s . O n e way a r o u n d t h i s q u e s t i o n is
in t h e “t h i c k d e s c r i p t i o n ” p r o p o s e d by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t C l i f f o r d p e e r t z O1973).
G e e r t z w a s m o t i v a t e d in p a r t b y h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e w ay s t h a t C l a u d e
L e v i - S t r a u s s ’s s t r u c t u r a l i s m s e e m e d t o r e d u c e s y m b o li c c u l t u r e to a flat, m e c h a
n is ti c s y n t a x . F o r p e e r t j , c u l t u r a U y m b o l s s h o u l d b t ^ i i i ^ , l g n i ^ f j j ^ n a m i c play,
a n d t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r s h o u l d s h o w t h e i r t u r b u l e n t e x p a n s i o n t h r o u g h layers o f
m e a n i n g , n o t t h e i r r e d u c n o n to jpsinj^le fixed s t ru c tu r e . G e e r tz d e fin e d th e s e d e e p
e l e m e n t s , w h i c h t e n d to b e m o r e s u b j e c t i v e a n d literary, as specific to a p a r t i c
u lar c o m m u n i t y . F o r h i m j t w o u ld b e e x t r e m e l y d ifficult _to c o m p a re d e e p e l e
m e n t s fro m o n e lo c a t i o n to t h e n e x t , b e c a u s e t h e d e e p e l e m e n t s a re the_resu.lt
o f lo cal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T a k e n t o t h e e x t r e m e , G e e r t z ’s c h ic k d e s c r i p t i o n w o u ld
sim p ly reply t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n A p p i a h a n d t h e A s a n t e s a r e a s k i n g c a n n o t b e
a n sw e re d .
T h e f r a m e w o r k 1 h a v e u s e d in p a r t s 1 a n d u o f th i s b o o k , w h i c h is t h a t o f
e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s in g e n e r a l , m i g h t b e re f e r r e d to as ch in d e s c r i p t i o n ^ stu d y
o f th e su rfa c e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s , s u c h as m a t e r i a U l e s i g n s a n d s y m b o li c f o r m u la s . A s
th e A s a n t e s p o i n t o u t , a m a t h e m a t i c a l e l e m e n t like d o u b l i n g (“ tw in n e s s " in t h e i r
q u o t a t i o n ) is ju s t a su rfa c e fe a tu re . W h e t h e r o r n o t it h a s d e e p e r m e a n i n g s — a n d
th u s t h e e n t i r e A f r o c e n t r i s m / a n t i e s s e n t i a l i s m d e b a t e — is a q u e s t i o n o u t s i d e o f
t h i n d e s c r i p t i o n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e t h i n d e s c r i p t i o n use o f A f r i c a n i c o n s to
Implications
r e p r e s e n t s p e c i f ic m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s o r s t r u c t u r e s ( e .g ., t h e t r i c k s t e r =
d i s o r d e r ) is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e j h i c k d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e s y m
b o ls i n t h e i r d e e p s e m i o t i c d y n a m i c s . P e l t o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) s e t s u p j u s t s u c h a c o n f l i c t ,
a n d p e r h a p s r i g h t l y s o — t h e r e h a s i n d e e d b e e n - a t e n d e n c y fo r s t r u c t u r a l i s t s to
c l a i m t h a t t h e y h a d r e d u c e d c u l t u r e t o its t r u e e s s e n c e . T h e i r e r r o r w as to
in s is t t h a t t h e s e b a r e - b o n e s s t r u c t u r e s w e r e t h e t r u l y d e e p m e c h a n i s m s o f c u l
t u r e , a n d t h a t t h e d i s c u r s i v e p la y o f m e a n i n g s h o u l d b e d i s r e g a r d e d as s h a l l o w
d i s t r a c t i o n . A s l o n g as w e k e e p t h e t h i c k s t u f f as t h e d e e p , a n d t h e p a r e d -
d o w n s t r u c t u r e s as t h e s u r f a c e , t h e r e is n o c o n f l i c t .
W h i l e t h e l a c k o f A f r i c a n u n i t y in “ t w i n n e s s ” is n o t a p r o b l e m fo r t h o s e
. c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h d e e p e r m e a n i n g s , w o u l d n ’t it p r e s e n t a p r o b l e m f o r t h i n l y
"7 d e s c r ip ti o n ? T h a t is, if d o u b l i n g is s u p p o s e d to b e a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f A f r i c a n y
m a t h e m a t i c s , t h e n h o w d o e s o n e e x p l a i n t h e A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s t h a t d o n o t u se
it? I n d e e d , h o w is f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y s u p p o s e d to b e a n _ A f r i c a n k n o w l e d g e s y s te m
if t h e e x a m p le s o f its use are so d isparately s c a tte r e d across t h e c o n t i n e n t ? T o a n sw er
th is q u e s tio n , we n e e d to c o n sid e r w h a t W i t t g e n s te in c alled a “family re s e m b la n c e .”
W h e n w e lo o k a t t h e p h o t o g r a p h o f a la r g e fa m ily w e c a n s e e t h a t e v e r y o n e is
r e l a t e d , e v e n if t h e r e is n o s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t t h e y all s h a r e ( s o m e h a v e
b ig n o s e s a n d s o m e s m a ll, s o m e l i g h t h a i r a n d s o m e d a r k , e t c . ) . I n t h e s a m e way,
it is n o t u n c o m m o n for a g ro u p o f m a t h e m a t i c a l id e a s t o s h a r e m a n y c o m m o n
a l i ti e s w i t h o u t a s i n g u l a r e s s e n c e . I n J a m e s G l e i c k ’s ( 1 9 8 7 ) h i s t o r y o f c h a o s
th e o r y , fo r e x a m p l e , h e sh o w s t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s as a dis
c i p l i n e w as d u e t o a s lo w g a t h e r i n g o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s o f m a t h e m a t i c s —
s t r a n g e a t t r a c t o r s , f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y , c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a , a n d s o o n . I n o r d e r for
s c i e n t i s t s t o c o l l a b o r a t e o n t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e r e w a s a l o n g p e r i o d in w h i c h
s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s w o r k e d h a r d to p o i n t o u t t h e fa m ily r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e s e d i s
p a r a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l to o l s , a n d m a n y a s p e c t s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e still
u n c e r t a i n today. Sim ilarly, A fr i c a n fractal g e o m e try is n o t a s i n g u la r b o d y o f k n o w l
ed g e , b u t r a t h e r a p a t t e r n o f r e s e m b l a n c e t h a t c a n b e s e e n w h e n w e d e s c r i b e a
w i d e v a r i e t y o f A f r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c a l i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s . A n d as w e sa w in t h e
c a s e o f B a n n e k e r ' s q u i n c u n x , it is n o t t h e o n l y p a t t e r n p o ss ib le .
P a rticip a n t s i m u la tio n
W h e t h e r o n e b e l i e v e s i n G e e r t z 's t h i c k d e s c r i p t i o n o r in s o m e o t h e r m e t h o d for
re s e a r c h in g t h e d e e p e r m e a n i n g s o f a lo cal c u ltu re , a n d n o p o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l ly agree
t h a t it re q u ire s lo n g - te r m local e t h n o g r a p h i c study. M y thin, d e s c r i p t i o n field w ork
^ l a s t e d o n l y a y e a r a n d m o v e d t h r o u g h S e n e g a l , M a l i, B u r k i n a F a so , T h e G a m
b ia , C a m e r o o n , B e n i n , a n d G h a n a . T h i s d is p e r s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n is q u i t e u n l i k e
T heoretical jYameivorks m cultural studies
w h a t is u n d e r t a k e n b y m o s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , w h o o f t e n s p e n d a c o u p l e o f years
in o n e v illa g e a l o n e , u sin g “p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n ” to tr a v e r s e t h e d e p t h s o f th e
lo c a l c u l t u r e by a c t i v e l y l i v i n g it. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n i m p o r t a n t j h f f e r e n c e :
I w as n o t t r y in g t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e Y o ru b a e x p e r i e n c e grief, o r t o d e t e r m i n e
' t h e i n n e r m e a n i n g o f c o m m u n a l sp irit a m o n g t h e B ak a. M y i n t e r e s t was p rim a rily
in t h e f o r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f d e s i g n , in m e t h o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d in o t h e r
t e c h n i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t c o u ld o f t e n b e a n s w e r e d in a d i r e c t a n d s i m p l e fa s h io n .
M a n y o f t h e A f r i c a n s 1 s p o k e w i t h w e r e c l e a r l y r e l i e v e d t o h e a r t h a t 1 w as a
m a t h e m a t i c i a n . - * O f c o u r s e 1 w as s t il l f a c e d w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e s a m e p r o b l e m s
i n v o l v i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c u r a c y a n d a u t h o r i t y ( s e e C l i f f o r d 1 9 8 3 ). B u t e v e n
th e s e w ere s o m e tim e s d ifferen tly p o sed. In p a rtic u la r, 1 b e g a n to t h i n k o f my
m e t h o d o l o g y n o t as p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r as p articip an t simulation,
se e k in g to c o l l a b o r a t i o n m a th e m a tic a l a n aly sis a n d v ir tu a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n
w ith m y A fricari co lleag u es.
P a r t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n w as c a r r i e d o u t to c o n c l u s i o n o n ly in t h e r e s e a r c h
w ith C h r i s t i a n S i n a D i a t t a , h u t 1 tr ie d t o m a i n t a i n t h e p ra c t ic e a t s o m e level w ith
e v e r y o n e I h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o w o r k w i t h . T h a t m e a n t h a u l i n g d ia g r a m s of
f r a c ta l g r a p h i c s w i t h m e i n t o t h e e q u a t o r i a l r a i n f o r e s t a n d a c ro s s t h e s a v a n n a h ,
a n d d i s r u p t i n g r e s e a r c h t i m e w i t h m a t h le c t u r e s , b u t in t h e e n d it w as w ell
w o r t h i t 7 T h e r e w as t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m t h a t s o m e o n e w h o k n e w w h a t 1 was
afte r m i g h t f a b r i c a t e w h a t 1 w a n t e d t o h e a r (as in Sc. L o uis, S e n e g a l , w h e n o n e
o f t h e local c h i l d r e n h e a r d nJe t a l k i n g a b o u t B e n j a m i n B a n n e k e r a n d c l a i m e d
t o k n o w h i m p e r s o n a l l y ) , / v ’m o r e p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m w as m y r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e i r
sugg estio ns, as o c c u r r e d in m y in itia l d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h tire la c k o f p la c e v a lu e
n o t a t i o n in che B a m a n a d i v i n a t i o n c o d e , o r h e a r i n g che d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e o s c i l
la to ry s n a k e as “ D a n a t w o r k ” (a ll 1 c o u l d t h i n k o f a t t h e t i m e w as a r o a d c o n
s tr u c ti o n s ig n ). O f c o u rs e , th e r e are a lw a y s th e a fte re ffe c ts — S e n e g a le s e
s o c i o lo g i s t F a to u S o w sa id “ if t h e r e a r e n o t f r a c ta l s in A f r i c a n o w , t h e r e surely
will h e by t h e t i m e y o u l e a v e ”— h u t t h e n t h a t is a fe a t u r e o f all e t h p o g r a p h y ; j u i d
p a r t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n is a b o ur t u r n i n g thac_inco _ a n .a d v a n t a g e .
T h e r e a s o n c o l l a b o r a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s ..like p a r t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n w e r e n o t
t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d in e t h n o g r a p h y c o m e s f r o m c o n c e r n s o v e r a c c u r a c y — t h e
desire to-ol 5 t a i n a n o b j e c t i v e a c c o u n t — a n d c o n c e r n s o v e r a u th o r it y , a s u s p ic io u s
m o t iv e in tj^e c o l o n i a l c o n t e x t o f m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l a n th r o p o lo g y . C liffo rd ( 1 9 8 3 )
d e s c r ib e s t h e m o v e t o w a r d c o l l a b o r a n v e ’t e c h n i q u e s as b o t h t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ’
o w n s e l f - c r it iq u e o f a u t h o r i t y a n d as a g r o w in g r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t s i n c e t h e e t h n o
g r a p h e r h a s as m u c h m o t i v a t i o n as t h e i n f o r m a n t d o e s, a c c u r a c y a n d o b j e c t i v
ity c a n b e b e t t e r a p p r o a c h e d hy s h a r i n g a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n d i g e n o u s v o i c e s t h a n
by u sing t h e m in a k i n d o f v e n t r i l o q u i s t a c t. S i m p l y p r o c l a i m i n g a c o l l a b o r a t i v e
184 Implications
a p p r o a c h is o f c o u r s e n o g u a r a n t e e t h a t y o u w ill h a v e o n e , a n d j i a r t i c i p a n t s i m
u l a t i o n is p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e s u s c e p tib l e t o m a n i p u l a t i o n d u e t o . t h e ro le o f te c h -
n o lo g i c a l^ e x p e r tj s e ,
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s i n c e d i e c re a t i o n o f v i r t u a l w o r l d s — s i m u l a t i o n s — is
irk so m e w ays t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g fake, p a r t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n d o e s h a v e
t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a v o i d i n g s o m e o l d - f a s h i o n e d c o n c e p t s o f a u t h e n t i c i t y . It w as, ^
a f t e r all, t h e c r e a t i o n p f a n “a u t h e n t i c n a t i y e ” (s e e A p p a d u r a i 1 9 9 5 ) t h a t h e l p e d
/ c o l o n i s t s t o ja il r e b e l s a m o n g b la c k S o u t h A f r i c a n s a n d N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s ; a n d
! o n e c o u ld e v e n h e a r t h e o c c a s i o n a l g u il t- r id d e n l a m e n t a m o n g t h e c o l o n i a l rulers
| t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s w e r e to b l a m e for h a v i n g a c c i d e n t a l l y p o l l u t e d t h e n a t u r a l
| p u r i t y o f th e s e “c h i l d r e n o f t h e f o r e s t” w i t h t h e i r o w n t r o u b l i n g a rtific e ( s e e t h e
^ a p a r t h e i d c u l t u r e c o m e d y , T h e G o d s M u s t Be C r a ^ ) . L o c a t i n g i n d i g e n o u s a c ti v -
1ity in v ir tu a l w o rld s c a n , if d o n e p roperly, c o u n te r ^ th i s h a b i t u a l t e n d e n c y to p la c e
a r t ifi c ia l o n t h e W e s t e r n s i d e a n d n a t u r a l o n t h e i n d i g e n o u s sid e. .
D o in g it p r o p e r ly re lie s o n t h e o t h e r ro o t, w h ic h c o m e s fro m t h e o ld -
f a s h i o n e d — a n d , 1 t h i n k , s t il l c r u c i a l — m e t h o d o f p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n .
P a r tic ip a n t o b s e r v a tio n re c ru its a k in d o f re s p o n sib ility t h a t c a n be sadly la c k
in g in v i r t u a l e t h n o g r a p h i e s . T a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e g r o w i n g fie ld o f c y b e r
e t h n o g r a p h y , in w h i c h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s t u d y t h e v i r t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s o f t h e
I n t e r n e t . S i n c e “l u r k i n g " ( o b s e r v i n g t h e e l e c t r o n i c e x c h a n g e s w i t h o u t p a r t i c i
p a t i n g ) is s o easy, t h e r e h a v e b e e n a n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s in w h i c h t h e e t h n o g
r a p h e r is r e d u c e d t o e a v e s d r o p p e r o r spy, w i t h n o a t t e m p t t o w o r k w i t h t h e
c o m m u n i t y in e i t h e r o f f - l i n e o r o n - l i n e liv e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e c r u i t s c a n
in c lu d e b o th d ra fte e s, w h o h a v e little real in te re s t in w o rk in g c o lla b o ra tiv e ly ,
a n d f a n a t i c s , 'w h o a t e all t o o i n t e r e s t e d in w h a t G a y a t r i S p i v a k ( 1 9 8 7 ) c a ll s t h e
“b e n e v o l e n c e o f t h e w e s t e r n g a z e .”
T h u s p a r t i c i p ^ ^ s i m u l a d o n . js_an_atternpt to t a k e t h e b e s t o f bo th ^ a p p ro a ch es,
a n d t o u se t h e m in a k i n d o f c h e c k s - n n d - b a l a n c e s s y s te m . By in s i s t i n g o n p a r
t i c i p a t i o n w e .c a n h e l p a y o i d _ g l i b j r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; and . by u s i n g s i m u l a t i o n w e c a n
strive to a v e rt th e p o lic in g o f b o u n d a rie s a r o u n d c o n s m ic t ip n s o f a u th e n tic ity
a n d re a lis m . F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w w e d o n o t n e e d t o e m p h a s i z e t r a d i t i o n o v e r
i n v e n t i o n ; t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l c r e a t i o n s o f a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l a re s till e x a m p l e s
o f i n d i g e n o u s m a t h e m a t i c s , e v e n if s h e is t h e o n l y o n e w h o k n o w s t h e y e x is t.
T h e r e a r e c l e a r a d v a n t a g e s to a m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t c a n c r e d i t t h e i n v e n t i o n s o f
a single in d iv id u a l, b u t w h a t a b o u t th o s e c r e a t io n s t h a t d o n o t h a v e a single i n v e n
tor? A s we s a w in t h e c a s e o f c o m p l e x i t y in c h a p t e r i o , it is p o s s ib le t o e r r o n
T heoretical fra m e w o rk s in cu ltu ra l studies I
che o c h e r s i d e by i n s is t in g c h a t c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i o n s c a n o n l y c o m e f r o m s i n g u
lar i n v e n t o r s . A b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f tht's p r o b l e m £ a n b e g a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e
c o n tr ast b e tw e e n e th n o m a c h e m a tic s a n d m a th e m a tic a l, an th ro p o lo g y . M a th e -
.rn.atical a n t h r o p o l o g y is g e n e r a l ly fo c u s e d o n r e v e a l i n g p a t t e r n s t h a t are n o t c o n -
' sc io u sly d e t e c t e d by its s u b j e c t s o f s tu d y . I n p a r t t h i s is d u e t o a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t
m a n y o f t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f s o c i e ty a re f o r c e s u n n o t i c e d by its m e m b e r s — n o t
o n ly b e c a u se s u c h forces o p e r a t e d a t le v e ls b e y o n d in d iv id u a l a w a ren ess; b u t a ls o „
b e c a u s e r e g u l a to r y m e c h a n i s m s w o u l d h a v e t o be c o v e r t , o b s c u r e d , o r o th e r w i s e '
p r o t e c t e d fr o m m a n i p u l a t i o n a n d c o n s c i o u s r e f l e c t i o n . For th e s e rea s o n s, m a t h e
m a t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y m a k e s g o o d s e n s e , a n d it h a s i n d e e d p r o d u c e d w o n d e r f u l
i n s ig h t s . B u t its e m p h a s i s o n u n c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s a ls o aro se fr o m i m i t a t i o n o f
t h e r e s e a r c h e r - o b j e c t r e l a t i o n in t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s : if a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w e re
s i m p l y r e p o r t i n g i n d i g e n o u s d i s c o u r s e , t h e n t h e y w o u ld n o t c o u n t as s c i e n t i s t s .
T h i s p ro b le m o f m e re re p o r tin g is in d e e d t h e c a se for “ n o n - W e s t e r n m a t h e m a t i c s , ”
w h i c h is m a i n ly fo c u s e d o n d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n s f o r C h i n e s e , H i n d u , a n d M u s lim ,
m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h u s c o n s i d e r e d a s u b j e c t for h i s t o r i a n s . H e n c e m a t h e m a t i c a l
a n t h r o p o l o g y ’s t e n d e n c y t o a v o i d i n t e n t i o n a l i c y c a n b e p r o b l e m a t i c .
T h e T n t e n t i o n a l i c y p r o b j e m in m a t h e m a t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y c a n b e s e e n in
K o l o s e i k e ’sM-J-9.74) m o d e l fo r m u d t e r r a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e lo w h i l l s o f
E c u a d o r. ^ o l o s e i k t J b e g a n w i t h t w o h y p o t h e s e s : e i t h e r t h e I n d i a n s l e a r n e d fro m
th e ln c a s t o n e te rra c e s in t h e h i g h m o u n t a i n s a b o v e , o r th e y w e re u n i n t e n t i o n a l
b y - p r o d u c ts o f c u l t i v a t i o n o n h il ls id e s . H e t h e n m a d e a list o f n i n e o b s e r v a t i o n s
t h a t w e re r e l e v a n t t o d e c i d i n g bet< veen t h e tw o . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a re t h e
fo llo w in g :
I n a d d i t i o n , it rev eals a p a r t i c u l a r c u lt u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s u p p o s e d un i-
I v ersal a t t r i b u t e o f “ i n t e n t i o n . ” A s a W e s t e r n e r , K o l o s e i k e is u s e d t o a s o c i e t y in
a h u rry . P r o j e c t s t o b e . d o n e m u s t g e t d o n e , a n d a lw a y s w i t h s o m e o n e in c h a r g e .
! T h e i d e a o f a l o n g - t e r m i n t e n t i o n a l p r o j e c t , p e r h a p s ‘e x t e n d i n g o v e r s e v e r a l
■ g e n e r a t io n s , o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f c o ll e c ti v e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n in d iv id u a l
i n t e n t , is n o t b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I t m a y w e ll b e t h a t t h e m a t h e
m a t i c a l m o d e l K o lo s e i k e o ff e re d w a s n o t o n l y a c c u r a t e , h u t a ls o h a d a n in d i g e -
1 nous co u n terp art.
E t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s , in c o n t r a s t , h a s e m p h a s iz e d t h e p o s s ib il it ie s fo r i n d i g e
n o u s i n t e n t i o n a l i t y in m a t h e m a t i c a l p a t t e r n s . "For e x a m p l e , G e r d e s ' . ( i 9 9 i ) used
t h e L u s o n a s a n d d r a w i n g s o f t h e C h o k w e p e o p l e o f n o r t h e a s t e r n A n g o l a to
d e m o n s t r a t e i n d i g e n o u s m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e . W h i l e it w o u ld h a v e b e e n
p ossible to a t t r i b u t e this p r a c t ic e to a n u n c o n s c i o u s so c ia l p ro cess, s u c h as t h e reg
u l a t i o n o f a u th o r it y , G e r d e s c h o s e to focus o n t h e i r propertjes_as.£p.Qscjous_indige-
n o u s i n v e n t i o n s . A s c h e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) n o t e s t h e s a m e cype o f E u l e r i a n p a t h d ra w in g s
in t h e S o u t h Pacific, a n d s h o w s t h e m t o be p r i m a r i l y m o t i v a t e d hy s y m b o l i c n a r
ra t iv e s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e i r use b y t h e M a l e k u l a i s la n d e r s as a n a b s t r a c t m a p p i n g
o f k i n s h i p r e l a ti o n s . A g a i n , t h i s is in s t r o n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f m a t h e
m a t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , w h e r e k i n s h i p a lg e b r a w as c o n s i d e r e d a t r i u m p h o f W e s t
e r n a n a ly s is (arid e v e n a s o u r c e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l s e l f - c r i t i q u e ; K ay t i 9 7 1 ] h a r s h ly
n o t e s t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ’ t e n d e n c y to i n v e n t a n e w " p s e u d o - a l g e b r a ” for v a rio u s
k i n s h i p sy s te m s r a t h e r t h a n a p p ly o n e u n i v e r s a l s t a n d a r d ) .
, A sch er); d e sc rip tio n o f th e N a tiv e A m e r ic a n g a m e of D is h show s th is
c o n tr a s t Tn a m o re su b tle form, i n t h e C a y u g a v e rs io n o f t h e g a m e , six p e a c h stones,
b l a c k e n e d o n o n e sid e, a re to s se d , a m X th e n u m b e r s l a n d i n g b l a c k sid e o r b r o w n
sid e u p w e re re c o r d e d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l C a y u g a p o i n t s c o r e s fo r e a c h o u t c o m e are
( t o t h e n e a r e s t i n t e g e r v a l u e ) in v e r s e ly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r o b a b i li ty . A s c h e r
d o e s n o t p o s i t a n i n d i v i d u a l C a y u g a g e n iu s w h o d i s c o v e r e d p r o b a b i l i t y th e o ry ,
n o r d o e s s h e e x p l a i n t h e p a t t e r n as m e r e ly a n u n i n t e n t i o n a l e p i p h e n o m e n o n o f
r e p e a t e d a c ti v it y . R a t h e r , h e r d e s c r i p t i o n (p . 9 3 ) is f o c u s e d o n h o w t h e g a m e is
e m b e d d e d in c o m m u n i t y c e r e m o n i a l s , s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f s , a n d h e a l i n g ri tu a l s ,
s p e c ific a lly t h r o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f “c o m m u n a l p l a y i n g ” i n w h i c h w i n n i n g s 3 re
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e g ro u p r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e i n d i vidual''p.lnve.r. J u x t a p o s i n g th i s c o n -
t e x t w7 t h T l 'e t a il e e r a t te n t io n t o a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s . o f r a n d o m n e s s a n d p r e d i c ta b i li ty
in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e g a m e — in p a r t i c u l a r rite id e a o f “e x p e c t e d .v alu es " a s s o
c i a t e d w i t K s u c c e s s iv e to sses— h a s t h e e f f e c t o f a t t r i b u t i n g t h e i n v e n t i o n o f
p r o b a b i l i t y a s s i g n m e n t s to c o l l e c t i v e i n t e n t .
A t th e s k e p tic a l e x t r e m e in e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s , D o n a l d C r o w e has re frain ed
fr o m m a k i n g a n y i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d in s is t s t h a t h is s t u d ie s o f
Theoretical fra m e w o rk s in cultural studies 187
s y m m e t r y in i n d i g e n o u s p a t t e r n c r e a t i o n s (s e e W a s h b u r n a n d C r o w e 1 9 8 8 ) are
sim ply e x am p les o f ap p lied m a th e m a tic s . B ut sin ce C ro w e has re s tric te d h is /
/’ w o rk to o n ly t h o s e p a t t e r n s w h i c h c o u ld b e a t t r i b u t e d to c o n s c i o u s d e s ig n ( p a i n t -
ing, c a r v i n g a n d w e a v i n g ) , it c re a t e s t h e o p p o s i t e '^ f f e c t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l a n t h r o - )
.-1 p o l o g y ’s a t t e m p t to e l i m i n a t e i n d i g e n o u s i n t e n t . T h i s is e v i d e n c e d b y C r o w e ’s /
d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e use o f th e s e p a t t e r n s in m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n , p a r t ic u l a r ly h is C
/ !
C, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e in N i g e r i a d u r i n g t h e la t e 1 960s, w h i c h g re a t ly c o n t r i b u t e d , ' ’
' | t o Z a s la v s k y ’s ( 1 9 7 3 ) s e m i n a l t e x t , A fr ic a C o u n t s .
W h i l e n o n - W e s t e r n m a t h e m a t i c s is e x c l u s i v e l y f o c u s e d o n d i r e c t t r a n s
l a t i o n s ( s u c h as H i n d u a lg e b r a o r M u s l i m g e o m e t r y ) , e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s c a n b e
o p e n t o a n y s y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n d i s c e r n a b l e t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r . In f a c t , e v e n t h a t
d e s c r i p t i o n is t o o r e s t r i c t i v e : , b e f o r e G e r d e s ’s s t u d y t h e r e . w a s n o W e s t e r n c a t e
gory o f “re c u r siv e ly g e n e r a t e d E u le r i a n p a t h s ” ; it was o n ly in t h e a c t o f t h e i r p a r - C "
t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n t h a t G e r d e s — a n d t h e C h o k w e — C re a te d t h a t h y b r i d . A n d
u n lik e m a th e m a tic a l a n th ro p o lo g y , e t h n o m a th e m a ti c s p uts a n e m p h a s is o n
t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s i n t e n t t o t h e s e p a t t e r n s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , it
d e m a n d s q u a n t i t a t i v e o r g e o m e t r i c c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t is l a c k i n g i n t h e p u r e l y
i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h o f N e w A g e m y s ti c is m , s u c h as t h a t o f F r i t j o f C a p r a ’s T a o
o f P h y sic s (s e e c r i t i q u e s in R e s t i v o 1 9 8 5 ) . C l a i m s t h a t a n c i e n t k n o w l e d g e sy s
t e m s r e v e a l t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a t o m o r t h e e q u i v a l e n c e o f m a .tte r a n d e n e r g y
d o m o r e h a r m t h a n g o o d — first b e c a u s e th e y a re w ro n g , a n d s e c o n d b e c a u s e t h e r e
is n o m e a n s by w h i c h su c h k n o w le d g e c o u ld be o b t a i n e d . S u c h m y s tific a tio n d a m
ages c r e d i b l e r e s e a r c h in i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e sy s te m s , a n d r e m o v e s t h e a ttr.b
b u t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o r fr o m t h e p u t a t i v e k n o w e r s .
W e a re in c r e a s i n g ly s u r r o u n d e d by e x p l a n a t i o n s j a a s e d o n b io l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n
ism, a n d t h e r e is n o n e m o r e v i r u l e n t t h a n r a c i s m } E v e n in t h e s u p p o s e d li b e ra l
c lim a te o f U .S . a c a d e m ja , m y le ctu re s o n fractiilsTn A fric a are f r e q u e n tl y follow ed
by a qu ,estio n .ab o q t n e u ro s c ie n C e rT y p ic a lly this is a n i n n o c e n t re m a rk c o n c e r n i n g
N o a m ( b h o m s k y ’s id e a s o n u n i v e r s a l c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e , b u t e v e n so, it is q u i t e
te llin g t h a t a l e c t u r e o n E u r o p e a n f r a c ta l s in v o k e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e g e n i u s o f
in d iv id u a ls , w h i l e A f r i c a n fr a c ta ls a r e c o m p u l s i v e l y a t t a c h e d to bio logy.
T h e m y t h o l o g y o f r a c e is to o c o m p l e x t o r e c o u n t h e r e (s e e ^ n o te 6 ) , b u t it
is useful to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t w o c a t e g o r i e s o f racism .( P r i m i t i v i s t racism..^
o p erates by m a k i n g a g ro u p o f p e o p le t o o c o n c r e t e , a n d j . h u s “clo ser_to n a t u r e ”—
n o t re ally a c u l t u r e a t all, b u t r a t h e r b e in g s o f u n c o n t r o l l e d e m o t i o n a n d d i r e c t
’ LT.l T I ?! rrrw^i •»
Implications
q u i t e r i g h t in o b j e c t i n g t o t h e w ild le a p f r o m e m p i r i c a l te s ts o f a s m a ll w o o d e n
c a r v i n g to t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e c la i m s fo r a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s flying fr o m p y ra m id s ;
b u t to im ply t h a t sim p le e x p e r i m e n t s a re a u t o m a t i c a l l y s u s p e c t b e c a u s e t h e y w e re
m a d e by a t e c h n i c i a n is n o t h i n g h u t cln ssist p r e j u d i c e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e
fact t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h e r w as a t e c h n i c i a n r a t h e r t h a n a P h D sp e a k s to t h e u n d e r
lyin g c a u s e for th e s e p ro b l e m s : t h e l a c k o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s o u rc e s a n d p re c a r io u s
e c o n o m i c s a m o n g m a n y b la c k e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s .
A p p e a ls to a n c i e n t E gypt c a n also e n c o u n t e r p ro b le m s as a s trateg y o f s a m e
ness. O n t h e o n e h a n d , a n c i e n t E g y p t ’s s t a t u s as a s t a t e e m p i r e d i r e c t l y o p p o s e s
p r i m i t i v i s t a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t A f r i c a c o n s i s t s o f n o t h i n g b u t tr i b a l v illa g e s . O n
t h e o t h e r h a n d , it r e i n f o r c e s t h e v ie w t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e s y s te m s o f n o n s t a t e
in d ig en o u s societies are n o t c o m p a r a b le to th o s e o f s t a te societies. T h i s vie w cotn es
fr o m t h e o ld id e a o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n as a l a d d e r , a u n i l i n e a l .. p r o g r e s s io n fr o m
“p r i m i t i v e ” t o “a d v a n c e d . ” I n t h e l a d d e r m ^ d e L i h g „ s m a l l - s c a l e d e c e n t r a l i z e d
(“b a n d ”) s o c i e ti e s w o u ld b e o n t h e b o t t o m ru n g , t h e m o r e h i e r a r c h i c a l ( “ tr i b a l ” )
s o c ie tie s w o u ld be o n t h e n e x t r u n g , a n d t h e m o s t h i e r a r c h i c a l ( “st a te " ) s o c ie tie s
w o u ld b e o n th e t o p ru n g . O f c o u rs e , sim p ly p o s i ti n g t h a t t h e s o c ie tie s w i t h c o m
p l e x so c ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n (e.g., l a b o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y ) h a v e
g r e a t e r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y is n o t i n h e r e n t l y d e m e a n i n g ; b u t it is n o t
/"'entirely a c c u r a t e . A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s p e r s i s t e n t l y s h o w n t h a t n e i t h e r ^
I s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s n o r t h e i r k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s c a n b e c o n s i s t e n t l y r a n k e d in a '
J u n i l i n e a ! s e q u e n c e ; f o r e x a m p l e , m o n o t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n s t e n d t o o c c u r in b a n d ^
a n d s t a t e s o c i e t i e s m o r e t h a n in t r i b a l . J u s t as b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n h a s b e e n
re v is e d f r o m Lo.vejQ.y’j “g r e a t c h a i n o f b e i n g ” to. G o u l d ’s “c o p io u s ly ,j> ra n c h i n g
b u s h ,”^ so t o o c u l t u r al e v o l u t i o n is n o w ty p ic a lly p o r t r a y e d as a b r a n c h i n g d i v e r
sity o f fo rm s. T h e r e is n 6 r e a s o n t o f o c u s - o n s t a t e s o c i e t i e s o v e r n o n s t a t e s o c i
e ti e s in t h e p u r s u i t o f a n t i p r i t m t i v i s r p o r t r a i t s .
T h e d if fic u ltie s o f t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s in the. e p i s t e m o l o g y o f n o n s t a t e
s o cieties h a v e b e e n m u c l i m q r e mixecl. A p p i a h ( 1 9 9 2 ) p ro v i d e s a n e x t e n s i v e d is
c u s s io n o f t h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n , s t a r t i n g w i t h e th n o p h i l o 's o p h y . H is a n a ly s is w e a v e s
( b e t w e e n t h e positions, o f W ire d 'q ( 1 9 7 9 ) , w h o c r i t i q u e s t h e fo cu s o n c o m p a r i s o n
to W e s t e r n s c i e n c e r a th e r'tlV a n r e l i g i o n ( n o t i n g t h a t it le a v e s t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s
[ a n d folk p h i l o s o p h i e s o f t h e W e s t u n e x a m i n e d ) , a n d E ^ u n t o n d | i ) ( i 9 8 3 ) , w h o (
\ a r g u e s a g a in s t a n y m i m e t i c c o m p a r i s o n , s u g g e s tin g t h a t etKiTO'pFfilosophy a n d i t s \
laities a re d r e s s in g E u r o p e a n m o t i v a t i o n s in a u t o c h t h o n o u s g a rb . B o t h c r i t i q u e s )
^could c e r t a i n l y b e a p p l i e d to A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s . B u t lik e M u d i m b e ’s ( 1 9 8 8 ) F o u -
cau ltian analysis o f A fric a n epistem ology, a n d G i l r o y ’s (1 9 9 3 ) fractal history ( w h ic h
we wit! e x a m i n e in t h e f o l lo w in g c h a p t e r ) , A p p i a h ' s d i a l e c t i c a l c o n t o u r m a p s
A f r i c a n e p i s t e m o l o g y as a n h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a n o b j e c t o f s t r i c t l y
190 Implications
p re - o r p o s t - W c s t e r n p r e s e n c e . T h e c a u t i o n s o f W i r c d u , H o u n t o n d j i , a n d o t h
ers a re serio u s r e m i n d e r s t h a t A f r i c a n fra ctals c a n o n l y s u c c e e d as p a r t i c i p a n t s i m
u l a t i o n , n o t as I n d i a n a - J o n e s d i s c o v e r i n g - a n o t h e r l o s t t e m p l e .
( G i v e n th o s e p r e c a u t io n s , it m a k e s s e n s e to see A f r i c a n fr a c ta ls as ju s t
a n o t h e r m o m e n t in a h i s t o r i c a l s e q u e n c e . O n e c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , p l a c e
t h e m i n M u d i m b e ’s h i s t o r y o f e t h n o p h i l o s o p h y , o r Z a s l a v s k y ’s ( 1 9 7 3 ) h i s t o r y
o f research o n A fric a n m a th . B ut th e re are o th e r rese a rc h e rs w h o h a v e p o in ted
o u t so m e o f th e fractal c h a ra c te ris tic s o f A f ric a n d e sig n s a n d p ra c tic e s , a n d
i t is u s e f u l t o e x a m i n e t h e m as a g r o u p , e v e n if t h e y l a c k t h e c l e a r h i s t o r i c a l
tr a je c to ry o f o t h e r c ate g o ries. W e h a v e a lre a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e o b s e r v a tio n of
n o n l i n e a r s c a l i n g by B n t i s h ’a r t h i s t o r i a n W i l l i a m ^ a g g ^ c h a p t e r 6 ) , a n d tjhe
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c a l i n g d e s i g n s as s i g r d f i e r s o f t j T f i m . t y j j i th e .,w p rk .-.o f
C a m e y p o m a n t h .^ o lo g tj p u E n g e l b e r t M v e n g ( c h a p t e r 9 ) . L e o p o l d S e n g h o r ,
t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d m a n o f l e t t e r s w h o b e c a m e S e n e g a l ’s first p r e s i d e n t , a ls o h a d
a n e y e fo r A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s . H is t e r m w a s “d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y , ” w h i c h h e t o o k
f r o m arc h i s t o r i a n s . B u t S e n g h o r ’s m o t i v a t i o n w a s p r i m a r i l y id e o l o g y ; d e f i n
in g a “ n e g r i t u d e ” t h a t w o u l d e n c o m p a s s t h e k i n d o f c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s h e saw
as n e c e s s a r y t o i n d e p e n d e n c e . M o s t r e c e n t l y , H e n r y L o u i s ^ a t f i ^ ( 1 9 8 8 )
e x p l o r e d t h e d o u b l i n g p r a c t i c e s o f v o d u n d i v i n a t i o n in t e r m s o f j a j i t e r a r y v e r
sion o f d e te rm in is tic ch ao s; here th e re c u rsio n g e n e ra te s a c u ltu ra l u n c e rta in ty
tK a tT re e s g e n d e r i d e n t i t y f r o m s t a t i c b o u n d a r i e s : “T h e F o n a n d Y o ru b a e s c a p e
t h e W e s t e r n v e rs io n o f d iscu rsiv e se x ism th r o u g h t h e a c ti o n o f d o u b lin g th e
d o u b l e ; t h e n u m b e r 4 a n d its m u l t i p l e s a r e s a c r e d in Y o r u b a m e t a p h y s i c s . E s u ’s '
t w o s i d e s ‘d i s c l o s e a h i d d e n w h o l e n e s s , ’ r a t h e r t h a n c l o s i n g o f f u n i t y , t h r o u g h
t h e o p p o s i t i o n , t h e y s i g n if y t h e p a s s a g e f r o m o n e t o t h e o t h e r as s e c t i o n s o f
a subsum ed w h o le .”
W h i l e all four h a v e h i t u p o n m a t h e m a t i c a l a s p e c ts o f A f r i c a n fractals, n o n e
o f th e s e a u th o r s h a v e focused o n re p r e s e n ta t io n s o f m a t h e m a t ic a l k n o w led g e.
M v e n g , t h e t h e o l o g i a n , p r o v i d e s a t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Fagg, t h e a r t i s t ,
c o n c l u d e s w i t h a c o m p a r i s o n t o D ’A r c y T h o m p s o n ’s f a m o u s n a t u r e d r a w in g s .
S e n g h o r , t h e s t a t e s m a n , se e s h is d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y as a s i g n o f c u l t u r a l — a n d
t h u s n a t i o n a l — id e n tity . A n d G a t e s , as a li te r a ry c r i t i c , sees it as d is c u rs iv e t e c h
n i q u e . S u r e l y m y in s i s t e n c e o n i n d i g e n o u s m a t h e m a t i c s is n o less a n i m p o s i t i o n
o f s e e i n g t h e w o r ld t h o u g h m y o w n le n s e s , b u t s i n c e t h a t is n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s , w h y d o e s e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s a p p e a r t o b e so m u c h
m o r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l ? I t is b e c a u s e a p o r t r a i t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n in
n o n s ta te societies creates a strong c o n flic t w ith th e o ld lad d er m odel of cu ltu ral
e v o l u t i o n , a m o d e l t h a t is itse lf o v e r d u e fo r e x t i n c t i o n .
Theoretical fra m e w o rk s in cu ltu ra l studies
ConclMsion
S o fa r w e h a v e o u t l i n e d s e v e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s t h a t c o u l d r a i s e p r o b
l e m s f o r A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e ^ a r e t h e o r i e s in w h i c h t h e
d e s i g n s c o u l d b e d is m i s s e d as u n c o n s c i o u s b i o l o g i c a l o r s o c i a l p r o c e s s . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , g reat care m u st be t a k e n to a v o id e it h e r in flated claim s or a
m a th e m a tic a l v e rsio n o f n e g ritu d e . W i t h th e e x c e p tio n o f b io lo g ical d e te r
m in is m , n o n e o f th e fra m e w o rk s re v ie w e d h e r e are necessarily g o o d o r bad.
T h e r e a r e c a s e s in w h i c h m a t h e m a t i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y is m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e
t h a n t h e e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c a l a p p r o a c h , o r w h e n s a m e n e s s is a b e t t e r s t r a t e g y
th a n d ifferen ce, o r w h e n a t t e n t i o n to a n c ie n t Egypt n e e d s to su p ersede a t t e n
t i o n t o s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a — j u s t as t h e r e a r e c a s e s in w h i c h t h e o p p o s i t e is
tr u e . O u r g o a l is n o t t o f i n d t h e o n e t r u e f i n a l f r a m e w o r k — it d o e s n o t e x i s t —
. b u t t o k e e p a w e l l - s t o c k e d t o o l b o x a n d k n o w h o w t o p i c k t h e r i g h t t o o l fo r
t h e r i g h t j o b . N o w t h a t w e a r e w e l l p r e p a r e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e ta s k s , it is t i m e
to m o v e t o p o l i t i c s .
CHAPTER
— T h e ----
politics o f
—A frican—
—fractals™
G i v e n t h e p o s s ib le d a n g e r s in m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s , h o w c a n w e p u t
t h e m t o g o o d use? S o c ia l t h e o r i s t s fr o m m a n y d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s h a v e u se d tw o
m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s w e h a v e d is c u s s e d , r e c u r s i o n a n d t h e a n a l o g - d i g i t a l
d ic h o t o m y , in c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e i r ideologies. M a n y th e o r ie s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n h a v e
a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e is s o m e k i n d o f u n iv e r s a l e t h i c a l o r s o c ia l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
u s i n g a n a l o g s ig n a ls a n d u s i n g d i g i ta l s y m b o ls . O t h e r t h e o r i e s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d
t h a t re c u rsio n h a s so m e k in d o f u n iv ersal e th ic a l o r so cial valu e. B o th are u lti
m a t e l y fa ilu re s in t h e s e n s e t h a t e t h i c s a n d v a l u e s d o n o t lie w i t h i n m a t h e
m a t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . Yet t h e y a re a ls o o n t h e r i g h t t r a c k in t h a t s u c h a s s o c ia ti o n s
c a n b e locally fo rm ed — it is ju s t t h a t d iffere n t lo c a t io n s w ill re s u lt in d if fe re n t social
m e a n i n g s . S u c h lo c a lly s p ecifie d s o c i a l a t t a c h m e n t s t o f r a c t a l s c a n b e u se fu l for
u n d e r s t a n d i n g c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s in A f r i c a a n d b e y o n d .
T h e p o litic s o f t h e a n a lo g -d ig ita l d i s t i n c t i o n
J e a n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u is o f t e n c r e d i t e d as a f o u n d e r o f “ o r g a n i c r o m a n t i c i s m , ”
t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e N a t u r a l is i n h e r e n t l y b e t t e r t h a n t h e A r ti f ic i a l. W h e t h e r or
n o t t h i s is d e s e r v e d , J a c q u e s D e r r i d a ( 19 7 4 ) ta k e s h i m t o ta s k fo r p r o p o s i n g t h a t
a natu ral/artificial difference c a n be fo u n d b e tw e e n d iffe ren t languages. J e a n Jacqu es
T h e politics o f A fr ic a n fractals 193
R o u s s e a u p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e “n a t u r a l crys o f a n i m a l s , ” m u s ic , a n d “ a c c e n t u a t i o n ”
( t h a t is, p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n in t h e h u m a n v o i c e ) a r e all a s i m i l a r ty p e o f c o m
m u n i c a t i o n . I n t h i s I w o u ld t e n d t o a g re e , s i n c e i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s ic a n d h u m a n
p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n a re f o r . t h e m o s t p a r t a n a l o g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d s i n c e h e was
pro bably th in k in g o f a n a lo g ex am p les o f a n im a l c o m m u n ic a tio n (a lth o u g h
m a n y a n im a ls , fo r e x a m p l e v e r v e t m o n k e y s , use d ig i ta l c o m m u n i c a t i o n as w ell).
R o u s s e a u c o n t r a s t e d t h i s t o “a r t i c u l a t i o n ” i n t h e h u m a n v o i c e , by w h i c h h e
m e a n t t h e li n g u i s t i c ( a n d h e n c e d i g i t a l ) p a r t s o f s p e e c h . B u t i n s t e a d o f s e e i n g
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n as tw o d i f f e r e n t types o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , o n e a n a l o g a n d th e o t h e r
d i g i ta l , R o u s s e a u c l a i m e d t h a t a n a l o g s i g n a l s w e r e n o t a fo rm o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
a t all. In his view, dig ital versus a n a lo g was r e p r e s e n t a t i o n versus T h e R eal. M usic,
a n im a l cries, an d e m o tio n a l i n t o n a ti o n w ere s o m e h o w m o re n a tu r a l and
a u t h e n t i c . W o r s e y e t, h e i n f l a t e d t h i s i n t o a c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e , m a i n t a i n i n g
t h a t w h i l e E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s w e re la r g e ly b a s e d o n ( d i g i t a l ) a r t i c u l a t i o n , t h e
l a n g u a g e o f t h e n o b e l s a v a g e w as c l o s e r t o n a t u r e .
O n e m i g h t h o p e t h a t D e r r i d a w o u ld c o r r e c t t h e m a t t e r a n d p o i n t o u t t h a t
a n a l o g s ig n a ls a re ju s t as m u c h a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n — ju s t as m u c h fakes, j u s t as easy
t o lie o r te l l t r u t h w i t h , a n d j u s t as a r t if i c ia l— as d i g i t a l s y m b o ls are. B u t h e t o o
fa iled t o p r o d u c e a b a l a n c e d p o r t r a i t . D e r r i d a d i d in s ist t h a t all h u m a n lin g u is
tics is f u n d a m e n t a l l y dig ital ( q u ite tr u e ) , b u t h e d id n o t b o t h e r to say a w o rd a b o u t
o t h e r i n o d e s o f v o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h i s e r r o r is d u e t o D e r r i d a ’s c o n c e r n o v e r
che a u t h o r i t a r i a n id e o lo g y t h a t o r g a n i c r o m a n t i c i s m c a n p r o d u c e . For e x a m p l e ,
h is t o r y is full o f d i c t a t o r s w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i r e t h n i c g r o u p w as t h e re a l o r
n a t u r a l o n e , a n d t h a t o t h e r s w e re a r t i f i c i a l p o l l u t a n t s in t h e i r E d e n . R o u s s e a u
h i m s e l f d id n o t h a v e s u c h fa s c istic t e n d e n c i e s , b u t D e r r i d a is r i g h t in p o i n t i n g
o u t t h a t o r g a n i c rc m a n ti-c is r.v c a r. alv/ay s b e u s e d in t h a t w a y , n o m a t t e r w h o it
is c o m i n g fro m . * O n e n e e d n o t p a n i c so m u c h , h o w e v e r , a n d b a n i s h a n a l o g sig
n a ls fr o m e x i s t e n c e ; it is e n o u g h t o g iv e t h e m t h e s a m e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a t u s
as d i g i ta l s y m b o l s — n o m o r e a n d n o less.
1 h a v e f o u n d th is e g a l i t a r i a n v ie w o f t h e a n a l o g / d ig i ta l d i s t i n c t i o n v ery d if
ficult to p ro m o te ; it seem s t h a t e v e r y o n e h a s t h e i r o w n fav o rite view. W h e n 1 sp o k e
to c h a o s t h e o r i s t R a l p h A b r a h a m , for e x a m p l e , h e e x p l a i n e d t h a t a n a l o g system s
w ere in h i s view t h e r e a l m o f spirit, t h e v i b r a t i o n s o f A t m a n . P o s t m o d e r n th e o r y
m a v e n J a m e s C liffo rd , t o t h e c o n tr a r y , i n s is t e d t h a t o n ly d ig i ta l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
is c a p a b l e o f t h e flexible r e a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e h u m a n t h o u g h t . T h i s
sa m e b a t t l e h a s b e e n p la y e d o u t in t h e h i s t o r y o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r a l s tu d ie s . D u r
ing th e ) 960s, realism was in vogue, a n d w h a t c o u ld h a v e b e e n a w o n d e rfu l e x p l o
r a t i o n o f t h e a n a l o g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s in A f r i c a n c u l t u r e w as o f t e n
r e d u c e d t o r o m a n t i c p o r t r a i t s o f t h e “ r e a l ” a n d “n a t u r a l , ” w h ile A f r i c a n sy m b o l
194 /mpficacions
s y s t e m s s u f fe re d f r o m n e g l e c t . D u r i n g t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s , t h i s b e g a n t o r e v e r s e
itself—r w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m , A f r i c a n c u l t u r a l p o r t r a i t s b e c a m e
increasin gly focused o n d iscou rse a n d sy m b o l systems, e v e n a t t h e e x p e n s e o f ig n o r
in g a n a l o g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .
I t is i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , t o see h o w th e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n t e s t e d ,
p a r t ic u l a r ly in b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s . H o o k s ( 1 9 9 1 , 2 9 ) s u m m a r i z e s h e r
o w n r e a c t i o n to r o m a n t i c o r g a n i c i s m : “T h i s d is c o u r s e c r e a t e d t h e id e a o f ‘p r i m
i t i v e ’ a n d p r o m o t e d t h e n o t i o n o f a n ‘a u t h e n t i c ’ e x p e r i e n c e , s e e i n g as ‘n a t u r a l ’
t h o s e ex p re s sio n s o f b la c k life w h i c h c o n f o r m e d t o a p re - e x is t in g p a t t e r n o r s t e r e o
ty p e .” R o se (1993.) describ es th e h is to ry o f rap m u sic, also arising in t h e m id -1 9 7 0 s,
as n o t j u s t a r e s i s t a n c e to o r g a n i c r o m a n t i c i s m , b u t as a t e c h n o c u l t u r a l r e b e l l i o n
t h a t m a k e s D e r r i d a lo o k like G u t e n b e r g . C o r n e l W e s t , H o u s t o n B ak er, H o r t e n s e
S p il le r s , a n d H a z e l C a r b y h a v e m a d e i n t e r v e n t i o n s in A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n i n t e l
l e c t u a l d is c o u rs e in s i m i l a r w ay s, as h a v e w o rk s o f b l a c k s c i e n c e f i c t i o n s u c h as
G e o r g e S c h y l e r ’s Black N o M o r e , R a l p h E l l i s o n ’s invisible M a n , 2 T o n i C a d e B a m -
b a r a ’s T/ie S a lt E aters, S a m u e l R . D e l a n y ’s D h alg ren , a n d O c t a v i a B u t l e r ’s Xeno-
genesis trilogy. A n e g a l i t a r i a n v ie w o f t h e n a tu r a l/ a r ti f i c ia l d i c h o t o m y c a n b e s e e n
in b l a c k i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y r u n n i n g f r o m G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n C a r v e r ' s c o n c e p t
o f “ G o d ’s K i n g d o m o f t h e S y n t h e t i c ” t o M u d i m b e ’s “ I n v e n t i o n o f A f r i c a . ” -*
In d e e d , C a r v e r a n d M u d i m b e ’s c o n c e p t s .a r e q u it e sim ilar; it is n o t M u d i m b e ’s c o n
t e n t i o n t h a t A f r i c a n u n i t y la c k s a s p i r i t u a l b o n d , b u t r a t h e r a c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e
s p i r it o f i n v e n t i o n , w h i c h r e q u i r e s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e E u r o p e a n c l a i m t h a t s p i r i t
c a n ex is t o n ly in c a te g o rie s o f t h e n a t u r a l . A f r i c a n a n i m i s m is m a r k e d b y a n e x t r a
o r d i n a r y a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e relig io u s s i g n i f i c a n c e o f artifice,'* fr o m gris-gris t o t h e
m o j o h a n d , a n d its t e c h n i q u e s fo r p a s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e p h y s i c a l
d y n a m i c s o f s o u n d a n d m o v e m e n t s h o w t h a t t h i s faith in t h e p o w e r o f a n a l o g r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n is n o t m i s p l a c e d .
T h e p o litics of re c u rs io n
W h i l e D e r r i d a was t r a s h i n g o r g a n i c r o m a n t i c i s m , M i c h e l F o u c a u l t w a s a t t e m p t
in g t o d o t h e s a m e for h u m a n i s m . H is h is to r i c a l s t u d ie s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t h u m a n
ist g o als o f r e c u r s i o n — t o b e s e l f - g o v e r n e d , s e l f - c o n t r o l l i n g i n d i v i d u a l s — a r e n o t
i n n o c e n t ; b u t r a t h e r d e v e l o p h i s t o r i c a l l y in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s t e c h
n i q u e s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I n a n e ra w h e r e " s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t ” u s u a l ly m e a n s t h a t
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n y o u w o r k for h a s d e v e l o p e d i m p r o v e d t e c h n i q u e s fo r self-
e x p l o i t a t i o n , it is n o t h a r d t o see w h a t F o u c a u l t is g e t t i n g a t . A s in t h e c a s e o f
D e r r i d a ’s w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t c l a i m s t h a t a n a l o g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w ill a u t o m a t i c a l l y
le a d t o m o r e e t h i c a l li v in g , F o u c a u l t w a r n s a g a i n s t s e e i n g r e c u r s i o n as a m o r a l
The politics o f A fr ic a n fractals 195
f o r m u l a . 5 W h i l e A f r i c a n a n a l o g s y s te m s raise t h e p r o b l e m o f s o m e o n e m a k i n g
cla im s a b o u t w h a t is m o r e real o r m o r e n a t u r a l , A f r i c a n r e c u r s io n — espe cially t h e
r e c u r s iv e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f A f r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s — raise s t h e p r o b l e m o f h u m a n i s t
c la im s . -
T o see h o w th i s c a n be a p r o b l e m , c o n s i d e r t h e f o l lo w in g tw o case s tu d ie s
o f A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e . C a p l a n ( 1 9 8 1 ) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n 'h o u s i n g a n d
w o m e n ’s a u t o n o m y in T a n z a n i a . S h e d e s c r i b e d h o w t h e flex ibility o f h o u s i n g
a ll o w e d w o m e n to c r e a t e n e w h o m e s if t h e y w a n t e d a d i v o r c e , o r t o e x t e n d o ld
h o m e s if th e y w a n t e d t o s h ift t h e fa m il y s t r u c t u r e . A s in m a n y A f r i c a n s e t t l e
m e n ts, this self-organized h o u s in g c r e a t e d a self-sim ilar s tru c tu r e — fractals— w h i c h
a ll o w e d g r e a t e r s o c ia l s e l f - c o n t r o l fo r w o m e n . W h e n s o c i a li s m b r o u g h t m o d
e r n i z a t i o n p ro g r a m s , t h i s a u t o n o m y w as t h r e a t e n e d by t h e “ i m p r o v e d ” h o u s i n g
design, w h i c h s o m e tim e s re s em b le d c o n c r e t e a rm y b arracks.^ H e r e o n e w o u ld c o n
c l u d e t h a t f r a c ta l is b e tte r.
S t o i l e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) d e s c r ib e d a S o n g h a i t o w n in w h i c h a c a s t e s y s te m e n s u r e d
t h a t t h e b e s t la n d w as v o l u n t a r i l y g i v e n o v e r t o t h e h i g h e s t c a s t e m e m b e r s . It
was n o t a m a t t e r o f forcing p e o p le a g a in s t t h e i r will, b u t simply u n q u e s t i o n e d c o m
m o n s e n s e t h a t o n e s h o u l d w a n t t o b e l o c a t e d in t h e i r p r o p e r p la c e . T h i s frac-
tal, s e lf-o rg an iz ed a r c h i t e c t u r e w as a fo r m o f s e l f - e x p l o i t a t i o n . E v e n tu a l ly sev eral
m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y d e c i d e d to b r e a k o u t o f th i s o p p r e s s iv e s t r u c t u r e by
b u i l d i n g h o u s e s a l o n g t h e n e w h i g h w a y . T h u s l i b e r a t i o n in th i s c a s e m e a n t
leaving th e fractal geometry, a n d lin in g u p in s tra ig h t E u clid ean fo r m a tio n — exactly
th e o p p o s ite o f th e T a n z a n ia n villa ge s t u d ie d by C a p l a n . S to l le r ’s w o rk rficely illus
tr a t e s M i c h e l F o u c a u l t ’s w a r n i n g a g a i n s t s i m p l i s t i c h u m a n i s t fo r m u la s : self-
d e t e r m i n a t i o n is n o t n e c e ss a rily l i b e r a t i n g ; ir c a n se r v e t o s u p p o r t so c ia l c o n t r o l
" r a t h e r -t h a n resist it. M e i t h e r - f r a c t a l - n c r E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r i e s h a v e a n y i n h e r
e n t e t h i c a l c o n t e n t ; s u c h m e a n i n g s arise fr o m t h e p e o p l e w h o use t h e m .
C o l o n i a l i s m a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l fr a c ta ls
F o r D e s c a r t e s , “se l f - o r g a n iz e d ” is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h sa v a g e s , t h e im p e r f e c
tio n o f b o th m aterial a n d social stru ctu re. L ack o f c o m p le te E u c lid e a n reg u lar
ity m e a n s r a n d o m n e s s : fo r “s t r e e t s c r o o k e d a n d u n e v e n , o n e will say t h a t it is
c h a n c e m o r e t h a n t h e will o f s o m e m e n u s i n g t h e i r re a s o n c h a t h a s a r r a n g e d t h e m
th u s ” (p. 12). T h e lack o f C a r te s ia n c o o r d i n a te s in m a n y A f r i c a n s e t tl e m e n t s w ould
th u s e v id e n c e t h e i r n e e d for t h e g u id a n c e o f c o l o n i a l reas o n . A s H u l l ( 19 7 6 ) no tes,
h u g e c e n t e r s o f u r b a n life in A f r i c a w e r e i n d e e d d i s r e g a r d e d b y E u r o p e a n s as
“u n s t r u c t u r e d b u s h c o m m u n i t i e s ” o n j u s t t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s . W h i l e T i m b u k t u was
g r a n t e d c i t y h o o d d u e to its grid p a t t e r n o f s t r e e t s , t h e Y o r u b a c it ie s o f e q u a l p o p
u l a t i o n size a n d e c o n o m i c , t e c h n i c a l , a n d l a b o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n h a v e b e e n d i s r e
g a r d e d as m e r e l y g i a n t v illa g e s d u e t o t h e i r la c k o f C a r t e s i a n reg u la rity .^ T h u s
f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e w as u s e d as c o l o n i a l p r o o f o f p r i m i t i v i s m . T h i s d e b a t e o v e r
t h e u r b a n s t a t u s o f n o n - E u c i i d e a n s e t t l e m e n t s c o n t i n u e s in t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l era
(see S c h w a b 1 9 6 5 ; L lo y d 1 9 7 3 ).
T h e o c c a s i o n a l C a r t e s i a n l i n e a r i t y in A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e t h r e w a h i t c h
i n t o t h i s c o l o n i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n , i n 1871 t h e G e r m a n g e o l o g i s t C a r l M a u c h “d i s
c o v e r e d ” t h e r u i n s o f G r e a t Z i m b a b w e . S t u n n e d by t h e e v i d e n c e o f p re c ise s t o n e
c u t t i n g o n a m a s s i v e s c a le , h e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g s w e r e n o t o f A f r i c a n
d e s i g n , b u t w e r e i n s t e a d d u e to t h e Q u e e n o f S h e b a ' s v i s i t t o S o l o m o n . T h e
R h o d e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t u se d t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n a s a p a r t o f its p r o p a g a n d a a g a in s t
B la c k r u l e ( M a c i n t o s h a n d M a c i n t o s h , 1 9 8 9 ) . A c t u a l l y , t h e y h a d m u c h less to
f e a r in t h e t r u t h : t h e s t o n e w as n o t c u t , b u t it n a t u r a l l y b r o k e i n t o l i n e a r
s h e e t s ( a f t e r h e a t i n g ) d u e t o its g e o lo g i c p r o p e r t i e s . M o r e o v e r , m o s t o f t h e o u t
sid e w a lls w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o v e r e d w i t h s m o o t h clay, c r e a t i n g a n o n l i n e a r s e t
o f s c a l i n g s h a p e s ( w h i c h C o n n a h [ 1 9 8 7 ] r e f e r s t o as " r a n d o m c u r v e d f o r m s " ) .
T h i s is n o t t o d i m i n i s h t h e r e m a r k a b l e t e c h n o l o g i c a l sk ill o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
h u t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t o n e c u l t u r e ’s s i g n for “a r t if i c ia l " c a n b e a n o t h e r ’s sign for
" n a t u r a l . ” E u c l i d e a n v ersus f r a c ta l d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r il y m e a n artificial versus n a t
ural; t h a t , t o o , is c u l t u r a l l y i n f l u e n c e d .
D u rin g th e d e v e lo p m e n t of co lo n ia l cities, th e c h a o s o f A frican a rc h ite c
t u r e w a s u se d as b o t h s y m b o l a n d s y m p t o m o f E u r o p e a n fears o v e r s o c ia l c h a o s .
P e n n a n t (1 9 8 3 ) provid es a n e x a m p l e o f th is c o n c e r n a b o u t p r o p e r s e t tl e m e n t g e o m
e tr y i n his e x a m i n a t i o n o f c o l o n i a l d e v e l o p m e n t in M a la w i: " T h e lan g u a g e o f th is
1930s policy discourse is significant. M e d i c a l e x p e r t s w r o te o f ‘in v e s tig a tio n s ’ s h o w
in g ' u n q u e s t i o n a b l y ’ a n d o f ‘a b u n d a n t p r o o f . ’ . • • L a y E u r o p e a n s s h o w e d ‘c o n
c e r n , ’ ‘a l a r m , ’ a n d ‘h o r r o r . ’ A f r i c a n s , w i t h t h e i r ‘p r i m i t i v e h a b i t s , ’ o f ‘p r o m is c u o u s
The politics o f A/riccm fractals
d e f e c a t i o n ’ f o r m e d a ‘f l o a t i n g ’ o r ‘s c a t t e r e d ’ p o p u l a t i o n in n e e d o f ‘c o n t r o l ’ a n d
' s u p e r v i s i o n ' in a ‘p r o p e r l y l a i d - o u t v il la g e o r l o c a t i o n . ’ ”
I n t h e a b o v e c a s e w h e r e “p r i m i t i v e ” m i x e s - w i t h m o d e r n , t h e f r a c t a l t r a d i
t i o n was a t h r e a t . B u t k e p t in w h a t c o l o n i a l i s t s t h o u g h t o f as its n a t u r a l ro le , it
c o u ld m a k e fractal s e t t l e m e n t s a p p e a r to b e n e f i t th e c o lo n i a l e n te r p ris e . T h e n o v
elist K a r e n B l i x e n ( l s a k D i n e s e n ) , i n O u t o f A fr ic a ( 1 9 8 8 ) , d e s c r ib e d h e r a t t e m p t s
to lay o u t grids for A f r i c a n w o r k e r s ’ h o u s e s o n h e r r a n c h . T h e y refu sed t o fo llo w
t h e s e l i n e a r i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d fit t h e i r h o u s e s in p a t t e r n s m a t c h i n g t h e ir r e g u la r
c o n fig u ra tio n o f t h e la n d . T h a t s u c h e c o lo g i c a l fit c o u ld b e q u i t e efficient was n o t,
h o w e v e r, lost o n t h e c o lo n ists. “T h e s q u a t t e r s ’ la n d was m o r e in te n s e ly a liv e t h a n
t h e re s t o f t h e fa rm , a n d w a s c h a n g i n g w i t h t h e s e a s o n s ” (p . 9 ). A r c h i t e c t u r a l
f r a c ta ls c o u l d b e p a r t o f c o l o n i a l r o m a n t i c i s m as lo n g as t h e y e n s u r e d a s u p p ly
o f s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g w o rk e rs .
E v e n in th e case o f so cial c o n tr o l, in d ig e n o u s fractals co uld be utilized. British
c o l o n i a l po lic y , fo r e x a m p l e , a t first f a i le d in cases w h e r e t h e r e w as a d e c e n t r a l
ized n e t w o r k r a t h e r t h a n a la r g e h i e r a r c h y . T h i s w as a p p r o a c h e d in t h e c ase o f
t h e I b o w i t h a sy s te m o f “ i n d i r e c t r u l e ” b a s e d o n “w a r r e n t c h ie f s " ( I s ic h e i 1 9 7 6 ).
T h e Ib o a u t o n o m y o f s e l f - o r g a n iz a t io n w as t u r n e d a g a in s t t h e m ; in a s e n s e it was
g ra s s -ro o ts c o l o n i a l i s m . T h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l e q u i v a l e n t o f t h i s s y s te m c a n b e seen,
i n a m a n u a l for c o l o n i a l - e r a h o u s i n g d e s i g n s f r o m t h e A g e n c y for I n t e r n a t i o n a l
D e v e lo p m e n t ( H in c h c l if f 1946, 3 1 ). H e r e t h e Ib o s’ fractal s e t t l e m e n t p a tt e r n (radial
houses a r o u n d a c e n t e r in e a c h v illa g e , r a d i a l v illages a r o u n d t h e s e t t l e m e n t c e n
t e r ) is t i d i e d u p t o s u i t E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f s y m m e t r y w h i l e r e t a i n i n g th e
o v e ra ll i n d i g e n o u s f r a c ta l s t r u c t u r e .
F r a c t a l s a n d r a c ia l r e d is tr ic tin g
In th e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o his s e m in a l F ra cta l G e o m e tr y o f N a tu r e , B e n o i t M a n d e l b r o t
e x a m i n e s s o m e o f t h e d i s p a r a g i n g c o m m e n t s t h a t w e r e m a d e a b o u t t h e e a rly
fractal fo rm s o f G e o r g C a n t o r , H e l g e v o n K o c h , a n d o th e r s . R e j e c t e d as “b iz a r r e ”
a n d " t o r t u r o u s , ” t h e s e “d r a g o n s ” w e r e c o n s i g n e d co t h e o d d i t i e s s e c t i o n a t t h e
e n d o f t h e few m a t h t e x t s t h a t w o u l d e v e n c o n s i d e r t h e m . S t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r
la n g u a g e h a s b e e n u s e d t o r e j e c t t h e o u t l i n e s o f v o t i n g d i s t r i c t s t h a t w e r e
a lt e r e d t o i n c l u d e la rg e r A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d t h e s e d o i n d e e d
a p p e a r t o b e f r a c ta l s (fig. 1 2 .1 ) .8 W e r e t h e c o u r t s as m i s t a k e n l y h a s t y t o d i s r e
gard f r a c ta l s as m a t h e m a t i c i a n s w e re ?
T h e E u c l i d e a n s h a p e o f v o t i n g d i s t r i c t s is n o t a n a r b i t r a r y s a m p l i n g — th is
Jj? could o n ly b e d o n e by r a n d o m l y s e l e c t i n g v o t e r s fr o m e v e r y w h e r e in t h e s ta te .
A c c o r d i n g to t h e 199 3 S u p r e m e C o u r t r u l i n g in Shaur v. R en o , it is m e a n t to
198 Implications
Q eo rg ia c o n g r e s s io n a l d i s t r i c t x i trr 1 9 9 2
S i m i l a r i t y o f i r r e g u l a r r e d i s t r i c c i n g p a r c e r n c a n b e s e e n a t m u l t i p l e s c a le s . I
{O r ig in a l maps c o u r te s y o f die C a r l V i n s o n I n s t i t u t e , p r o [/ h ie h ig h lig h t s b y t h e a u t h o r . ) |
d e s i g n a t e a g e o g r a p h i c lo c a l e in w h i c h " s h a r e d i n t e r e s t s ” i n f o r m t h e v o te . T h e ;j
o b j e c t i o n to c r e a t i n g a d i s t r i c t in w h i c h c o n t o u r s a re “p r e d o m i n a n t l y m otivated"
b y r a c e is t h a t it c r e a t e s a b ia s in t h e s a m p l i n g o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n . T h is |
w o u ld c e r t a i n l y b e t h e c a s e if w e w e r e to t a k e a r a n d o m s a m p l i n g , s e p a r a te d vot- .jf*
ers by e t h n i c i t y , a n d t h e n d e s i g n a t e d th o s e e t h n i c g r o u p s as t h e v o t i n g districrs. f„
H o w e v e r , if s o m e e t h n i c g ro u p s a re d i s t r i b u t e d in E u c l i d e a n s e t t l e m e n t patterns, L*
a n d o t h e r s in f r a c t a l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , t h e n w h y c o n s i d e r E u c l i d e a n district >
s h a p e s t o b e u n b i a s e d , a n d f r a c t a l d i s t r i c t s h a p e s t o b e b i a s e d ? I d o n o t know if«
A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n h o u s i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e m o r e f r a c t a l t h a n o t h e r s — niuT
e v e n if th e y are, I w o u ld n o t n e c e s s a r il y a s s u m e a c u l t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n to African,'
f r a c ta ls — b u t t h e fa c t t h a t we n o w k n o w o f s o c i e t i e s in w h i c h f r a c ta l s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n s a re b e a u t i f u l f u s i o n s o f f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n s u g g e s ts t h a t w e m i g h t
r e c o n s i d e r t h e i r p o t e n t i a l ro le in A m e r i c a n p o li ti c s .
A f r i c a n fr a c ta ls f r o m c u l t u r a l v is io n a rie s
F ra c t a ls a n d c h a o s t h e o r y h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s i n g l y m e n t i o n e d in che h u m a n i t i e s
as e i t h e r a to o l o r a n o b j e c t o f c u l t u r a l a n a ly s is , b u t t o o o f t e n t h e a p p r o a c h o f
t h e s e s t u d i e s h a s le ft t h e im p r e s s i o n o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n k b lo ts a l l o w i n g w rite rs
t o see w h a t e v e r t h e y p le a s e . L y o ta rd ( 1 9 8 4 ) sa w f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y as c o n t r i b u t
in g t o a “p o s t m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n ” w h o s e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e w o u l d d i s r u p t
a u t h o r i t a r i a n c e r t a in t y ; a m o r e c a u t i o u s v e r s i o n o f t h i s th e s is is floated in D eleuze
a n d G u a t t a r i ( 1 9 8 7 ) . A t le a s t tw o a u t h o r s ( S t e e n b u r g 19 91; A r g y ro s 1 9 9 1 )
h a v e a rg u e d t h a t fractals a n d o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f c h a o s th e o r y h a v e c re a te d a d ir e c t
c h a l l e n g e t o p o s t m o d e r n i s m , i n t e g r a t i n g t h e d i s r u p t i o n s it c r e a t e d . P o r u s h
( 1 9 9 1 ) a n d o t h e r s insist t h a t " d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s " is a t t e m p t i n g t o s u b s t i t u t e
a f e e l i n g o f free will for fa ta lity .^ S o b c h a c k ( 1 9 9 0 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t it im p li e s “a n
e m b r a c e o f ir r e s p o n s ib il it y in a w o r l d a l r e a d y b e y o n d c o n t r o l . ” W h e n S o b c h a c k
c it e s P e i t g e n a n d F r e e m a n in h e r c o n d e m n a t i o n o f c h a o s t h e o r y as a d e n i a l o f
" t h e sp e c ific ity o f h u m a n e m b o d i m e n t a n d h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , ” I c a n ’t h e l p b u t
t h i n k o f P e i t g e n ’s fractal g e o m e t r y c o u rs e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a at S a n t a
C ruz, w h e re h e c o m m e n te d o n G e r m a n m a t h e m a t ic i a n s w h o a lte re d th e ir
c a r e e r s t o o p p o s e N a z i a n t i - S e m i t i s m o r s u p p o r t p e a c e effo rts ; o r o f F r e e m a n ’s
( 1 9 8 1 ) u se o f M a r t i n L u t h e r K in g in h is d is c u s s i o n o f c h a o s in n e u ro p h y s io lo g y .
H o w c a n w e c r i t i q u e t h e w o rk o f c h a o s t h e o r i s t s as la c k i n g h i s t o r i c a l sp e c ific ity
a n d e m b o d i m e n t if w e ig n o r e t h e i r o w n h i s t o r i e s a n d b o d ie s ?
H a y le s ’s C h a o s B ound ( 19 9 0 ) t o o k a m o r e s u b t le a p p r o a c h . L ike P o ru s h a n d
o t h e r s , H a y l e s ’s li te r a ry m e t h o d a ll o w s h e r t o g lid e far t o o easily b e t w e e n u n
r e l a te d ideas; by t h e ti m e s h e h a s to s s e d t o g e t h e r q u a n t u m th e o r y , e n t r o p y , a n d
G o d e l ’s t h e o r e m w i t h d e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d “h o l i s m , ” o n e c a n o n ly c o n c l u d e t h a t
a n y c o m p l i c a t e d idea c a n b e a m e t a p h o r for a n y o t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d id ea. B u t h e r
d e ra i le d a n a ly s is o f li te r a ry w ork s, s h o w i n g d e e p p a r a l le l s b e t w e e n se lf-re fle x iv e
w ritin g a n d s e l f-r e fe re n tia l m a t h e m a t i c s , su g g es ts t h a t w h e n g r o u n d e d in specific
l o c a t io n s t h e fu s io n o f f r a c ta l g e o m e t r y a n d c u l t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n h e p r o
fo u n d ly r e w a r d i n g .
P a u l G i lr o y make's e x p li c it use o f f r a c ta l s in his p o r t r a i t o f t h e d iv e r s ity a n d
d y n a m i c is m w i t h w h i c h b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a a n d t h e A f r i c a n d i a s p o r a h a v e
o rg a n iz e d t h e i r c r o s s - c u l t u r a l flow s. T h e r e c u r s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h is B la c k
A t l a n t i c c a n b e s e e n , fo r e x a m p l e , in t h i s q u o t e fr o m J a m e s B ro w n o n a v is it to
Implications
h e a r F e la K u t i in N i g e r i a : “[B]y t h i s t i m e h e w a s d e v e l o p i n g A f r o - b e a t o u t o f
A f r i c a n m u s ic anc! f u n k . H is b a n d h a d a s t r o n g r h y t h m ; I t h i n k C l y d e p i c k e d u p
o n it in h is d r u m m i n g , a n d B o o tsy d u g it t o o . S o m e o f t h e id e a s m y'bancl w as g e t
t i n g fr o m t h a t b a n d h a d c o m e fro m m e i n t h e first p l a c e , b u t t h a t w as o k a y w i t h
m e . I t m a d e t h e m u s ic t h a t m u c h s t r o n g e r ” ( 1 9 9 3 , 199)-
G i l r o y c i t e s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e V i r g i n i a J u b i l e e S i n g e r s o n t o u r in S o u t h
A f r i c a in 1 8 9 0 , t h e r e t u r n o f sla v e s f r o m B razil t o N i g e r i a , t h e R a s t a f a r i c u l t u r e
in Z i m b a b w e , a n d o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f “m u t a t i o n s p r o d u c e d d u r i n g its c o n t i n g e n t
l o o p s a n d f r a c ta l tr a j e c t o r i e s ." P e r h a p s h i s m o s t r a d i c a l m o v e is a c l a i m for d ias -
p o r i c m i x i n g w i t h J e w is h c u l t u r e — W .E .B . D u B o is p a s s i n g fo r a Je w t o m a i n
t a i n safety in E a s te r n E u ro p e , t h e u se o f t h e E x o d u s t h e m e in M a r t i n L u t h e r K ing,
J r., a n d M a r c u s G a r v e y , a n d E. W . B l y d e n ’s c h i l d h o o d in a J e w is h c o m m u
n i t y . 1^1 T h e f r a c ta l i m a g e r y w o r k s i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t w ay s fo r G i l r o y — fr o m t h e
tu r b u le n t m e t a p h o r o f h y b rid ity to th e c o n c r e t e d e s c r ip ti o n o f s h ip s ’ p a th s
a n d t r a v e l e r s ' r o u t e s ( o r “r o o t s / r o u t e s ” as h e p u t s i t ) . 11 W h i l e m u s ic is, w i t h
o u t d o u b t , G i l r o y ’s s t r o n g e s t e x a m p l e , h e d o e s s l ip i n t o t h e p r o b l e m a t i c la b e ls
o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l v e r s u s “n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l ” r a t h e r t h a n d i g i t a l v e r s u s
a n a l o g , 12 b u t h e m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e m u s i c r e v e r b e r a t i n g a c ro s s h i s B la c k
A t l a n t i c is n e i t h e r p u r e n o r n a t u r a l .
W h i l e G i l r o y is p r i m a r i l y f o c u s e d o n f r a c t a l s as s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f
b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s , h e a ls o b ri e fly m e n t i o n s t h e i r p o t e n t i a l for “ a s t r i k i n g
im a g e o f t h e s c o p e o f a g e n c y w i t h i n r e s t r i c t e d c o n d i t i o n s ” ( 1 9 9 3 , 2 3 7 0 2 8 ) ; t h a t
is, t h e a b i l i t y f o r g e o m e t r i c e x p a n s i o n w i t h i n b o u n d e d s p a c e b e c o m e s a n a n a l
ogy for o p p o s i t i o n a l p o litic a l e x p a n s i o n in h u m a n b o n d a g e . T h e m e t a p h o r is c a r
r i e d to a m o r e e x a c t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p i n G a r y V a n W y k s s t u d y o f S o t h o - T s w a n a
m u r a l s u n d e r t h e a p a r t h e i d s y s te m o f S o u t h A f r i c a . V a n W y k ( 1 9 9 3 ) f o u n d t h a t
t h e litem a , o r t h e h o u s e p a i n t i n g p a t t e r n s o f t h e S o t h o - T s w a n a w o m e n , u tiliz e
a l t e r n a t i o n s o f ir r e g u l a r i t y a n d r e g u l a r i t y a t s e v e r a l s c a le s , s o m e t i m e s re s u lti n g
in a r e s e m b l a n c e t o f r a c ta l p a t t e r n s . N o t i n g t h a t t h e s c a l i n g is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e g e o m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e o f flo w e rs, a n d f lo w e r s w i t h t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e p o w e r of
w o m e n ( b o t h s p i r i t u a l l y a n d in s o c ia l s t r u g g l e s ) , V a n W y k ’s e t h n o g r a p h y c o n
c l u d e s t h a t t h e m u r a l s e x p r e s s e d p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n to a p a r t h e i d h y p r o v i d i n g
a v is u a l a n a l o g in w h i c h “ a w o m a n c a n b e s e c r e t i v e w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e h i d
in g n o t h i n g ” ( D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i 1 9 8 7 , 2 8 9 —2 9 0 ) .
A l t h o u g h t h e w o rd “ fr a c ta l " is n o w h e r e m e n t i o n e d in h is t e x t , A n t o n
S h a m m a s ’s n o v e l A ra b esq u es ( 1 9 8 8 ) is a n e x e m p l a r o f n o n l i n e a r in s ig h t a n d re c u r
s iv e c u l t u r a l c o m m e n t a r y . H e a v e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n a ly z e s t h e n o v e l t h r o u g h t h e N o r t h
A f r i c a n a r t i s t i c fo rm o f t h e “a r a b e s q u e , ” a n d s h o w s h o w S h a m m a s h a s used th is
f r a c ta l t o s u s t a i n t h e c y c lic t i m e a n d m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s r e q u i r e d to a r t i c u l a t e a
FIGURE I 2.2
R e l i g i o n s in s t i t u t i o n s in t h e m a p o f C a iro , 1 8 9 8
202 Jm/)Iicauons
C l e a r l y , w h e n H e a v e r re f e rs t o t h e l i m i t i n g d a n g e r s o f a " m o d e l o f g e o m
e t r y ” h e is t h i n k i n g o f E u c l i d e a n s t r u c t u r e s ; i t - i s t h e f r a c t a l geo m et-r.y-of-the
a r a b e s q u e w h i c h c o n v e y s t h e h o p e f u l m e s s a g e o f S h a m m a s . I n c h a p t e r 2 we
e x a m i n e d t h e a r a b e s q u e b r a n c h e s o f s t r e e ts t h a t a p p e a r in a m a p o f C a i r o , E gypt.
I n a n o t h e r s e c t i o n o f t h i s m a p (fig. 1 2 . 2 ) , a w i d e d i v e r s i t y o f r e l i g i o u s i n s t i
tu tio n s flo w er at th e en d s o f th e se b ra n c h e s, a tte s tin g to th e p o sitiv e p o t e n
t i a l o f f r a c t a l s in c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s .
CHAPTER
— Fractals --------------------------------------
J3
in the-----------------------------------------------
—European---------------------------------- ----------
—history of--------------------------------------------
-mathematics------------------------------------------
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e r e c e n t ly t a k e n a n in c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e c u l t u r a l a n a l y
sis o f E u r o - A m e r i c a n s o c i e ti e s . I n p a r t t h i s is a r e a c t i o n to t h e m a n y d e c a d e s o f
focus o n i n d i g e n o u s so cieties, as if t h e i r b e h a v i o r re q u ire d e x p l a n a t i o n w h ile t h a t
o f E u r o p e a n s w as s e l f - e v i d e n t . A t first t h i s “ re fle x iv e e t h n o g r a p h y ” s o u n d e d like
a n in g e n i o u s way t o t u r n t a b l e s o n s o m e v e ry t r o u b l i n g a s p e c t s o f a n t h r o p o l o g
ical a u t h o r i t y , b u t it t o o h a s d r a w b a c k s . O c c a s i o n a l l y o n e s u s p e c ts a h i d d e n s ig h
o f re l ie f fro m a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w h o d e c i d e t h e y c a n p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e c u t
tin g ed g e by “stu d y in g th e i r o w n t r ib e ” (ju st as c y b e r e t h n o g r a p h y s o m e tim e s seem s
s u s p ic io u s ly c o n v e n i e n t ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e f o r a n t h r o
po log ical stu dies o f E u ro - A m e r ic a n s . It w o u ld b e a n u n b a l a n c e d p o r t r a it if we w ere
to see A f r i c a n fra c ta ls in n e e d o f c u l t u r a l an a ly s is, a n d W e s t e r n fractals as m e re ly
self-evident m ath em atics.
A c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e a n fr a c ta ls
A n c i e n t G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y is o f t e n r e m e m b e r e d fo r P l a t o ’s r a t i o n a l r e a l m o f
u n c h a n g i n g , s t a t i c fo rm s. B u t in t h e h i s t o r y o f m a t h e m a t i c s , it is i m p o r t a n t to
c o n s i d e r o t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r r e n t s in t h a t so cie ty, in p a r t i c u l a r t h e p a r a d o x e s
o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Z e n o o f E le a a n d d i e d is c o v e r y o f i r r a t i o n a l n u m b e r s by t h e
P y th a g o r e a n s .
203
204 Implications
X en o c ra c e s in t r o d u c e d a d o c t r i n e o f in d iv is ib le s t o o p p o s e Z e n o ’s p ara d o x es . A r i s
t o t l e , n o t i n g t h a t in f in ity + in f in ity = in fin ity , s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s “s e l f - a n n i h i
l a t i n g ” c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o u l d b e e l i m i n a t e d b y r e s t r i c t i n g r e f e r e n c e t o in f in ity as
a l i m i t to b e a p p r o a c h e d , r a t h e r t h a n as a t h i n g itself, a p r o p e r o b j e c t o f m a t h e
m a t i c a l 'inquiry.2 '
T h e P l a t o n i c re f o r m w as q u i t e s u c c e s sfu l, a n d as a r e s u l t m a t h e m a t i c i a n s
in t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s p a id li t t i e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e k i n d s o f r e c u r s i o n t h a t led
to Z e n o ’s t r o u b l i n g i n f in i te regress. O n e e a r l y e x c e p t i o n w as t h a t o f L e o n a r d o
F i b o n a c c i in t h e t w e l f t h c e n tu r y . H e i n t r o d u c e d t h e first re c u r s iv e series s h o w n
to b e o f use in m o d e l in g th e n a t u r a l w orld. I n c h a p t e r 7 w e saw t h a t th e F ib o n a c c i
series a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n u tiliz e d in t h e t e m p l e a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d w e i g h t b a l
a n c e s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t. T h e r e m a y a c t u a l l y b e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e tw o.
W h i l e li t t l e b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l is a v a i l a b l e , G i e s a n d G i e s ( 1 9 6 9 ) a n d o t h e r
s o u r c e s h a v e p u t t o g e t h e r a g o o d a c c o u n t o f w h a t life w as p r o b a b l y lik e for
y o u n g L e o n a r d o o f P isa . F o ll o w i n g s c h o o l i n g in P isa , in w h i c h a r i t h m e t i c was
larg ely b a s e d o n t h e L a t i n w r i t i n g s o f B o e t h i u s ( c i r c a 5 0 0 c .e .), L e o n a r d o ’s
fath er s e n t for h im from th e N o r t h A fric a n city o f Bugia (B ou gie). T h e r e h e learned
t h e I n d i a n p l a c e - v a l u e n o t a t i o n ( p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h A r a b i c so u r c e s ). H e was
i n s p ir e d by t h i s i n n o v a t i o n a n d t r a v e l e d a l o n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o C o n s t a n
t i n o p l e , E g y p t, S y ria, S icily, a n d P r o v e n c e , c o l l e c t i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e
fr o m b o t h s c h o l a r s a n d o r d i n a r y m e r c h a n t s .
T h e r e s u l t i n g t e x t , Liber A b a c i ( B o o k o f t h e A b a c u s ) , h a s a s t r o n g Is lam ic
in f lu e n c e . L e v e y ( 1 9 6 6 ) , for e x a m p l e , s h o w s t h a t m a n y o f a b u K a m i l ’s s i x t y - n i n e
p r o b l e m s c a n b e f o u n d in L e o n a r d o ’s t e x t . B u t t h e F i b o n a c c i series, i n t r o d u c e d
u n o b t r u s i v e l y as t h e s o l u t i o n to a p r o b l e m in r a b b i t p o p u l a t i o n g ro w th , d o e s n o t
h a v e a k n o w n Is la m i c c o u n t e r p a r t . P e r h a p s it is s i m p l y a n i n d e p e n d e n t i n v e n
t i o n , b u t if t h e w e i g h t b a la n c e 's y s te m " w a s in use a t ' t h a t t i m e , L e o n a r d o c o u ld
h a v e easily p i c k e d it u p fr o m a m e r c h a n t d u r i n g h is t r a v e ls in E gypt. A n d it is
p o ss ib le t h a t t h r o u g h its re lig io u s use in a n c i e n t E g y p t t h e se rie s h a d r e t a i n e d
so m e sig n ific a n c e as a n it e m o f s a c r e d o r m y s ti c a l k n o w l e d g e a n d was t h u s t r a n s
m i t t e d t h r o u g h s c h o l a r ly c o n t a c t .
G ie s a n d G i e s (7 9 6 9 , 6 1 ) n o t e t h a t L e o n a r d o ’s p r a c t i c e o f r e d u c i n g all fra c
tio n s to ] in che n u m e r a t o r “w e n t b a c k t o a n c i e n t E g y p t, a n d p e r h a p s d e r i v e d
from t h e fa c t t h a t fr a c tio n s w e re r e g a r d e d less as n u m b e r s in t h e i r o w n r i g h t t h a n
as sig ns o f d i v i s i o n .” B o y er (1 9 6 8 , 2 8 1 ) suggests t h a t t h e Liber A b a c i p r o b l e m w ith
re c u rsiv e n e s t i n g o f s e v e n s ( “ S e v e n o ld w o m e n w e n t t o R o m e , e a c h w o m a n h a d
se v e n m u le s; e a c h m u l e c a r r ie d s e v e n s a c k s . . . ’’) o r i g i n a t e d in its a n c i e n t E g y p t
ia n c o u n t e r p a r t ( R h i n d M a t h e m a t i c a l P a p y ru s p r o b l e m # 7 9 ) . A n d F ib o n a c c i d oes
provide a n a rra tiv e s ta te m e n t of th e recu rsiv e c o n s tru c tio n ,^ h ig h lig h tin g th e
206 Implications
s a m e s e l f - g e n e r a t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e series t h a t w o u ld b e e m p h a s iz e d b y t h e a n c i e n t
E g y p t i a n b e l i e f s y s te m .
I f tliis i n f l u e n c e , ( w h e t h e r m e r e l y c o n t e x t u a l o r d i r e c t ) d o e s in f a c t e x i s t ,
it s h o u l d n o t d e t r a c t f r o m t h e g e n i u s o f L e o n a r d o ’s w o rk . H i s ‘’g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n
fo r f i n d i n g “c o n g r u e n t n u m b e r s ” f o r s q u a r e s h a s b e e n h a i l e d as “ t h e f i n e s t p i e c e
o f r e a s o n i n g in n u m b e r t h e o r y o f w h i c h w e h a v e a n y r e c o r d b e f o r e t h e t i m e o f
F e r m a t . ” B u t w h e n it c o m e s t o t h e u s e o f t h e F i b o n a c c i s e r ie s in t h e c o n t e m
p o r a r y h i s t o r y o f m a t h e m a t i c s (cf. B r o o k e 1 9 6 4 ) , t h e r e is a c t u a l l y n o e v i d e n c e
o f a d i r e c t c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m F i b o n a c c i h i m s e l f . By a ll a c c o u n t s , G e r m a n
a s t r o n o m e r J o h a n n e s K e p le r r e d i s c o v e r e d t h e series i n d e p e n d e n t l y in 1611, a n d
it w as o n l y in t h e m i d - i 8 o o s , w i t h t h e f o r m a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f L ib e r A b a c i , t h a t
F r e n c h m a t h e m a t i c i a n E d o u a r d L u c a s f o u n d t h e P is a n h i s t o r i c a l p r e d e c e s s o r a n d
n a m e d it ac c o rd in g ly . T h i s fa c t h a s r e c e i v e d litt le a t t e n t i o n , a n d m o s t t e x t s p r e s
e n t F i b o n a c c i ’s d i s c o v e r y as if i t w e r e i n a d i r e c t i n t e l l e c t u a l l i n e o f d e s c e n t
ra th e r th a n an h o n o ra r y title g iv e n to a w ell-d e se rv in g b u t d is c o n n e c te d a n t e
c e d e n t. F ib o n a c c i h im self seem ed u n h e s ita n t a b o u t th e m u ltic u ltu ra l c o n tr i
b u t i o n s t o h i s w o r k ; t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o f L iber A b a c i s t a t e s , “T h e n i n e I n d i a n
fi g u r e s a r e . . . N o d o u b t h e w o u ld h a v e b e e n q u ite c o n t e n t a ttr ib u tin g th e
s e r ie s t o o r i g i n a t o r s o f a n y h e r i t a g e .
F i b o n a c c i ’s s e r ie s was s i m p l y u n b o u n d e d g r o w t h ; t h e r e w a s n o i n t r o d u c
t i o n o f t h e i n f i n i t e e x c e p t in w ay s t h a t A r i s t o t l e w o u ld h a v e a p p r o v e d . T h e s e v
e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y b r o u g h t a t t e n t i o n to th e c o n c e p t o f t h e " in f i n ite s im a l”
{ r e v i v e d f r o m its G r e e k b a n i s h m e n t in K e p l e r ’s S te r e o m e tr ia [ 1 6 1 5 D , a n d c o n
v e r g e n c e t o a l i m i t . a s i n f i n i t y is a p p r o a c h e d ( e .g ., t h e a l g o r i t h m s fo r g e n e r a t
in g p i ) ; b u t i n f i n i t y w o u l d s till e x i s t o n l y as a n e v e r - r e a c h e d o r i e n t a t i o n r a t h e r
t h a n a l e g i t i m a t e o b j e c t o f study- T h e A r i s t o t e l i a n v o i c e c o u l d s till b e h e a r d in
1831, w h e n m a t h e m a t i c i a n C a r ! F ried ric h G au ss (1 7 7 7 - 1 8 5 5 ) c a u t i o n e d his friend
S c h u m a c h e r a g a i n s t in f in i ty : " I m u s t p r o t e s t m o s t v e h e m e n t l y a g a i n s t y o u r
use o f t h e in f in ite as s o m e t h i n g c o n s u m m a t e d , as th is is n e v e r p e r m i t t e d in m a t h e
m a t ic s . T h e i n f i n i t e is b u t a. f a ^ o n d e p a r l e r , m e a n i n g a l i m i t t o w h i c h c e r t a i n
r a t i o s m a y a p p r o a c h as c lo s e ly as d e s i r e d w h e n o t h e r s a re p e r m i t t e d t o in c r e a s e
i n d e f i n i t e l y . ” B u t G a u s s ’s d i s t i n c t i o n w a s s h o r t - l i v e d . A s w e s a w in c h a p t e r 1,
t h e w o r k o f G e o r g C a n t o r , w h i c h h a d p r o d u c e d t h e first f r a c t a l , t h e C a n t o r set,
e n d e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n v ie w o n i n f in i ty . L ik e F i b o n a c c i , C a n t o r t o o m a y h a v e
h a d s o m e n o n - E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e i n h i s w o rk .
T h e C a n t o r s e t (fig. i- 3 -ia ) w a s h is v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f t r a n s f i n i t e n u m b e r
t h e o r y . I t s h o w s t h e i n t e r v a l o f ze ro t o o n e o n t h e re a l n u m b e r li n e , a n d i n d i
c a t e s t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s is n o t d e n u m e r a h l e — t h a t is, g r e a t e r t h a n i n f i n
ity. B u t a t t h e t i m e , p u r e m a t h e m a t i c s w a s o n ly o n e o f C a n t o r ’s c o n c e r n s . H is
Fractals in the European Ktstor^y 0 / mathematics
II II II II II II II II
FIGURE I3 .I
T h e C a n to r set
(a) T h e first f r a c t a l , c r e a t e d b y G e o r g C a n t o r i n 1 8 7 7 . ( b ) T h i s d e s i g n is f o u n d o n t h e t o p o f
co lu m n s in t h e t e m p l e s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t . G e o r g C a n t o r ’s f t o s i c r u c i a n b e l i e f s a n d h i s c o u s i n M o r t i z
C a n t o r, a n e x p e r t o n che g e o m e t r y o f E g y p t i a n a rt , m a y h a v e p u t h i m in c o n t a c t w i t h t h i s E g y p t i a n
design.
( b, f r o m F u n r ie r 1 8 2 1 .)
I m p li c a t io n s
r e m a r k s o n C a n t o r ’s a r c h r i va l , t h e J e w i s h m a t h e m a t i c i a n L e o p o l d K r o n e c k e r :
“T h e r e is n o mo r e v i c i o u s a c a d e m i c h a t r e d t h a n t h a t o f o n e J e w for a n o t h e r w h e n
t he y disagree o n purel y sc i enti fic ma t t e r s . W h e n t w o in t e l l e c t u a l J ews fall o u t t he y
di s a g re e al l ove r , t h r o w r e s e r v e t o t h e dogs, a n d d o e v e r y t h i n g in t h e i r p o w e r t o
c u t o n e a n o t h e r ’s t h r o a t o r s t a b o n e a n o t h e r i n t h e b a c k ” ( Be l l 1 9 3 9 , 5 6 2 - 5 6 3 ) .
A n o t h e r C a n t o r b i o g r a p h e r , J. W. D a u b e n , says t h a t s i n c e C a n t o r ’s m o t h e r
was R o m a n - C a t h o l i c “s h e was by d e f i n i t i o n n o n -J e w i s h , t h u s it fol lows t h a t G e o r g
C a n t o r was n o t Jewi s h, c o n t r a r y t o t h e v i e w w h i c h h a s p r e v a i l e d in p r i n t for m a n y
y e a r s ” ( D a u b e n 1 9 7 9 ) . N a z i s c h o l a r s s o l v e d t h e i r w o r r i e s by s p r e a d i n g a s t o r y
t h a t C a n t o r wa s f o u n d a b a n d o n e d o n a s h i p b o u n d for S t . P e t e r s b e r g ( G r a t t a n -
G u i n e s s 1971, 352).
A c t u a l l y C a n t o r ’s J e w i s h i d e n t i t y wa s q u i t e c o m p l e x . H i s fami l y h a d i n d e e d
c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t h e was we l l a w a r e o f h i s h e r i t a g e . H e r e f e r r e d t o
hi s g r a n d m o t h e r as “ t h e I s r a e l i t e ” a n d w r o t e a re l i g i ou s t r a c t t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o
s h o w t h a t t h e r e wa s n o v i r g i n b i r t h , a n d t h a t t h e r eal f a t h e r o f J e s us C h r i s t wa s
Jo s e p h o f A r im a th e a . C a n t o r e v e ntua lly jo ined the Rosicrucians, w h o s e mysti
c a l/ s c i en t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o a s u p p o s e d E g y p t i a n o r i g i n f o r all r e l i g i o n s p r o b a b l y
a p p e a l e d n o t o n l y t o his i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s , b u t al s o t o h i s s y n c r e t i c e t h n i c
ity. C a n t o r c h o s e a H e b r e w l e t t e r as h i s n e w s y mb o l : t h e a l e p h , b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
a l p h a b e t , was u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n o n d e n u m e r n b l e sets.
W h i l e His b i o g r a p h e r s a r g u e d J e w o r n o t - J e w, off o r o n , z e r o o r o n e , C a n t o r h i m
self p r o v e d t h a t t h e c o n t i n u u m f r o m zero t o o n e c a n n o t b e d e l i m i t e d b y a n y s u b
d i v i s i o n process, n o m a t t e r h o w l o n g its a r g u m e n t s .
G i v e n C a n t o r ’s R o s i c t u c i a n t h e o l o g y a n d t h e p r o x i m i t y o f h i s c o u s i n
M o r i t z C a n t o r — a t t h a t t i m e a l e a d i n g e x p e r t in t h e g e o m e t r y o f E g y p t i a n a r t '
( C a n t o r 1 8 8 0 ) — it m a y b e t h a t G e o r g C a n t o r s a w t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l o t u s c r e a t i o n m y t h (fig. 1 3 . 1 b ) , a n d d e r i v e d i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m
t hi s A f r i c a n f r act al for t h e C a n t o r set. W e m a y n e v e r k n o w for c e r t a i n , b u t t h e
g e o m e t r i c r e s e m b l a n c e is q u i t e s t r o n g .
A s n o t e d in c h a p t e r 1, C a n t o r ’s m a t h e m a t i c s was c o n s i d e r e d u t t e r l y i m p r a c
ti cal; it w a s n o t u n t i l B e n o i t M a n d e l b r o t t h a t f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y b e c a m e usef ul t o
science. M a n d e l b r o t reports t h a t his in s p ira tio n c a m e from a study o f l o n g - te rm
r i ve r f l u c t u a t i o n s by B r i t i s h c i v i l s e r v a n t H . E. H u r s t . H u r s t e x a m i n e d t h e fl ood
v a r i a t i o n s o v e r s ev e r al c e n t u r i e s a n d c o n c l u d e d t h a t it c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in
t e r m s o f a s c a l i n g e x p o n e n t . La t e r , M a n d e l b r o t real ized t h a t t h i s w a s t h e s a m e
s cal i ng m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t t h e “r e m a r k a b l e c u r v e s " o f C a n t o r a n d o t h e r s d esc r i be d,
But w h e r e d i d H u r s t find a rel iabl e s o u r c e for sever al c e n t u r i e s o f flood d a t a ? H u r s t
l i ved in Eg y p t for 6 2 years a n d wa s a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e l o n g - t e r m s c a l i n g in N i l e
flood r ecor ds b ec a u s e o f t h e a c c u r a t e “ n i l o m e t e r ” r e a d i ng s g o i n g b a c k fifteen c e n -
F r a c t a ls in t h e E u r o p e a n h is t o r y o f m a t h e m a t ic s
c o s m o lo g y , t h e c y c l i c k i n s h i p i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e M i t s o g h o , F a n g , a n d B a lu b a ,
t h e i t e r a t i o n s o f b i r t h i n g in t h e N a n k a n i a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n d m a n y o t h e r c ases o f
r e c u r s i o n a r e c lo s e ly t i e d t o s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h u s o n e c o n t r i b u t i n g fa c to r
t o t h e A f r i c a n m a t h e m a t i c a l e m p h a s i s o n r e c u r s i o n c o u l d b e tills A f r i c a n c o n -
str u c tio n o f sexuality th r o u g h p o sitiv e pu b lic d o m a in ex p ressio n s.
T h e E u r o p e a n c o u n t e r p a r t o f S h a w ’s th e o r y w o u ld p r e d i c t t h e o p p o s i te , a n d
i n d e e d w e find t h a t t h e b a n i s h i n g o f i n f in i te reg ress in t h e P l a t o n i c r e f o r m was
c lo s e ly t i e d t o a k i n d o f s e x u a l p r o h i b i t i o n . In P l a t o ’s S y m p o s iu m , S o c r a t e s
e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e r e is a h i e r a r c h y o f r e p r o d u c t i o n . L o v e b e t w e e n a m a n a n d a
w o m a n w ill o n l y re su lt in a flesh c h i l d , a c r e a t u r e o f flux w h o w ill e v e n t u a l l y die,
a t b e s t p r o d u c i n g m o r e flux. L o v e b e t w e e n a m a n a n d a bo y ( l o v e r a n d b e l o v e d )
is h i g h e r , b e c a u s e it c a n re s u lt in r a i s i n g t h e b o y t o a h i g h e r p l a n e — t h a t o f a
p h il o s o p h e r. A n d a p h i l o s o p h e r c a n h a v e a “b r a i n c h il d ,” a p e r f e c t id e a t h a t n e v e r
c h a n g e s o r dies. T h e P l a t o n i c ideal o f s t a t i c , e t e r n a l p e r f e c t i o n c o n f l ic t s w i t h t h e
e v e r - c h a n g i n g d y n a m i c o f s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e G r e e k p r e f e r e n c e for t h e s t a
t i c s h a p e o f t h e A r c h i m e d e a n s p ira l s u g g e s ts t h i s P l a t o n i c i d e a l , ju s t as t h e
g r o w i n g s h a p e o f t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s p ira l su g g es ts t h e A f r i c a n e m p h a s i s o n f e r t i l
ity a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . O f c o u r s e , t h i s is a g ro ss g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ; t h e r e a re , for
e x a m p l e , p l e n t y ' o f A r c h i m e d e a n spirals in A f r i c a n design s. C o n v e r s e l y , E u r o p e a n
m a t h e m a t i c i a n J a c o b o B e r n o u l l i w a s u t t e r l y d e d i c a t e d t o t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s p ira l
a n d sp e c ifie d t h a t o n e w o u l d b e e n g r a v e d o n h i s t o m b s t o n e . B u t t h e s t o n e c u t
te r d id n o t go a g a in s t t h e g ra i n o f h is c u lt u r e ; B e r n o u ll i’s g ra v e is still m a r k e d w ith
a n A r c h m e d e a n s p i r a l (fig. 13-2).
I t w o u ld be d a n g e r o u s to su g g e s t t h a t t h e r e is a n e t h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e a t
s t a k e h e r e , as s o m a n y o r g a n i c r o m a n t i c i s t s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d . A g a i n , t h e r e is n o
h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e for a c o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s t i n c -
FIGURE 13 .2
B e r n o u lli’s to m b s to n e
Although Bernoulli asked f o r a logarithmic spiral to be
inscribed on his tombstone, the engraver was apparently
only familiar with che linear spiral.
(From Mnor 1987, courtesy Birk/iriuser Verfag AG, Basel,
Sifiiterland.)
F r a c t a l s in th e E u r o p e a n h is t o r y o f m a t h e m a t ic s
M a t h e m a t i c s ”— c o u l d b e p u t to h i s a d v a n t a g e . T h e r e p u t a t i o n o f L o v e l a c e as
t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f p r o g r a m m i n g s t e m s f r o m t h i s p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p lo y o f B a b b a g e .
T h e r e w as, h o w e v e r , o n e t a b l e f o r w h i c h A d a w a s w h o l l y r e s p o n s i b l e : t h e
r e c u r s i v e g e n e r a t i o n o f a s e q u e n c e k n o w n as t h e B e r n o u l l b n u m b e r s . M o o r e
( L977) sta te s t h a t th is ta b le used recu rsiv e p ro g ra m m in g . H u sk e y a n d H u sk ey
( 1 9 8 4 ) , a p p a r e n t l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h i s c l a i m , s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s is a c o n f u s i o n w i t h
L o v e l a c e ’s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a t h e m a t i c a l “ r e c u r r e n c e g r o u p s ” a n d n o t e t h a t t h e
t e r m “ r e c u r s i v e p r o g r a m m i n g " g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s t o a p r o c e d u r e t h a t c a ll s i t s e l f '
(i.e ., s e l f - r e f e r e n c e ) — im p o s s ib le fo r L o v e l a c e s i n c e h e r c o d e h a d n o p ro c e d u r e s .
B u t t h e y a ls o n o t e t h a t L o v e l a c e i n t r o d u c e d a n e w c o d e n o t a t i o n t o d e s c r i b e
w h a t s h e r e f e r r e d t o as “a c y c l e o f a c y c l e , ” w h i c h w o u l d b e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
r e c u r s i v e s t r u c t u r e o f n e s t e d i t e r a t i o n i n use to d a y .
S ig n i f i c a n tl y , t h i s i t e r a t i v e r e c u r s i o n w a s t h e o n e p r o g r a m fo r w h i c h B a b
b ag e c la i m e d c re d it: “W e d is cu ssed v ario u s illu s tr a t io n s t h a t m i g h t b e in t r o d u c e d :
I s u g g e s te d s e v e r a l, b u t t h e s e l e c t i o n w a s e n t i r e l y h e r o w n . S o a ls o w as t h e a l g e
braic w o rk in g o u t o f th e d ifferen t pro b lem s, e x c e p t, in d e e d , t h a t re la tin g to th e
n u m b e r s o f B e r n o u i l l i [sic], w h i c h I h a d o ff e re d to d o t o s a v e L a d y L o v e l a c e t h e
t r o u b l e ” ( q u o t e d in S t e i n 1 9 8 5 , 8 9 ) .
T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n m ay h a v e b e e n a n t i c i p a t e d b y L o v e la c e : S t e i n n o t e s t h a t
i n t h e l e t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s p r o g r a m , L o v e l a c e is a t y p i c a l l y v a g u e — s h e h a d
a lw a y s b e e n o v e r d e p e n d e n t o n B a b b a g e fo r m a t h e m a t i c a l s p e c i f i c s — a n d s p e c
u l a t e s t h a t t h e v a g u e n e s s w as a d e l i b e r a t e m o v e t o p r o t e c t h e r i t e r a t i v e i n n o
v a t i o n . M a n y f e m i n i s t s h a v e w r i t t e n a b o u t m a l e e n v y o f w o m e n ’s r e p r o d u c t i v e
c a p a c i t y , a n d t h e r e m i g h t w e ll b e a p a r a l l e l in B a b b a g e ’s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f
L o v e l a c e ’s r e c u r s i v e a c h i e v e m e n t . B u t t h e o r g a n i c i s t v e r s i o n s o f s u c h a n a ly s e s
p o rtra y t h e c o n f l i c t in te r m s o f w o m e n b e in g m o r e n a t u r a l o r e m b o d i e d , a n d m e n
b e i n g m o r e a r t i f i c i a l o r a b s t r a c t . In t h i s s t o r y o f m a l e w o m b e n v y a n d t h e p r o
t e c t i v e m o t h e r , it is t h e d i g i t a l a b s t r a c t i o n o f r e c u r s i o n , n o t c o n c r e t e e m b o d i
m e n t , o v e r w h i c h t h e s t r u g g le is fo u g h t . T h e b i r t h i n g m e t a p h o r w a s m e n t i o n e d
by L o v e l a c e h e r s e lf ; t h e f i n i s h e d p r o g r a m m i n g s t u d y w a s “h e r first c h i l d . " C o n
tra ry t o P l a t o , s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n is n o t in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e a b s t r a c t r e a l m o f
m a t h e m a t i c s ; L o v e l a c e u s e d h e r m a t h e m a t i c s t o r e b e l a g a i n s t a t t e m p t s to li m i t
h e r to a repressive fe m in in ity a n d used th is a rtific ia l s e x u a lity — a b e w itc h in g
h i g h priestess, je a l o u s l y g u a r d i n g h e r p r o g r a m m i n g p r o g e n y — t o d e v e l o p t h e first
c o m p u ta tio n a l recu rsio n .
I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y o f c o m p u t a b i l i t y in c h a p
t e r 10 , we n o t e d t h a t t h e s e t o f “p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s , " d e v e l o p e d by
R o zsa P e t e r , h a d t h e g r e a t e s t c o m p u t i n g p o w e r s h o r t o f a T u r i n g m a c h i n e .
U n l i k e L o v e l a c e , P e t e r ’s c a p a b i l i t y as a m a t h e m a t i c i a n is u n c o n t e s t e d ; in fac t,
F r a c t a l s in th e E u r o p e a n h is t o r y o f m a t h e m a t ic s
s h e is w id e ly r e g a r d e d as “che m o t h e r o f r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n t h e o r y ” ( M o r r i s a n d
H a rk le r o a d 1990). B u t sh e, too, im p lie d t h a t p arallels ex isted b e tw e e n h er
g e n d e r i d e n t i t y a n d m a t h e m a t i c s ; m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t w o m e n c o u ld p r o v i d e a s p e
c ia l i n s i g h t t h a t m e n c o u l d n o t ( A n d r e k j a 1 9 7 4 , 1 7 3 ) . S i n c e w e k n o w t h a t , as
a m a t h e m a t i c i a n , s h e w o u ld n o t b e t h i n k i n g o f t h i s s p ec ial in s ig h t as b e i n g m o re
c o n c r e t e o r less lo gical, it m a y b e t h a t P e t e r also m a d e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n s e x
ual r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e c u r s i o n .
F o llo w in g P e t e r ’s class o f p rim itiv e recu rsiv e fu n c tio n s , o n e reach es th e upper
lim it o f re c u rsiv e p o w e r in t h e T u r i n g m a c h i n e . A l a n T u r i n g ’s c o n t r i b u t i o n s w ere
n o t o n l y in t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n s o f c o m p u t i n g , b u t in its a p p l i c a t i o n
t o artific ia l i n t e l l i g e n c e as w ell. In h is c la ssic p a p e r t i t l e d “C o m p u t i n g M a c h i n
ery a n d I n t e l l i g e n c e , ” h e p r o p o s e d w h a t is n o w c a l l e d t h e T u r i n g te s t. A t first,
m o s t d e f i n i t i o n s o f m a c h i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e w e r e b a s e d o n a p a r t i c u l a r ta s k or
b e h a v i o r (e.g., c h e s s p la y i n g ) . B u t as t h e field o f a r t ifi c ia l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( A I ) has
d e v e l o p e d , t h e s e h a v e s h o w n t o b e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n a d e q u a t e , a n d t h e T u r i n g test
is w id e ly r e g a r d e d as t h e m o s t r e l ia b l e d e f i n i t i o n fo r A l ( i n fact, y early T u r in g
tes ts a re n o w h e l d , w i t h n o m a c h i n e w i n n e r s t h u s far).
T u r i n g b e g i n s by d e s c r i b i n g a g a m e in w h i c h a m a n a n d a w o m a n are
b e h i n d a d o o r a n d a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s fr o m a n i n t e r r o g a t o r by w r i t t e n replies. T h e
i n t e r r o g a t o r m u s t d e t e r m i n e w h o is t h e m a n a n d w h o is t h e w o m a n ; b o t h m u s t
try to d e c e i v e h i m in t h e i r a n s w e rs . T u r i n g t h e n s u g g e s te d r e p l a c i n g o n e p e r s o n
w i t h a n A I m a c h i n e ; t h e T u r i n g te s t h o l d s t h a t if t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r c a n n o t d i s
t i n g u i s h p e r s o n f r o m m a c h i n e , t h e n o n e h a s c r e a t e d t r u e m a c h i n e i n t e ll ig e n c e .
T u r i n g ’s b i o g r a p h e r , A n d r e w H o d g e s , su g g es ts t h a t t h i s “i m i t a t i o n g a m e ” was
i n s p ir e d by T u r i n g ’s o w n life: s t r u g g l i n g to d e f i n e h is i d e n t i t y as a h o m o s e x u a l
in a h o m o p h o b i c so ciety . B o t h t h e T u r i n g m a c h i n e ’s a b il it y to i m i t a t e o t h e r
m a c h i n e s a n d t h i s g a m e o f c o g n i t i v e i m i t a t i o n e c h o t h e so c ia l e x p e r i e n c e o f gays
w h o liv e in a c o m m u n i t y w h e r e t h e y m u s t p r e t e n d t o b e s o m e o n e t h e y a re n o t .
A n d to s o m e e x t e n t , t h e e n d le s s s e l f - r e f e r e n c e o f m e t a m a t h e m a t i c s was T u r i n g ’s
h i d i n g p l a c e fro m t h e a n t i g a y w o r l d s u r r o u n d i n g h i m . B u t t h e s e x u a l g u e ss in g
g am e o n w h ic h th e T u rin g te st was b a se d w o rk e d a g a in s t su c h n o rm a tiv e
g e n d e r r e s t r i c t i o n s : it s u g g e s te d g e n d e r as s o m e t h i n g m o r e flu id , less fi x e d — a
featu re w h ic h th e v irtu al c o m m u n itie s o n th e I n te r n e t h a v e sta rte d to d e m o n
s t ra te (cf. S t o n e 1995; T u rk le 1 99 5). D o u g la s H o f s t a d t e r ( 1 9 8 5 , 1 3 6 -3 6 7 ) , a m o d
ern m a s te r o f recu rsio n , h as also w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e p o te n t ia l for a m o r e fluid g e n d e r
i d e n t i t y in d ig i ta l d y n a m i c s .
M a t h e m a t i c s h a d a d o u b l e m e a n i n g for T u r i n g . It w as b o t h a n e m o t i o n a l
sh ie ld , a c lo s e d w o rld o f e n d le s s in t e r i o r s e lf-r e fe re n c e , as well as a n o p e n i n g in to
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c o m m u n i t y . I n t h e e n d , t h i s d e s i r e fo r o p e n i n g k i l l e d T u r in g :
im p lic a t i o n s
t h a t l e d t o h i s w o r k ; r e c u r s i o n is n e v e r m e n t i o n e d . E v e n w h e n r e c u r s io n , d o e s -
c o m e u p in t h e f r a c t a l g e o m e t r y l i t e r a t u r e , t h e t r e a t m e n t is ty p i c a l l y i n f o r m a l
o r cursory. For e x a m p le , S a u p e (1 9 8 8 , 7 2) m erely n o te s t h a t "in so m e cases th e
p r o c e d u r e c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d as a r e c u r s i o n . ” ^ S i m i l a r l y , t h e f r a c t a l t i m e se r ie s
p r o d u c e d by d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s is ra r e ly r e g a r d e d as t h e p r o d u c t o f f e e d b a c k
lo o p s , a n d in o n e o f t h e few s t u d i e s t h a t is f o c u s e d o n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , M e e s
( 1 9 8 4 , 1 0 1 ) m e r e ly s t a t e s t h a t “c h a o s is c e r t a i n l y p o s s ib le in f e e d b a c k s y s te m s .”
O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it is n o t t h a t c h a o s is p o s s ib le w i t h fe e d b a c k ,- b u t t h a t c h a o s
is i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t it.
It w o u ld b e i n a c c u r a t e t o say t h a t E u r o p e a n m a t h e m a t i c s h a s d is r e g a r d e d
r e c u r s i o n in g e n e r a l , a n d p e r h a p s r h e o b s e r v a t i o n I a m m a k i n g is s i m p l y d u e to
d is c ip l in a r y s p e c i a li z a ti o n ; t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y s o m e o n e s t u d y i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s
o f g r a p h i c s to a n a ly s is a n d m e n s u r a l t h e o r y s h o u l d n e c e s s a r il y b e t h i n k i n g a b o u t
T u r i n g m a c h i n e s o r re c u r s iv e f u n c t i o n s . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y t h i s l a c k o f n e c e s s ity
in m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t is so e a sily f o r g o t t e n in a d i s c i p l i n e w h e r e c e r t a i n t y goes
F r a c t a l s in th e E u r o p e a n f u s t o r ) o f m a th e m a t ic s
b e y o n d t h a t o f a n y e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e im a g i n a b l e . M a t h e m a t i c s is b o t h a n i n v e i v
t i o n a n d a d is co v ery . W e d i s c o v e r t h e c o n s t r a i n t s i n h e r e n t in t h e fa b ric o f sp a c e
a n d t i m e , c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t a r e t h e s t u f f o f w h i c h o u r u n i v e r s e is c o m p o s e d . B u t
m a t h e m a t i c s d o e s n o t sto p th e r e . T h e c o n s t r a i n t s a re n o t ju s t n e g a tio n s , b u t r a t h e r
t h e b u i l d i n g b lo c k s w i t h w h i c h f u r t h e r m a t h e m a t i c s is c o n s t r u c t e d . A n d lik e an y
c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e a re c h o i c e s t o b e m a d e , d e c i s i o n s a b o u t h o w t h e s e b u i l d i n g
b l o c k s a r e to b e c o n n e c t e d , i n t e r r o g a t e d , a n d d e p l o y e d in f u r t h e r d iscov ery .
T h i s is w h e r e t h e h u m a n side o f m a t h e m a t i c s e n t e r s t h e p i c t u r e , e s p e c ia lly t h a t
m o s t h u m a n o f e n d e a v o r s , c u l t u r e . C o n v e r s e l y , c u l t u r e is n o t m e r e w h i m , a
p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e m a t t e r o f c h o o s i n g f a v o r e d s o c ia l p r a c t ic e s . T h i s is w h e r e th e
m a t h e m a t i c a l sid e o f h u m a n i t y e n t e r s t h e p i c t u r e , fo r we a re o n l y free t o c o n
s t r u c t c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e in w h i c h w e live. N e i t h e r
m a t h e m a t i c s n o r c u l t u r e s h o u l d b e v ie w e d as firmly fixed o n t h e u n i v e r s a l/ lo c a l
d i v i d e ; t h e r e a re d iv i s i o n s w i t h i n d i v i s i o n s n e v e r e n d i n g .
CHAPTER
-Futures-
— for—
A frican
-fractals-
M o s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e l o n g a b a n d o n e d t h e t e n d e n c y t o c r e a t e a fr o z e n
“a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n ” i n d e f i n i n g i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e ty ; c h a n g e a n d s y n t h e s i s a r e
n o w i nt eg r a l p a r t s o f t h e c u l t u r a l p o r t r a i t . S o , t oo, w i t h A f r i c a n fr actal s; t h e y ar e
n e c e s s a r i l y as m u c h o f t h e f u t u r e as t h e y a r e o f t h e p a s t .
F r a c t a l s i n A f r i c a n c o n te m p o r a r y a rts
FIGU RE 14.1
T h e lib r a ry o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f D a k a r
This design makes use of both self-similarity (the vertical alternation of painted rectangles looks
like the alternation of buildings) and nonlinear scaling (the rectangle width decreases rapidly as
you go toward the center).
C u l l e r s ’s o b s e r v a t i o n was r e p e a t e d to m e by M a x ( h e d i d n o t w a n t h is last
n a m e to be u se d ), a S e n e g a le s e a rt is t in D a k a r w h o sells t o t h e to u r is t tr a d e . M a x
c o m p l a i n e d t h a t h is m o s t c r e a t i v e w o r k — t h e d e s i g n s w h i c h c a m e t o h i m in
d r e a m s — was diffic ult t o sell b e c a u s e o f t h e t o u r i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a n d
a u t h e n t i c i t y . L ik e m a n y c r e a t o r s o f t o u r i s t arc in D a k a r, h e p r o d u c e s i m i t a t i o n s
o f t h e k o r a , t h e S e n e g a l e s e s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t t h a t f e a t u r e s a s in g le f r e t r u n
n i n g d o w n t h e c e n t e r a n d a h a n d g rip o n b o t h sides. F igu re 14.2 s h o w s t h e u su al
k o r a m o d e l , a l o n g w i t h M a x ’s i n n o v a t i o n , t h e re c u r s iv e k o r a . T h e re c u r s iv e
k o r a m a k e s use o f e a c h h a n d g rip a s t h e f r e t o f tw o s m a ll e r k o ras . 1 a s k e d M a x
2 l8 /mplicali'ons
if h e h a d e v e r c o n s i d e r e d c o n t i n u i n g to s m a l l e r sc a le s, a n d h e s a i d t h a t h e h a d
o n c e clone so, b u t t h a t it was im p o s s ib le t o sell s u c h i n n o v a t i v e w o rk ; to u r is t s
d id n o t w a n t a n y t h i n g t h a t s m a c k e d o f o rig in a l it y .
F r a c ta ls in A f r i c a n c o n te m p o r a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e
M a n y in d ig e n o u s A fric a n designs h a v e b e e n in c o r p o ra te d i n t o m o d e r n a rc h i-
. t e c t u r a ! p r o j e c t s in A .frica, a n d s o m e o f t h e s e h a v e b e e n f r a c t a l s . F o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e S i e r p i n s k t - l i k e i t e r a t i v e t r i a n g l e s f r o m M a u r i t a n i a w e r e u s e d in a n i n s t i t u
t i o n a l b u i l d i n g in S e n e g a l , a n d t h e c ir c le s o f c ir c le s in t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f W e s t
A f r i c a n v il la g e s b e c a m e t h e b a sis o f a d e s i g n fo r a b u i l d i n g c o m p l e x in d o w n
t o w n B a m a k o , t h e c a p i t a l o f M a l i (fig. 1 4 .3 ).
O n e o f t h e m o s t p o t e n t v i s io n s o f a n A f r i c a n f r a c ta l f u t u r e h a s c o m e fro m
t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t u d i e s o f D r. D a v i d H u g h e s a t K e n t S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in
O h i o . W o r k i n g as a F u lb r ig h t s c h o l a r in sev eral A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , H u g h e s ( 1 9 9 4 )
p u t t o g e t h e r a p o r t r a i t o f w h a t h e t e r m e d “A f r o c e n t r i c a r c h i t e c t u r e , " w h i c h
e m b o d i e s s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e f r a c t a l m o d e l . F irst, H u g h e s c o m b i n e d a c h a r
a c te riz a tio n of th e self-o rg an izin g p ro p e rtie s o f A fric a n b u ild in g d esig n (a n
" o r g a n i c a r c h i t e c t u r e " w h i c h “g r o w s fr o m its s i t e ” ) w i t h its s e l f - s i m i l a r p r o p
e r t i e s ( w h a t h e t e r m e d “t h e o u t s i d e / i n s i d e r e l a t i o n s h i p , ” a m u t u a l s h a p i n g o f
u n its, clu sters o f u n its, a n d c o m m u n a l spaces fo rm ed by th e s u r r o u n d in g c lu s
te r s). S e c o n d , h e e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t e d p r i m i t i v i s t o r n a t u r a l i z i n g p o r t r a i t s . W h i l e
F i u i t r e s f o r A f r i c a n f r a c t a ls 239
n o t i n g its e n v i r o n m e n t a l h a r m o n y , H u g h e s a ls o e m p h a s i z e d t h a t A f r i c a n
a r c h i t e c t u r e is a lw a y s a n i n t e n t i o n a l a c t o f d e s i g n a n d s e m i o t i c s , n o t m e r e l y
a n u n c o n s c i o u s a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e e c o s y s t e m . I n h is f r a m e w o r k , '‘t r a d i t i o n ”
i n c l u d e s t h e t r a d i t i o n o f i n n o v a t i o n , o r as G a t e ' 5- ( i p 8 8 ) p u t s it, t h e A f r i c a n
t h e m e ot “r e p e t i t i o n w i t h r e v i s i o n . ”
FIGURE I 4 . 3
I n d i g e n o u s fra cta ls in m o d e rn a rch itectu re
(a) Here a traditional Mauritanian fractal design is used in a modern building in the Casamance,
Senegal, ( b ) The DPC building in Burkina Faso, using traditional scaling cylinders with contem
porary construction techniques. Architects such as Issiaka Isaac Drabo have made many large-scale
buildings based on this syncretic approach.
220 Jmpiications
G i v e n t hi s c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e l f- o r g a n i z e d s t r u c t u r e a n d i n t e n t i o n a l d e s i gn ,
it is n o t sur prising t h a t H u g h e s ’s wo r k led h i m t o a be a ut i f ul e x a m p l e o f t h e p o t e n
ti al f r ac t a l f ut ur e . Fi g u r e 14.4 s h o w s a d e s i g n by A l e x N y a n g u l a , o n e o f U y g h e s ’s
s t u d e n t s at t h e C o p p e r b e l t U n i v e r s i t y in Z a m b i a ( H u g h e s 1 9 9 4 , ‘’1 6 5 - 1 6 6 ) . T h i s
ar c h i t e c t u r e provi des a powerful syncr eti c fusion of in d i g e n o u s a n d m o d e r n
for ms. T h e figure t r a c e d b y t h e w a l k w a y s h o w n i n t h e g r o u n d p l a n is a classic
f ig u r e 14.4
D e s i g n for K itiv e
C o m m u n ity C linic
(a) Kitwe C o m m u n i t y Clinic
in Zambi a; design by David
Hu g h e s and Alex Nyangula.
(b) Kitwe C o m m u n i t y Clinic
ground plan.
CPhotos courtesy David Hughes.)
FIGURE 1 4 . 5
F r a c ta l.ite r a tio n s o f N y a n g a l a ’s c o m m u n i t y c l i n i c d e s i g n
Fractal based on Nyangula’s architectural design. T he ‘‘active lines” of the generation process have
been removed, as have any self-intersecting hexagons.
222 I m p l ic a tio n s
e x a m p l e o f ch e f r a c t a l b r a n c h i n g p a t t e r n r e f e r r e d t o a s a C a y l e y t r e e (s e e
S c h r o e d e r 1 9 9 1 , 8 7 - 8 8 ; P e i t g e n e t al. 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 - 2 0 ) , a n d c a n b e e x t e n d e d fro m
t h e tw o i t e r a t i o n s g i v e n by N y a n g u l a t o in finity. A d d i n g t h e hexag on sT C a s y n
c r e t i s m b e t w e e n t h e c y l i n d e r o f Z a m b i a n in d i g e n o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e r e c
ti li n e a r form s o f m o d e r n m a t e ri a ls ) v io la te s t h e C a y le y r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e g ra p h
is s e l f - a v o i d i n g ( t h a t is, t h a t t h e b r a n c h e s d o n o t i n t e r s e c t ) . S i n c e I w a s i n t e r
e ste d in e x p l o r i n g th e fra c ta l s t r u c t u r e by t a k i n g N y a n g u l a ’s d e s i g n t o h i g h e r i t e r
a tio n s , I m a d e tw o a d ju s tm e n ts for th is p ro b l e m . O n e is su gg ested by t h e a p p r o a c h
e l e v a t i o n s k e t c h ( H u g h e s 1 9 9 4 , 1 6 7 ) , w h e r e it is c l e a r t h a t t h e c e n t r a l xtnit is
sligh tly larger t h a n t h e o th e r s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t s e l f - i n te r s e c ti o n will be fo restalled
to h i g h e r i t e r a t i o n s . 2 T h e o t h e r is sim p ly t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f u n i t s w h e n e v e r th e y
o v e r l a p . W i t h th e s e tw o q u a li f i c a ti o n s , N y a n g u l a ’s d e s i g n m a k e s for a n in f in i te l y
e x p a n d a b l e ( y e t b o u n d e d ) a r c h i t e c t u r e , a s s h o w n i n figure 1 4 .5 . S u c h f l e x ib i l
ity c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to t h e e ffo rts to e n c o u r a g e a m o r e p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h
to A fric a n a rc h ite c tu ra l d e sig n (F a th y 1973; O z k a n 1997).
If w e t a k e a n a e r i a l v i e w o f t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t o f P a ris ,
F r a n c e , w e w o u l d see l i n e a r c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s s u r r o u n d i n g i t s c e n t e r o f s o c i a l
p o w e r. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h i s l i n e a r , r a d i a ll y s y m m e t r i c s e r ie s o f c i r c l e s
a n d A f r i c a ’s n o n l i n e a r , d e c e n t r a l i z e d a r c h i t e c t u r e is p e r h a p s s u b t l e , b u t i m p o r
t a n t . T h e t e r m " A f r o c e n t r i c " is m i s l e a d i n g in t h a t “c e n t r i c " is m u c h m o r e t h e
g e o m e try o f P aris th a n of L o g o n e -B irn i, M o k o u le k , L ab b ezan g a, a n d th e o th e r
A f r i c a n a r c h i t e c t u r e s w e h a v e e x p l o r e d . H u g h e s ’s c a l l f o r a “m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l
A f r o c e n t r i s m ” is b o t h a n a f f i r m a t i o n o f “ A f r o ” a n d a c h a l l e n g e t o “ c e n t r i s m ” ;
it is a c a ll for c u l t u r a l p o r t r a i t s t h a t d o n o t r e d u c e to a s i n g l e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l
c e n te r b u t ra th e r co m b in e th e b o u n d a rie s of trad itio n w ith th e in fin ite e x p a n
sion o f in n o v a tio n .
A f r i c a n fr a c ta ls in m a t h e d u c a t i o n
S e v e ra l re se a rc h e rs h a v e i n d e p e n d e n tly e x p lo re d fractal a s p e c ts o f A f r ic a n
m a th e m a tic s . C h o n a t G e tz of th e U n iv e rsity of th e W itw a te rs ra n d h a s c reated
I t e r a t e d F u n c t i o n S y s t e m s i m u l a t i o n s o f Z u lu b a s k e t w e a v in g . J o h n S im s, m a t h e
m a t i c i a n a n d a r t i s t a t t h e R i n g l i n g S c h o o l o f D e s ig n in F lo r id a , h a s d e v e l o p e d
fra c ta l p a t t e r n s based o n B aku ba .rafia c l o t h ( a n d in s p ired by his A f r i c a n h e r i ta g e ) .
I n c h a p t e r 5 w e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e l u s o n a a n a ly s is o f P a u l u s G e r d s , a p r o f e s s o r at
U n t v e r s i d a d e P e d a g o g ic a o f M a p u t o , M o z a m b i q u e , w h o s e p ro lific w r i t i n g s h a v e
r e c e n t l y r a n g e d fr o m t h e e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s o f w o m e n 's a r t in s o u t h e r n A f r i c a
( G e r d e s 1 9 9 8 a ) to t h e use o f M o z a m b i q u e b a s k e t w e a v i n g g e o m e t r y in m o d e l
in g f u l l e r e n e m o l e c u l e s ( G e r d e s 1 9 9 8 b ).
F u t u r e s f o r A f r i c a n fr a c t a ls
W h i l e t h e r e a re c l e a r l y b e n e f i t s t o u t i l i z i n g i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e for
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n in A f r i c a , A f r i c a n frac tals m i g h t also b e o f use in th e
U n i t e d S t a t e s . D e s p it e t h e low m a t h e m a t i c s p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n
s t u d e n t s as a n e t h n i c g r o u p , it h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c h a n g e s in t h e l e a r n
in g e n v i r o n m e n t c a n i m p r o v e t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c s p ro f ic ie n c y to le v e ls e q u a l to
t h e m a jo rity p o p u l a t i o n . E v i d e n c e suggests t h a t a l t h o u g h d ir e c t i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r
riers in e c o n o m i c a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d s c h o o l s , s u c h as t h e e m p h a s i s o f v o c a t i o n a l
o v e r a c a d e m i c s u b j e c ts ( D a v i s 1 9 8 6 ) a n d l a c k o f c o m p u t e r a c c e s s ( A n d e r s o n ,
W e l c h , a n d H a rri s , 1 9 8 4 ) c a n a c c o u n t for s o m e o f th i s d if f e r e n c e , m o r e s u b t le
c u rr ic u la r c h a n g e s c a n play a key ro le in r e t e n t i o n a n d a c h i e v e m e n t . For e x a m p le ,
B a ra tz e t a l. ( 1 9 8 5 ) f o u n d t h a t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s a re m o r e li k e ly to
use c o m p u t e r s f o r r o u t i n e d rill; h e n c e , t h e p r o b l e m is n o t s i m p l y t h e a v a i l a b i l
ity o f c o m p u t e r s , b u t a ls o t h e i r s t y le o f u t i l i z a t i o n . T h e N a t i o n a l A s s e s s m e n t o f
E d u c a t i o n a l P ro g r e s s ( 1 9 8 3 ) s t u d y o f m a t h p e r f o r m a n c e in s e v e n t e e n - y e a r - o l d
A fric a n A m e ric a n s re p o rte d th e g re a te st d e fic ie n c ie s a t t h e a p p lic a tio n s level,
a n d s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s ( U s i s k i n 198 5; D a v i s 1 9 8 9 ; M a l c o m 1 9 8 3 ) h a v e r e c o m
m e n d e d r e v i s i o n o f c o u r s e s to e m p h a s i z e m o r e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a n d “re a l-
w o r l d ” m a t h e m a t i c s i n s t r u c t i o n as w e ll as “ a c t i o n - o r i e n t e d ” p ed a g o g y .
C o m p u t e r - b a s e d l e a r n i n g h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e c a p a b i l i t y fo r b o t h i n t e r a c t i v e
a n d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y m a t h e m a t i c s i n s t r u c t i o n (K e it e l a n d R u r h v e n 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d
S t i f f e t al. ( 1 9 9 3 ) s p e c i f ic a lly p o i n t t o c o m p u t e r - b a s e d le a r n in g , as a p r o m i s i n g
fo r u m fo r b r i n g i n g t h e s e c h a n g e s t o A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s . T h e s e n e e d s
c o u l d be d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e d by a p p l y i n g A f r i c a n f r a c ta ls t o t h e c la s s r o o m .
I n a d d i t i o n to c h a n g e s in s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s o f m a t h e m a t i c s t e a c h i n g ,
s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s a n d i n s t r u c t o r s h a v e i n i t i a t e d c u l t u r a l l y e n r i c h e d c u r r ic u l a .
T h e r a t i o n a l e for t h i s a p p r o a c h c o m e s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s (e.g.,
V y g o tsk ian le a rn in g th e o ry ). P o w ell (1 9 9 0 ) n o te s th a t p e rv a s iv e m a in s tre a m
stereo ty p es o f scien tists a n d m a t h e m a tic ia n s co n flic t w ith A fric a n A m e ric a n
c u ltu ral o rie n ta tio n . S im ila r c o n flic ts b e tw e e n A fric a n A m e ric a n id e n tity and
m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n in t e r m s o f s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n , c o u r s e s e l e c t i o n , a n d
c a r e e r g u i d a n c e h a v e b e e n n o t e d (cf. H a l l a n d P o s t m a n - K a m m e r 1 9 8 7 ; B o y e r
1 9 8 3 ). B u t we s h o u l d n o t a ss u m e t h a t th is c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o b l e m o f “se lf-e s te e m .”
T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y a n d l e a r n i n g is q u i t e c o m p l e x ; it w o u ld
be n a i v e to su g g e s t t h a t t o d a y ’s A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s h a v e t h e s a m e r e l a
t i o n to i d e a s a b o u t t h e i r a n c e s t r y as d i d s t u d e n t s in p r e v i o u s d e c a d e s , a n d in
n o case h as th e re ever b e e n a sim p le “m im ic ry ” of A fric a n cu ltu re. R ath er,
e th n o g r a p h ic research (H e b d ig e . 1987; M e r c e r 1988; R ose 1994) show s th a t
A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n y o u t h a c ti v e ly c o n s t r u c t i d e n t i t y u sin g a w id e v a r i e ty o f c u l
t u r a l sig n ifie rs .
224 ] m j) lic a tio n s
s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t “p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e ” (e.g., t h e f a b l e t h a t A f r i c a n s c o u n t “o n e ,
t wo, t h r e e , m a n y ”). By s h o w i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f c o m p l e x m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s
in A f r i c a n c u l t u r e , w e c a n m e n d s o m e o f t h a t d a m a g e . S i n c e r e d u c t i v e m y t h s o f
b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m a r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o m a t h e m a t i c s l e a r n i n g for s t u d e n t s o f
all e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s , all s t u d e n t s c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y b e n e f i t f r o m t h i s m a t e r i a l .
Finally, w e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e i n c r e a s i n g use o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l c u r r i c u l u m
ma t e r i a l s in t h e arts a n d h u m a n i t i e s h a v e n o t b e e n m a t c h e d in t h e sci ences. T h i s
c o u l d s e n d a m e s s a g e t o m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s t h a t t h e i r h e r i t a g e is o n l y p e r t i n e n t
t o t h e a r t s a n d h u m a n i t i e s , a n d t h a t t h e s c i e n c e s a r e r e a l l y for p e o p l e f r o m
o t h e r e t h n i c groups. In a d d i t i o n , s o m e text s s u c h as Multicultural Mathematics ( N e l
s o n 1 9 9 3 ) h a v e e m p h a s i z e d o n l y C h i n e s e , H i n d u , a n d M u s l i m e x a m p l e s , so
t h a t e v e n in c ase s w h e r e m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m is used, A f r i c a n m a t h ma y be left o u t
( s ee K at z 1 992 for a s i mi l a r c r i t i q u e ) . A n d o f t h e f e w t e x t s t h a t d o use A f r i c a n
m a t h , a lm o s t all e x a mp l es are re s t ri ct ed t o p r i ma r y sc h o o l level. A g a i n , thi s restri c
t i o n m i g h t u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y i m p l y p r i m i t i v i s m (i.e., t h a t m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s
f r o m A f r i c a n c u l t u r e a r e o n l y c h i l d l i k e ) . F o r thi s r e a s o n , o u r l a b ’s i n c l u s i o n of
a d v a n c e d t o p i c s s u c h as f r ac t a l g e o m e t r y , c e l l u l a r a u t o m a t a , a n d c q m p l e x i t y
a r e w o r t h t h e e x tr a effort t o t i e i n t o a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m ( w i t h o u t o v e r
l o o k i n g t h e use o f s t a n d a r d t o p i c s s u c h as l o g a r i t h m i c s ca l i n g , g e o m e t r i c c o n
struction, and trigonometry),
W h i l e t h e mu l t i m e d i a l a b ’s mo s t significant p o t e n t i a l for i m p r o v i ng e d u c a t i o n
is in m a t h e m a t i c s , we s h o u l d n o t i gnor e A f r i c a n St u d i es . A f r i c a n art, for e x a mp l e ,
is i ncr easi ngly used in s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s across t h e n a t i o n , a n d use o f our lab c o u l d
g r eat l y e n h a n c e s u c h courses. First, as n o t e d a b o v e , it p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e to
d e t r i m e n t a l m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f A f r i c a n s as “p r i m i t i v e " p e o p l e . In art h i s t o r y
l es s ons , for i n s t a n c e , s t u d e n t s o f t e n l e a r n a b o u t t h e g e o m e t r i c basis for G r e e k
a r c h i t e c t u r e o r R e n a i s s a n c e p a i n t i n g , w h i l e c o m m e n t a r y o n A f r i c a n w o r k s is
o f t e n r es t r i ct e d t o d i s c u s s i on o f " n a t u r a l n e s s ” o r “e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n . ” S e c o n d ,
t h e l ab aids in i n t e g r a t i v e c u r r i c u l a d e v e l o p m e n t (see R o t h 1 9 9 4 o n difficul ti es
in t h i s ar ea) . It w o u l d a l l o w m a t h t e a c h e r s w h o w o u l d li ke t o i n c l u d e e t h n o -
m a t h e m a t i c s c o m p o n e n t s in t h e i r t e a c h i n g t o refer t o e x a m p l e s in w h i c h s t u d e n t s
are al r eady e ng a g e d , a n d w o u l d p r o v i d e art t e a c h e r s w i t h n e w t ool s for d e s i g n a n d
analysis. S i m i l a r a d v a n t a g e s c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d i n o t h e r A f r i c a n S t u d i e s areas.
I n f o r m a t i o n tec h n o lo g ie s a n d s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t
T h e use o f i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s i n d e v e l o p m e n t g o e s b a c k t o c o l o
n i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , b u t in t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l c o n t e x t t h e s e s y s t e m s h a v e t a k e n
o n n e w m e a n i n g as a s i g n o f e i t h e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , o r a t l e a s t
226 implicatfoni
a m o r e e g a l i t a r i a n v i e w o f k n o w l e d g e s y s te m s . In c h a p t e r 10 , f o r e x a m p l e , w e
sa w t h e s c a l i n g s p i r a l s o f J o l a s e t t l e m e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e t h a t a r o s e f r o m t h e i r
c ir c u la r b u ild in g s; th e F re n c h re s e a rc h o rg a n iz a tio n E N D A h asT b u ilt a n
i m p l u v i u m c r e a t e d by t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f m o d e r n m a t e r i a l s a n d t h i s t r a d i
t i o n a l J o l a d e s i g n . A n o t h e r o f E N D A ’s ru r a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s t h a t i n c o r
p o r a t e b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l f r a c t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s is s h o w n
i n f i g u r e 14 .6.
I n c h a p t e r 6 w e saw h o w t h e s c a l i n g p a t t e r n s o f k c n t e c l o t h w e re c r e a t e d
to m a t c h t h e sc a lin g o f s a c c a d i c eye m o v e m e n t s as t h e y s c a n fro m t h e face to t h e
body. T h e G h a n a i a n B r o a d c a s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , G h a n a ’s n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n
c h a n n e l , h a s c o n t i n u e d t h i s p r a c t i c e in t h e c o n t e x t o f m o d e r n i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h
n olo gie s, utilizing t h e scalin g p a t t e r n o f k e n t e c l o t h in t h e i r test p a t t e r n (fig. 14.7).
W h e r e a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s c a l in g w as a p p l i e d t o t h e h u m a n v is u a l s c a n , t h i s t e c h -
nologized versio n m a kes use o f th e sa m e p a t t e r n for t e s ti n g t h e v id e o sca n . A sim ple
a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t it s h o w s t h a t A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s a re n o t j u s t r e s t r i c t e d t o l o w - t e c h
a d a p t a t i o n s ; t h e y c a n a ls o p r o v i d e s o m e useful b ri d g e s b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l a n d
h i g h - t e c h w orld s.
I n c h a p t e r 10 w e sa w t h a t t h e r e w e r e ties b e t w e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l
e d g e s y s te m s s u p p o r t e d b y A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e o f
th e s e s o c ietie s in w h a t P e r B ak w o u ld call a s t a t e o f se lf-o rg a n iz e d c ritica lity . T h i s
su g g es ts t h a t m o s t o f t h e in d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s w e r e n e i t h e r u t t e r l y a n a r
c h i c , n o r frozen in s t a t i c o r d e r ; r a t h e r , t h e y u ti li z e d a n a d a p t i v e f le x ib ility t h a t
c o u ld b e a p p l i e d t o m o d e r n d e v e l o p m e n t . B u t d e c a d e s o f r e s e a r c h h a v e s h o w n
figure 1 4 .6
M o d e rn ise d
f r a c t a l v illag e
This ENDA project in Burkina
Faso combined the traditional
fractal structure with modern
construction techniques.
Futures fo r A fr ic a n fracials 227
FIGURE I 4 . 7
K e n t e c lo th in th e
Q h c in a ia n B r o a d c a s tin g
C o r p o ra tio n t e s t p a t t e r n
Kente cloth pattern is used in
the upper right-hand quadrant
of the large circle.
t h a t a t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h t o d e v e l o p m e n t , e v e n t h a t m a k i n g use o f i n d i g e n o u s
k n o w l e d g e , is o f t e n less e f f e c t i v e t h a n a b o t t o m - u p , “grass r o o t s ” a p p r o a c h .
A d o p t i n g in f o rm a tio n tec h n o lo g y t o nir al areas could prov id e t h e o p p o rtu n it y
for p u t t i n g A f r i c a n f r ac t a l s t o w o r k i n s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e n e e d for b o t t o m - u p a u t h o r i t y , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e d e m o n
s t r a t e d t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e o f w o m e n i n A f r i c a n d e v e l o p m e n t ( e. g . , B o s e r u p
1 9 70 ; N e l s o n 1 9 8 1 ; A d e p o j u a n d O p p o n g 1 9 9 4 ) ; p a r t i c u l a r l y in t e r m s o f t h e
g e n d e r e d d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r in r u r a l s o c i e t i e s ( B e n e r i a 1 9 8 2 ) . W h i l e m u c h o f
t hi s a n a l y s i s h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f w o m e n i n b e a r i n g t h e b r u n t
o f e c o n o m i c c h a n g e , it h a s a l s o s t n r t e d h n e w a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e e x t e n s i v e
k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s t h a t e x i s t e d i n p r e c o l o n i a l w o m e n ’s a c t i v i t i e s . S i n c e m a n y
o f t h e s e p r a c t i c e s c o n t i n u e t o d a y ( a l b e i t i n m o d i f i e d f o r m ) , w o m e n ’s i n d i g e
n o u s k n o w l e d g e sy s t ems h a v e b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e in n e w a p p r o a c h e s
to d e v e lo p m e n t.
S o m e obvious challenges in cl ude e n v i r o n m e n t a l d am ag e (increasing salin
ization, def o r es t a t i o n , a n d d e s er t i f i c a t i o n ) , e x t e r n a l e c o n o m i c pressures ( t h e m o v e
to c a s h - c ro p p in g , tou ri sm , a n d m i g r a t i o n to cities; abus e of p o w e r by pr i va te
c o r p o r a t i o n s ) , incr eas ed disease ( A I D S a n d o t h e r viruses), poli ti cal u nr es t
( e t h n i c conflict, u n c o n t r o l l e d m ili ta r y force, abuse of a u th o r it y ) , a n d dam a g e
t o t h e s o c i o c u l t u r a l s y s t e m ( d i s r u p t i o n s o f w o m e n ’s t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y , loss
of t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s ) . W h i l e al! o f t h e s e a r e far t o o l a r g e t o be
a d d r e s s e d by a n y o n e a p p r o a c h , n o n e o f t h e m c a n be v i e w e d i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m
t h e o t h e r s . I n Ni g e r i a, for e x a m p l e , t h e S h e l l P e t r o l e u m D e v e l o p m e n t C o m p a n y
228 I m p l ic a tio n s
b e g a n o p e r a t i o n s in O g o n i l a n d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y le d t o w i d e s p r e a d e n v i r o n
m e n t a l d a m a g e ; a t t e m p t s t o p r o t e s t t h r o u g h t h e p re s s a n d o t h e r c o m m u n i c a
t i o n e v e n t u a l l y led t o t h e e x e c u t i o n o f O g o n i w r i t e r K e n S a r o - W i w a ( S o y n i k a
1 9 9 4 ) . F r e e d o m o f t h e p re s s is n o t a s e p a 'r a t e issu e from,, p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
e n v iro n m e n t.
It is righ t to decry abuse o f a u th o rity , b u t r e p la c in g o n e a u t h o r i t y w ith a n o t h e r
is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g o i n g t o p r o v i d e a l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n . A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s s u g g e s t
t w o a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s . F ir s t, w h a t is n e e d e d is n o t E. F. S c h u m a k e r ’s c a ll
fo r " s m a ll is b e a u t i f u l , ” b u t r a t h e r , a s e l f - o r g a n i z e d a p p r o a c h t o c h a n g e s in t h e
re la tio n s b e tw e e n scale a n d th e s o c i o e n v ir o n m c n ta l sy stem s— n o t just a p p r o
p ria te tec h n o lo g y , b u t a p p ro p r ia te scalin g . S e c o n d , 'm o r e c ritic a l a tt e n ti o n
n e e d s t o be p a i d to t h e a r t i f i c i a l / n a t u r a l d i c h o t o m y , w h i c h t e n d s t o b e t r a p p e d
in e i t h e r t h e o r g a n i c i s t s ’ d e s i r e fo r u n t o u c h e d n a t u r e ( e .g ., H u g h e s 1 9 9 6 ) , o r t h e
t e c h n o - o p t i m i s t ’s d e s i r e fo r r e s o u r c e e x t r a c t i o n .
A n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s e d a m a g i n g e x t r e m e s c a n b e f o u n d in C a l e s t o u s
j u m a ’s 1 9 8 9 classic, T h e G e n e Fh m ters. R a t h e r t h a n a p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t p e r s p e c ti v e ,
i n w h i c h i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t y w o u l d b e p o r t r a y e d as n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s o f a n
u n c h a n g i n g e c o s y s te m , o r a t e c h n o c r a t i c p r o f ite e r in g p e r s p e c t i v e , . i n w h i c h a g ri
c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is m e r e ly a q u e s t i o n o f m a x i m i z i n g y ie l d s w i t h i m p o r t e d
s tra in s , J u m a p ro v i d e s e v i d e n c e for in d i g e n o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y as s u s t a i n a b l e
b i o t e c h n o l o g y . H is s t u d i e s s h o w a l o n g - s t a n d i n g A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n o f n e w s e e d
v a riety d e v e lo p m e n t th a t c o m b in e d eco lo g ical su s ta in a b lilty w ith in n o v a tio n
a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . T h e s e p r a c t ic e s h a v e b e e n t h r e a t e n e d hy c o r p o r a t e m o n o -
c r o p p i n g , w h i c h c a n c a u s e soil d e p l e t i o n , o v e r - d e p e n d a n c e ora i n s e c t i c i d e s , loss
o f g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n , a n d o t h e r s o c ia l a n d e c o l o g i c a l crises, as w e ll as t h e a p p r o
p r i a t i o n o f t h e s e g e n e t i c re s o u r c e s by a b i o t e c h n o l o g y i n d u s t r y w i t h li t t l e i n t e r
est in i n d i g e n o u s le g a l rig h ts . J u i n a n o t e s t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e n o w f a c i n g A f r i c a n
a g r i c u lt u r a li s t s is n o t j u s t p r e s e r v a t i o n o f b io d iv e rsity , b u t a ls o a c c e s s to t h e legal,
t e c h n i c a l , a n d f i n a n c i a l a p p a r a t u s t h a t w o u ld a ll o w t h e m t o r e a p t h e p ro fit t h a t
c o u l d s u s t a i n s u c h e c o l o g i c a l l y s o u n d efforts.
F r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f c o m p l e x i t y th e o r y , J u m n ’s c r i t i q u e s u g g e s ts t h a t w e
a re t r a p p e d b e t w e e n t h e p e r i o d i c sta sis o f t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t s ’ li m i t c y c le , a n d
t h e w h i t e n o i s e o f t h e p r o f i t e e r i n g p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k l o o p . A s w e saw in t h e s e
m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s , b o t h a r e l a c k i n g in f l e x i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h m e m o r y ;
t h e l i m i t c y c le b e i n g t o o t i e d t o it, a n d t h e w h i t e n o i s e b e i n g t o o free f r o m it.
I n f o r m a t io n te c h n o l o g ie s h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l to p r o v i d e th is m e m o ry , d o c u m e n t i n g
i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e fr o m s e e d v a r i e t i e s a n d soil t y p e s t o g e n e s e q u e n c e s to
e c o t o p e s . By p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m e d ru ra l a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s ,
A f r i c a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s c a n ta k e a s t e p t o w a r d p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r g e n e t i c re s o u rc e s
Futures fo r A fr ic a n fractals 229
f r o m a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d m o v e t o w a r d J u m a ’s a p p r o a c h , w h i c h we m i g h t call
“ b i o t e c h - d i v e r s i t y ” (cf. H a r a w a y 1 9 9 7 ; S h i v a 1 9 9 7 ) .
T o v i e w i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e as a s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g s y s t e m is o n e t h i n g , b u t
c r e a t in g t h e same b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h for a synth esis o f ecological sustain-
abli li ty a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l ' d e v e l o p m e n t is a m u c h gr e a t e r c h a l l e n g e . For e x a m p l e ,
Rus s e l Bar s h n o t e s : “T h e r e is a n i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n in t h e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l
ogy used t o e l i c i t t r a d i t i o n a l p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e t h a t t hi s i n f o r m a t i o n
is r e c o r d e d a n d t r a n s m i t t e d d i g i t a l l y ( n u m b e r s a n d / o r w o r d s ) . . . [ r a t h e r t h a n ]
internalizing an an a lo g m o d e l ” (19 9 7 , 3 3 - 3 4 ) .
N a t i v e Seeds, a b o t a n i c a l o rg an i z at i o n d ed ic a te d to t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of
indi genous p l a n t st ock, h a s b e e n c r e a t i n g a “ c ult ural m e m o r y b a n k ” t h a t will record
b o t h a n a l o g a n d d i g i t a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a g ri c u lt u r e . T h e c o n
cept, originating from P hilippine e th n o b o t a n is t Virginia N azarea-Sandoval
( 1 9 9 6 ) , d o c u m e n t s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a n d b i o l og i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e crops , seeds, f a r m i n g , a n d u t i l i z a t i o n m e t h o d s . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g
v i d e o i n t e r v i e w s , is s t o r e d o n C D - R O M , w i t h a cc e ss c o n t r o l l e d e n t i r e l y by t h e
i n d i ge no u s farmers. In t h e U . S . c o n t e x t , w h i c h is o v e r l o a d e d w i t h e l e c t r o n i c t e c h
nology a n d e t h n o c i d e , this a p p r o a c h ma k es sense, b u t th e A fr i c a n c o n te x t ,
w i t h its e n o r m o u s i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n a n d s p a r se e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g y , will
call for t e c h n i q u e s t h a t c a n h a v e a w i d e r i m p a c t , o n e t h a t i n c l ud e s d e v e l o p m e n t
o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e as well.
If t h e r e is t o be soci al t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h grass-roots t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o
v a t i o n , it will r e q u i r e m u c h m o r e p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h a n a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s a l o n e .
O t h e r k i n d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t c o u l d i n c l u d e f l exibl e e c o
n o m i c n e t w o r k s , w h i c h a l l o w s ma l l -scale business''- > • c o l l a b o r a t e in t h e m a n u
f a c t u r e ot p r o d u c t s a n d se r vi c e * u . c y c o u l d n o t p r o d u c e i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h e s e
n e t w o r k s h a v e c r e a t e d s t r o n g r e v i t a l i z a t i o n i n c e r t a i n r ur al a r e a s o f E u r o p e
( Sabel a n d Piore 1990), a n d h a v e s h o w n p r o mi se in pil ot studies in t h e rural U n i t e d
S t a r e s as wel t (e.g., A C E n e t in s o u t h e r n O h i o ) . T h e use o f c o m p u t e r s t o o r g a
nize p r o d u c t i o n a n d v e n d i n g a n d p r o v i d e d y n a m i c s e a r c h e s for t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
m a r k e t n i c h e — o n e w h i c h w o u l d b e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a n d soci all y s u s t a i n a b l e as
wel l as pr of i t a b l e— c o u l d s p r e a d t h e b e n e f i t s o f n e w i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s to
r he mi crobusi ness level w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o p ut a lap t o p in every pushcart, anti micro-
f i n a n c i n g p r o g r ams h a v e al r ea d y p r o v e d successful in m a n y T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s
(Sera geld in 1997).
A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n s o f d e c e n t r a l i z e d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g c o u l d a l s o be c o m
b i n e d w i t h n e w i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s , c r e a t i n g n e w f or ms t h a t c o m b i n e
d e m o c r a t i c r u l e w i t h c o l l e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r i n g . T h e i d e a o f “e l e c t r o n i c
d e m o c r a c y " h a s s l owl y b e e n d e v e l o p i n g o v e r t h e I n t e r n e t ; b u t t h e ef f o r t s h a v e
230 I m p l ic a tio n s
b e e n h a m p e r e d by t h e t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e t h a t v i r t u a l v o t i n g m u s t b e t h e s a m e
as o r d i n a r y v o ti n g . P e r h a p s t h e n e u r a l n e t sty le o f A f r i c a n d e c i s i o n m a k i n g c o u ld
b e u t i l i z e d i n t h e W e s t as w e ll, w i t h v o t e r s i n d i c a t i n g p r o p o r t i o n a b s t r e n g t h s
fo r v a r i o u s o p t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , p e r h a p s t h e r e a r e w a y s to” a p p l y c o m p u t e r
m e d i a t o e n h a n c e A f r i c a n d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . O n e a p p r o a c h w o u ld b e t h e d e v e l o p
m e n t o f c o m m u n i t y n e t w o r k s t h r o u g h p u b l i c - a c c e s s t e r m i n a l s ( S c h u l e r 1 9 9 5 ).
A n d t h e e n o r m o u s d e v e l o p m e n t in e l e c t r o n i c s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s , c r e a t i n g sy s
te m s t h a t sty m ie e v e n t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d h a c k e r s ( e n c r y p t i o n c o d e s , fin g er
p r i n t s c a n n e r s , e t c . ) , m i g h t f i n d u s e s in p r e v e n t i n g v o t e r f r a u d t h a t is so
c o m m o n in u n s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e s .
N ig e ria n A m e r ic a n c o m p u te r e n g in e e r E g o n d u O n y e je k w e h a s started
e ff o rts t o a p p ly i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y n e t w o r k i n g in A f r i c a n d e v e l o p m e n t a l
p r o j e c t s u s i n g c o m p l e x i t y t h e o r y a s a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e . O n e a r e a s h e c it e s is th e
p r o b l e m o f la n d o w n e r s h i p (fo r e x a m p l e , see C h a r n l e y 1 9 9 6 ) . S h e n o t e s t h a t t h e
c o n t i n u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a n d p r o m o t e d by t h e c o l o n i a l le g a c y o f t e n r e s u l t s in
u n p r o d u c t i v e e c o n o m i e s o f s c a le , b u t t h a t g o v e r n m e n t o w n e r s h i p t e n d s t o m a k e
c o n d i t i o n s w o rse hy a d d i n g m o r e h ie r a r c h y . “R e s o l v i n g t h e l a n d p r o b l e m re q u ires
a n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l m e t h o d o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , a sy s te m in w h i c h c o o p e r a t i v e b e h a v
i o r is r e w a r d e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i n n o v a t i o n c a n fl o u ris h ; a c o m
b i n a t i o n o f c o o p e r a t i o n a n d c o m p e t i t i o n like we see in c e ll u la r a u t o m a t a a n d o t h e r
c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d e l s o f s e l f - o r g a n iz i n g sy s tem s . W h a t b e t t e r w ay to e n c o u r a g e
t h i s t h a n t h r o u g h c o m p u t i n g a n d i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k s ? ” **
N e i t h e r t h e A f r i c a n f r a c ta l s f r a m e w o r k n o r d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n
te c h n o l o g ie s offers p a n a c e a s . M y p o i n t is, rath er, t h a t t h e sh ift in p e rs p e c tiv e often
c a l l e d for in d e v e l o p m e n t n e e c t n o t b e e i t h e r c o n s e r v a t i v e r e t u r n t o -the p a s t, n p r
t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n t o f a n a l i e n i n v a s i o n . A f r i c a n f r a c t a l s o ff e r a
f r a m e w o r k t h a t is b o t h r o o t e d i n i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e s a n d c r o s s - p o l l i n a t e s w i t h
n ew hybrids.
APPENDIX
-Measuring---------------------------------------------
- th e fractal---------------------------------------------
-dimension---------------------------------------------
-o f African---------------------------------------------
-settlem ent---------------------------------------------
architecture--------------------------------------------
T h e r e a re s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t w ays co e s t i m a t e t h e f r a c t a l d i m e n s i o n o f a s p a t ia l
p a t t e r n . In t h e c a s e o f M o k o u l e k (fig. 2 . 4 o f c h a p t e r 2 ) we h a v e a b l a c k - a n d -
w h i t e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d i a g r a m , w h i c h a l l o w s us to d o a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l v e r s i o n
o f che r u l e r size v e r s u s l e n g t h p l o t s w e sa w i n c h a p t e r 1. By p l a c i n g t h e a r c h i
t e c t u r a l d i a g r a m o f M o k o u l e k u n d e r g rid s o f i n c r e a s i n g r e s o l u t i o n , a n d c o u n t
in g tire n u m b e r o f g rid c e lls t h a t c o n r a i n s o m e p a r t o f t h e d i a g r a m , we c a n p l o t
t h e in c r e a s e o f a r e a w i t h d e c r e a s i n g c e ll size ( j u s t as we o b t a i n e d a p l o t o f t h e
i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h w i t h d e c r e a s i n g r u l e r size). F ig u r e a .i s h o w s t h e re s u lts , i n d i
c a t i n g a f r a c t a l d i m e n s i o n o f 1.67— n o t t o o far f r o m t h e i .53 f r a c t a l d i m e n s i o n
t h a t is o b t a i n e d a n a l y t i c a l l y fr o m t h e c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n .
F o r t h e a e r i a l p h o t o o f L a b b a z a n g a (fig . 2 .5 o f c h a p t e r 2 ) w e h a v e a n
im ag e in s h a d e s o f gray, a n d t h e s i m p l e g r i d - c o u n t i n g m e t h o d c a n n o t be app lie d .
It is p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e g ra y s c a l e t o b l a c k a n d w h i t e , b u t a n a l t e r n a t i v e
m e t h o d a ll o w s us to m a k e a m o r e d i r e c t m e a s u r e o f t h e s c a l in g p r o p e r t i e s . F i g
ure a . 2a s h o w s _ t h e m e t h o d for f i n d i n g t h e s c a l i n g s l o p e o f 1 / F n o is e in a o n e
d i m e n s i o n a l t i m e s e r ie s hy a p p l y i n g a F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m . In fig u re a .2b w e see
h o w t h i s c a n b e a p p l i e d to a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n by s w e e p
in g t h e s a m e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y m e a s u r e a r o u n d in p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s . R a t h e r t h a n
tire l i n e o f o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l 1 / F n o i s e , a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n is
232 A p p en d ix
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n e . It is d i f f i c u l t t o s h o w t h e e n t i r e c o n e , b u t w e c a n t a k e
h o r i z o n t a l s l i c e s (fig. a .2b), w hich show sim ilar c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r b o t h L ab -
b a z a n g a a n d its f r a c t a l s i m u l a t i o n (fig. a .3)
FIGURE A.J
M e a s u r i n g t h e f r a c ta l d i m e n s i o n o f M o k o u l e k
frequency
O n e - d i m e n s i o n a l t i m e s e r i e s f o r 1/ F n o i s e . 1/ F n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
from i - D Fo u rier transform .
low fre q u e n c ie s a t h ig h p o w e r
h ig h fre q u e n c ie s at low p o w e r
F I G U R E A . 2 ..
h ig h f re q u e n c ie s a t lo w p o w e r lo w fre q u e n c ie s a t h ig h p o w e r
FIGURE A .3
R e s u l t s o f a 2 - V F o u r ie r t r a n s f o r m a p p l i e d to a e r ia l p h o t o o f L a b b a z a n g a
(a) Spectra for aerial photo of Labhazunga (fig. 2.50 from chapter 2). (b) Spectra for fractal image
(Jig. 2.5b from chapter 2). Note that the axes of symmetry in the fractal can he seen in this spectral
density distribution, while none exist for that of Labbazanga.
Notes'
c h a p te r i i n t r o d u c t i o n to fr a cta l g e o m e t r y
j. For a hexagon example, see Washburn and Crowe (1988, 237). Numerical examples
can be found in Crump (1990, 39-40, 50-54, 105-106, 128-133).
2 . The number 10 was not only a basis for counting, but it also appeared in Chinese nat
ural philosophy. In acupuncture, for example, the number 10 is created by the combi
nation of the "five elements" (wu-yiin) and the binary yin/yang.
3. Michael Polanyi (1966) referred to this as "tacit knowledge.”
of self-governing autonomy. But in the Mokoulek case I am also using it in the post
modernist sense, a participant in a virtual world. The contrasting meanings and their
consequences are discussed in detail in chapter 10, where the two are brought together.
6. T h e results were published in Eglash and Broadwetl (1989), and are reproduced in
the appendix. ""
T h e s e r i e s w a s first i n t r o d u c e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f a r e c u r s i v e l y c o m p u t a b l e a p e r i o d i c s t r i n g
b y A x e l T h u e ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 9 2 2 ) , u s in g rh e r e p l a c e m e n t rules 0 -4 0 1 , 1 —» 10, w ilh an in i
tial 0. M o r s e d i s c o v e r e d it s a p p l i c a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n i s t i c c h a o s , i n w h i c h it m o d e l s i h c
fra ctal tim e series p r o d u c e d by c e r ta in n o n l in e a r e q u a tio n s. S e e S c h r o c d e r ( t y y i ,
2 6 4 - 2 6 8 ) o n these aspects o f the seq u en ce.
CHAPTER 3 Recursion
I. T h e s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , s i n c e “ r e c u r s i o n ” is s o m e t i m e s
u s e d t o r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o w h a t w e w i l l c a l l “ s e l f - r e f e r e n c e , " a n d a t o t h e r t i m e s it is
u s e d i n t h e m o r e g e n e r a ! s e n s e a p p l i e d h e r e . “ I t e r a t i o n ” is u s e d in it s n o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n ,
a n d fo r t h e l e a s t p o w e r f u l w e w i l l u s e t h e t e r m “ c a s c a d e . ” T e c h n i c a l l y , t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s
o f recu rsio n ro u g h ly co r r e sp o n d to T u r i n g m a c h in e s , p u s h - d o w n a u t o m a ta , an d finite-
s ta te a u t o m a t a , b u t th e s e m o d e l s are a lit tle t o o a b s tr a c t to b e d ir e c t ly useful in h e l p
in g readers d e v e lo p a sen se o f t h e d is t i n c t io n s t h a t are o f in terest h ere.
2. S a g a y ( 1 9 8 3 ) e x p lic it ly m e n tio n s s ta rtin g w i t h th e sm all sh a p e in th e ce n te r, w h erea s
t h e I p a k o E le d e row s lo o k lik e t h e y m ig h t b e b e t t e r d e s c r ib e d as a p r e e s ta b lis h e d
lin ear s e q u e n ce (a lth o u g h S a g a y d o es n o t g iv e details h e re ).
3. A c t u a l l y , it is n o t w a x t h a t is u s e d i n m u c h o f A f r i c a , b u t r a t h e r a l a t e x c r e a t e d b y b o i l
i n g t h e s a p o f c h e E u p h o r b i a p l a n t . W i l l i a m s n o t e s t h a t it c a n p r o d u c e l o n g , d e l i c a t e
th rea d s th a t are im p o ssib le for w a x .
5. C u r t i n ( 1 9 7 1 ) s h o w s t h a t c h e s l a v e t r a d e f r o m w h a t is n o w n o r t h e r n S e n e g a l d i m i n
i s h e d a f t e r 1 7 0 0 , a n d t h a t t h e N i g e r i a n a r e a d i d n o t b e g i n m a j o r a c t i v i t y u n t i l aft er. 1 7 3 0 .
T h i s still le a ve s th e p ossib ility chat F uller c a m e fro m th e area o f p re s e n t-d a y B e n i n an d
^ G h a n a " w h i c h w o u l d 'i Y iT t 0 6 ' f a r s o u t h ' t o h a v e ' d i r e c t l y s h a r e d i n f l u e n c e s w i t h t h e B a s -
s a r i , b u t H o l l o w a y ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 0 ) n o t e s t h a t V i r g i n i a n s s h o w e d s o m e p r e f e r e n c e for
A f r ic a n s from the S e n e g a in b ia n regio n .
1. 1 q u a lif ie d th is as “ s t a n d a r d ” b e c a u s e t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r o w i n g c o n c e r n t h a t a n t h r o
pologists m ay h a v e o ve re m p h a s ize d th e im p o rta n c e o f age-grade an d kin sh ip by p ro
j e c t i n g t h e i r o w n d e s i r e s a s w e l l a s c h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r i n f o r m a n t s . S h a w ( 1 9 9 5 ) , fo r
e x a m p le , s h o w s h o w L o u is L ea ky's d e s c r ip tio n o f th e e x tr e m e o b e d ie n c e o f th e K ik u y u
to th e ir ag e -g ra d e syste m w a s c o l o r e d b o t h b y L e a k y's d e sire for che o rd er o f a “sm a ll
E n g lish v illa g e ” th a t h e n e v e r e x p e r ie n c e d ( h a v in g g r o w n u p w ith m ission a ry p aren ts)
a n d t h e K i k u y u e l d e r s ’ o w n i n t e r e s t s in r e c e i v i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n p a y m e n t s t h a t w e r e o v e r
d u e to th em .
’ . In a d d i t i o n t o che a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l w i t h t h e s p ir itu a l, F e r n a n d e z su g g e s ts th a t
t h e s p a t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n d e r i v e s f r o m t h e F a n g ’s p e r i o d i c c l a n f i s s i o n / r e l o c a t i o n . T h e f r a g
m e n t a t i o n o f a s o c i a l g r o u p c o m e s w i t h h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t a n d is s e e n a s t h e r e s u l t
o f s t a g n a t i o n o r s t r i f e , w h i l e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e g r o u p i n a n e w l o c a t i o n is s e e n
as p o s it iv e r e g e n e r a t i o n , b u i l d i n g f r o m t h e g r o u n d up.
L M a u r e r a n d R o b e r t s ( 1 9 8 5 , 2 5 ) d e s c r i b e che T a b w a b e lt, a le a th e r strip w i t h b a n d s o f
b e a d s o r w i r e a s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a s i n g l e d e s c e n t l i n e . S i n c e t h e T a b w a use c h e m p a n d e
238 Notes
disk to represent the expansion of all kinship groups from a singular origin, it is not
unreasonable to think of the irmkaba belt as a lower-dimensional projection of the
tnpancle disk. If one is willing to speculate so wildly that even [ would hesitate to do
so, the aardvark's winding tunnel could be viewed^as a three-dimensional spiral pro
jected onto the two-dimensional mpande disk, just as the belt is a'bne-dimensional
projection of the mpande spiral. A similar practice, the “Poincar£ slice,” is used in non
linear dynamics (see Abraham and Shaw .982).
9. It is important to understand that the problem is not one of “authenticity.” 1 agree with
the critiques of modernist anthropology’s tendency to make one individual represen
tative of an entire society and to focus on a false homogeneous past. In ethnomathe-
matics we are interested in the invention of mathematical concepts; so it doesn't
matter whether the source is an- entire society or a single creative individual. What does
matter is the precision and accuracy of che math, and it is here that the interpretive
flexibility offered by narratives presents problems.
jo. Note that I wrote "has trouble with” rather than “cannot do"— in fact, a programmer
could write a kind of “metaloop” of iteration that would figure out how many nestings
are needed. But in doing so, the program has to be able to refer to a part of itself (its
loops), so this is already a partial or limited self-tefetence. Of course we could then play
the same trick, demanding that we can’t tell ahead of time how many metaloops wili
be needed, and our sfnarty-pants programmer could again make a meta-metaloop, and
soon. It is only when we generalize the trick itself that full self-reference-will be required.
And even then, it too will meet up with undoable tasks— because that very property
of not bounding the process ahead of time leaves it vulnerable to other problems. As
Alan Turing proved for computing, and as Kurt Godel showed for all mathematics in
general, any system that is sufficiently powerful to fully utilize self-reference will have
to be incomplete in its ability to resolve all the theorems it can ask (see Hofstadter 1980).
11. The most specific connection made by Taylor is the possibility that the material attrib
uted to Hermes-Thoth was derived from some of che Egyptian priesthood writings men
tioned by Clement of Alexandria.
12. Stephan ides (1922, 192) suggests a more direcc sub-Saharan origin of alchemy, enter
ing Egypt around 7 1 8 b . c . e ., following the invasions o f Ethiopia.
13. T h a t’s not to say that the Legba drum beats were random; but the drumming did
indeed have an unexpected change of pace-
chapter 10 Complexity
J, The analog/digital dichotomy in computing is often confused with other dualisms. The
same terms are used by engineers to describe the continuous/discrete dichotomy, and
by cognitive scientists to discuss “reasoning by analogy” versus inductive analysis, but
these distinctions are irrelevant to the sense in which it is used here. Musical nores,
for example, are excellent examples of analog communication, but they are entirely dis
crete. See Eglash (1993) for details.
2. Blum et al. show that an analog Turing machine would be susceptible to tire halting
problem. See Eglash (1992, 1998c) for more details on this recent history of cybernetics.
We can think of the wave/particle duality in physics as another indication that the
analog/digital distinction is fundamentally egalitarian.
3. We can also look at this in terms of psychopathology. A neurotic will often repeat
the same phrase over and over, while a psychotic tends to be talking “word salad,”
a jumble of nonsense. In both cases, their mental relation to memory is pathologi
cally simplified: the neurotic slavishly follows memory, whilethe psychotic completely
ignores it. Complex information processing requires a dynamic interaction with
memory, a nontrivial recursive loop.
4. For example, say there are choices A, B, and C. A wins, bur B and C voters say, "If only
I trad known A was going to win, I would have been willing to vote the other way.”
N otes 239
Tank and Hopfield (1987, 106) contrast this one-shot majority rule voting with the
collective-decision-making process in neural nets: “In a collective-dectsion commit
tee the members vore together and can express a range of opinions; the members
know all about the other votes and can change their opinions. The committee gener
ates . . . whac might be called a sense of the meeting."---
5. Recall that we scaled down P to a number between 0 and 1 . That means that (1 - Pn )
will always he a fraction, which reduces P,i— in face, the larger Pn, the smaller the
fraction.
6. The reason it never lands back on exactly the same spot is not because of external noise;
it is rather for the same reason that the number P never repeats. Gottfried Mayer-Kress
suggested that a good way to understand this is to note that the drunken driver never
scops missceering, even while che sober one is overpowering him. I suspect that this com
bination of negative feedback and positive feedback is at the heart of every case of deter
ministic chaos, although I have yet to prove it. in Eglash (1992) I reported that che
Lorenz attractor consisted of only positive feedback, but this turns our to be incorrect.
In terms of dynamical systems theory (Abraham and Shaw 1982; Devaney J986),
positive feedback is the counterpart to spreading in phase space, and negative feedback
corresponds to folding in phase space. The phase-space combination of local spread
ing and global folding is a common definition for chaos; the conjecture simply trans
lates the phase-space definition into a control theory formulation.
7. I’ve oversimplified the relations here. For example, a finer distinction can be made about
‘'disorder” if we consider white-noise versus brown-noise distribution on a surface
(Gardner 1978; Voss 1990). In Brownian motion, a particle moves in a random, con
tinuous trajectory; given an infinite amount of time, such “brown noise” will approach
a two-dimensional curve. In white noise, single points on che surface are selected at
random, so an infinite amount of time will still only leave us with disconnected points,
which is a zero-dimensional curve. Between zero and one dimension, we have objects
like the Cantor set, and between one and two dimensions we have objects like the Koch
curve. This is slightly different when we chink about noise as a single time-varying sig
nal (as in acoustic noise) because the single points of the white distribution will also
be connected into a continuous (but nondifferentiable) curve, now of dimension one,
while brown noise as a time series will still be at dimension two.
8. Achebe himself prevents such a reading by highlighting a precoloniaf corastrophe that
befalls his main character, Okonkwo. At the same time, the contrast between Okonkwo’s
misery due to indigenous accident and his suicide as a result of che colonial encounter
makes it clear rhaf these are entirely different orders of chaos.
y. There is also a good illustration of collective fractal generation in the arts: che Mbutt
bark-cloih design shown in chapter 3 is actually llie producr of multiple artists.
1. Popper might object to the characterization of “fractal geometry minus dimensional mea
sures,” since it sounds like an ad hoc adjustment, but the important thing is that the
four attributes (scaling, recursion, infinity, and dimension) were tested in a more or less
falsifiable manner. Whether or not one can still call it fractal geometry if one of the
four is missing is an important question; but we need to address the possibility of a weak
characterization of recursion in European fractals before making that judgment.
2. This should not necessarily he assumed to mean "closer to nature,” since it could also
refer to an indigenous knowledge system chat promotes good ecological practices; but
the ambiguity is problematic.
3. In fact I’m not— my master’s degree is in systems engineering, anti although I rook a
few graduate seminars in mathematics for my interdisciplinary Ph.D. (thanks to die flex
ibility of the History of Consciousness board ar the University of California at Santa
Cruz), 1 wouldn’t dare call myself a mathematician in professional company, 1 have always
240 N otes
1. Derrida's promotion of arbitrary signifiers and artificiality was not the sole voice for this
position. Black activists like James Boggs (1968) have also been champions of artifice.
Wittig’s (1973) L e s b ia n B o d y takes a topic that was often created as the unassailable ground
of feminist meaning, the authentic physical self, and dismantles this construction
through textual erotics. Like Derrida, she shows that a system of arbitrary symbols is
just as capable of carrying the kind of human essence often attributed to the Real or
Natural.
2. Angela Davis has pointed out Ellison’s denaturalizing tropes in lectures at UCSC; her
recent work continues to tease out these threads of self-assembly in black cultural iden
tity and community.
3. My favorite illustration of analog artifice in black intellectual works occurs in chap
ter 11 of Audre Lourd's Zflmi. Like Witfig (1973), she describes the self-assembly of a
lesbian body, hut her techniques for this artificial reconstruction come through the ana
log media of scent, vibration, and form. See Eglash (1995) for other examples.
4. Consider, for example, the mojo hnnd/dataglove comparision in Dery (1994, 210), or
the following passage from Williams (1974, 40): “ ‘Simply anything can become a God,'
a Yoruba informant once remarked. ‘This button (pointing to the dashboard of the car
in which we were), ‘it only needs to he built up hy prayer’ (hy invocation).”
5. Similar views can be found in several other intellectual works of the time; e.g.,
Joreen’s (1972) critique of the women's movement, "Tyranny of Structurelessness." There
ate, of course, many centralist critiques of decentralization, but Joreen's text cook a
more complex angle of analysis. See Ehrlich (1979) for a critical view. Invocations
of African royalty in black cultural representations are typically viewed as commen
tary on self-esteem. While that may he true, in most cases there are hints that it. also
serves to question the humanist control enacted in a political democracy that can sup
port such deep economic subservience (see Queen Lntifa's "Queen of Royal Badness”
in Smith J990).
N otes 241
6. In face, this was how 1 got started on African fractals. It occurred to me that aerial
photos might show the difference between these architectural designs as fractal ver
sus Euclidean. Pat Caplan generously provided me with aerial photos of the area in which
she worked, and the indigenous housing did indeed appear to be less Euclidean.
7. Recursive architectural structure is linguistically indicated by the Yoruba term for
homestead: ot k a 0 1, or "“house within the house.”
8. The 1993 Supreme Court ruling in Sfiau/ v. Reno used the terms “bizarre” and “snake-
like,” the latter echoing historian John Fiske’s 1812 characterization of a "dragon Iike”
contour, a phrase changed to "salamander” and finally to “gerrymander" (after Mass
achusetts governor Elbridge Gerry) by political cartoonist Gilbert Stuart.
9. The insistence that stochastic variation implies free will and deterministic variation
implies domination is made by several authors besides Porush (e.g., Hakim Bey). I think
that individuals or groups can indeed create such associations, just as they can create
the opposite (e.g., that a simple bounded system can still have the liberty of infinite
variation, as we will see argued by Gilroy, Van Wyk, and Heaver). The error is in assum
ing universal meaning to what has to be local semiotics. A closer examination of the
social meanings for statistics (Porter 1986) reveals that its political associations are often
dependent on modernist concepts of humanist individualism, which is strongly critiqued
in the Foucaultian and other postmodernist analyses championed by Porush, Hayles,
Sobchack, and others.
10. Just as important is the reverse influence, e.g., Jewish jazz musician' Mezz Mezzrow pass
ing for black while in prison so that he could play in the band.
11. Gilroy’s work in this area should be seen as part of a larger community of researchers
and cultural workers (e.g., artists) who have developed a postmodern emphasis on hybrid-,
ity, creolization, and other impure identities (cf. Minh-ha 1 9 8 6 ; Anzaldua 1 9 8 7 ;
Bhabba 1 9 9 0 ; Sandoval 1 9 9 5 ; Haraway 1 9 9 6 ) .
12. Digital and analog are also confusing terms because digital technology is now commonly
used to generate the analog waveforms of music. But it is necessary to see how these
representations are layered. The electronic “on-off” .code pulses are actually noisy
waveforms that must be processed with analog control circuits at the lowest level of
the silicon chip; eventually they are decoded in binary form, then converted to an elec
trical waveform that will modulate the speaker. T h e resulting acoustic waveform can
be analog, digital, or— especially in the case of rap music— somewhere in between. See
Eglash (1993) for details.
1. According to ancient accounts, the discovery of irrationals was in the middle of the
fifth century b.c. e. Modern scholars generally agree that the proof for the incommen
surability of the square of a diagonal with respect to its side, first mentioned explicitly
in Plato's dialog T/ienems, is too abstract to have been used at this time. Von Fritz.(1944)
provides a resolution for this conflict in his speculative reconstruction of Hippasus’ analy
sis of the pentagon. See Knorr (1975) and Fowler (1987) for discussion of the origi
nal texts relevant to this area.
2. Plato was not the only influence at the time, nor were irrationals only granted one per
spective. Fowler (1987), for example, maintains rhat the significance of irrationals has
been misunderstood and suggests that even Plato presented their proof as “a source of
interesting and fruitful problems” rather than as a disturbing paradox. Nevertheless,
it was the homogeneous representations of Platonic thought deployed centuries later,
not irs contemporary diversity, which would matter for the intuition and practice of
modern mathematicians.
3. "We add to the first number the second one, i.e., 1 and 2 , the second to the third; the
third to the fourth; the fourth to the fifth . . . and it is possible to do this order for an
infinite number of months” (trans. Maxey Brooke).
242 N o te s
4. Similar analysis was provided hy Henry Louis Gates ( 1990) and others in the censor
ship trial of rap group 2 Live Crew, maintaining that the explicit sexual lyrics were not
acultura! profanity but rather modern variations of a long-standing black tradition of
public sexual commentary. * v',-«
5. Tuana (1989), for example, notes that the male homunculus theory,‘which locates the
active principle of birth in sperm only, dominated European medical thinking from Aris
totle to van Leeuwenhoek (and in some senses even to the present; see Hnrrouni
1997). Again, the African version is in strong contrast; recall from chapter 8 that the
Fang believe that the homunculus or active principle is contained in the female blood
(the division is more egalitarian than the European model, however, since the male Fang
are said to provide a complementary protective, skeletal principle).
6. That is, prior to complexity theory, at which point advances in the application of frac
tal geometry were made precisely because of the growing recognition of a relationship
between computational recursion and self-organizing phenomena. Complexity theory
is a marker distinguishing the transitional postmodernism of the 1970s from the stable
postmodernism of the 1980s (Eglash 1998c).
7. The qualification is not inaccurate; the problem is that sometimes the authors of this
text { T h e Science o f F r a c t a l Images) use the term “recursion" to mean iteration, and some
times (as in this case) it means self-referential programming. This level of ambiguity
would not be tolerated for any other mathematical terminology used in the text.
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Index-
B an tu, 62 C h a i t i n , G re g o ry , 153
Banyo, 34-36 c h a o s , 9 3 , 9 5 , 103, 108, 143, 159, 162, 168,
b asket w eaving, 4 5 -4 6 , 222 1 7 4 , 1 8 2 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 4 , 2 37iM
B nssari, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 , 2 3 7 0 5 chi w ara, 1 2 4 -1 2 5 , 127, 134, 209
B a ta m m a lib a , 121, 126, 135 C h in e se m ath em atics, 4, 4 7 -4 8 , 185, 225,
B atty , M ic h a e l, 4 9 - 5 0 23502
b ead w ork, j J3 , j 19, 166, 2 3 7 0 5 C h o k w e , 6 1 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 8 4 , 187
B e l l , E r i c T . , 2 0 7 —2 0 8 C h o m s k y , N o a m : c o g n itiv e th e o r y of, 2 11;
B e m b e , j 23 h ie r a rc h y of, 1 5 6 - 1 5 8
B enin, 91, 1 2 4 ,1 4 1 -1 4 3 , 166, 182, 216, C h ristia n ity , 20, 4 8 , 9 0 , 127, 1 3 5 -1 3 6 , 149
n a t u r e , 1 7 , 1 8 , 4 7 , 48, 5 0 - 5 3 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 6 2 , 1 4 1 , p o w e r law , 7 1 - 7 4 , 8 9 - 9 3 , 1 5 9 - 1 6 1
149, 180, 1 8 1 , 1 9 0 , 1 93 , 228 , 2 3 6 0 2 , 2.3902 p r i m i t i v i s m , 53 , 89, 180 , 1 8 8 - 3 8 9 , ! 94>
N a z a r e a - S a n d o v a l , V i r g i n i a , 22 9 1 9 6 -19 7 , 224-225
“ n e g r i t u d e , " 188, 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 2 4 o n 5 p r o b a b i l i t y , 94. See also c h a o s ; r a n d o m n e s s ;
n e u r a l n e ts , 1 5 2 , 1 5 4 , 1 65 s ta tis ti cs; s t o c h a s t i c v a r i a t i o n
n e u r o b i o lo g y , 1 5 2 , 1 5 6 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 9 , 2 3 8 , 2400 6, p r o g r a m m i n g . See c o m p u t e r : p ro g ra m s
N e w A g e m y s ti c is m , 187 pseudorandom n um ber gen eratio n , 9 7 - 9 8
N i g e r i a , 24 , 94 , 1 3 7 , 1 7 3 - 1 7 5 , 1 8 7 , 200, 2 2 7 , p u s h - d o w n a u t o m a t o n , 1 5 7 —1 5 9
230 Pythagoras, 203-204
N i l e river, 99 , 2 0 8 - 2 0 9
nomads, 115 Q u e e n L a ti fa , 240115
n o n d t f f e t e n t i a b l e c u r v e , 239117 q u in c u n x ,5 5 ,18 2
n o n l i n e a r i t y , 4 0 - 4 3 , 70, 7 1 , 7 6 - 7 7 , 8 0 - 8 2 , 84,
8 6 - 8 6 , 9 7 , 108, 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 2 , 1 4 3 , 1 6 2 , r a ci s m , 180 , 1 8 7 , 188
1 8 2 , 1 9 0 , 200, 2 1 6 , 2 22 , 2 3 6 0 2 , 2 3 7 0 4 , ra n do m n e s s, 3 1 , 93—99 , 1 5 2 - 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 - 1 6 : , 1 74 ,
238 08 1 8 6 , 1 96 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 , 2 3 7 0 4 , 2 38 11 13 , 2 3 9 0 7
n u m b er s , 4, 5, 6, 8, 18, 3 1 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 7 6 , 8 6 - 1 0 8 , ra tio s, 204
1 22 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 8 6 , 190, 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 , r e bi rt h . See bi r th
2 1 2 , 2 2 9 , 235112 re c u rs io n , 8 - 1 2 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 34 , 4 3, 4 5 , 4 7 - 4 8 , 5 5 ,
n u m e r o l o g y , 4, 20, 9 5 , 1 2 1 —1 2 2 , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 , 204, 7 7 , 8 6 , 8 9 , 9 3 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 108 , 1 0 9 - 1 4 7 ,
235n2 1 4 9 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 5 - 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 7 , 190, 1 92 ,
N um m o , 131, 133, 175 1 9 4 - 1 9 5 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 2, 20 5, 2 0 9 - 2 1 4 , 2 1 7 ,
N u p e, 137 2 3 7 0 1 , 238113, 2 3 9 m , 2 4 1 0 7 , 2 4 2 0 0 6 , 7.
N y a n g u l a , A l e x , 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 , 242112 Se e also ca s ca d e ; it e r a t io n ; s e l f - r e f e r e n c e
r e f l e x i v e a n t h r o p o l o g y . See a n t h r o p o l o g y :
O du m , H ow ard, 214 r e f l e x iv e
O g o n i , 228 r e l i g i o n , 7, 20, 28, 3 1 , 4 7 , 48, 5 3 , 7 8 , 9 0 , 92 ,
O g o t e m m e l i , 131 9 3 , 9 9 , 1 24 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 ,
i/F n o is e , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 66 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 1 64 , 1 6 6 , 1 7 0 , 180 , 1 8 9 , 1 94 ,
O n y e j e k w e , E g o n d u , 23 0 20 2, 204, 20 5, 2 0 7 , 20 8, 2 1 1 , 2 4 2 n 3
optim ization, 7 3 -7 4 r e p r o d u c t i o n , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 , 1 24 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 8 ,
o r i e n t a l i s m , 188 1 4 0 , 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 - 2 1 4 . See also b i r t h
O R S T O M , 25, 29 rite o f p ass age , 34
owari, 1 0 1 - 1 0 8 r it ua l, 3 1 , 68, 9 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 4 ,
1 6 5 , 1 8 0 , 186
P a le s t in e , 89 r o m a n t i c o r g a n i c i s m , 1 94
p a r a d o x , 1 2 , 1 1 1 —1 1 2 , 1 64 , 2 0 3 - 2 0 5 R o s i c r u c i a n i s m , 9 5 , 208
p a r t i c i p a n t s i m u l a t i o n , 29, 182 — 1 8 4 , 2 3 5 n s R o u s s e a u , Jea n J a c q u e s , 1 9 2 - 1 9 3
p e n t a g o n , 204, 2 4 1 m R u c k e r , R u d y, 104, 162
p e r i o d i c i t y , 103 , 106, 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 6 , Russell, Bertrand, 211
158-160 , 1 7 2 - 1 7 3 ,2 2 8
Pe ter, Rdz sa , 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 S a h a r a , 38 , 71
p h a s e s p a c e , 239116 Sah el, 7 1 - 7 4
p h i l o s o p h y , 1 49 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 , 2 0 3, 235112 S a m p s o n , Ja ro n , 224
p h y s ic s , 7 , 1 5, 50 , 1 1 3 , 1 5 1 - 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 - 1 7 6 , 1 9 4 Su r o -W iw a , K e n , 228
pi, 206 s c a l i n g , 1 2 , 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 1 , 26 , 28—29 , 3 1 - 35> 3^.
P l a to , 20 3 —205, 2 1 0 , 2 4 m m , 2, 2 4 2 0 3 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 3 - 4 8 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 6 , 6 1 - 6 3 , 6 5 , 68,
p l o t t i n g . See g r a p h i n g 7 0 ,7 1-8 5 ,8 6 , 8 9 , 1 0 4 ,1 i o , 112 -114 ,
P o i n c a r e sl ic e , 238118 1 1 6 - 1 1 8 , 12 0 - 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 - 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 - 1 3 5 ,
p o i n t a t tr a c t o r, 106 13 7 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 8 - 1 4 9 , 156, 166, 174 , 175,
p ol ar c o o r d i n a t e s , 2 3 1 - 2 3 3 1 90 , 1 96 , 200, 2 0 2, 208, 2 1 6 , 2 2 5 , 22 6 ,
p o l it ic s , 3 1 , 3 4 , 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 , 120, 1 2 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 7 4 , 2 2 7 , 228 , 2 3 5 0 2 , 2 3 9 m
1 79 , 180, 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 , 1 9 2 - 2 0 2 , 2 2 7 - 2 3 0 , S e h i n n a k e r , E. F., 228
24 0 0 5 , 24111118, 9 S c h y l e r , G e o r g e , 1 94
Po pp e r, K a r l, 6, 1 7 9 , 2 3 9 m s c u l p t u r e , 7, 5 2 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 68, 79 , 80, 8 1 , 84,
p o p u l a t i o n , 5, 2 5 , 4 9 - 5 0 , 9 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 96 , i t 2 , 113 ,12 7 ,13 3 ,1 3 4 ,1 3 8 -1 3 9 ,2 1 6
1 9 7 , 20 5, 22 9 , 236116 se cr et s , 9 3 , 9 7 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 , 200, 204
P o r tl a n d B a s e li n e Essays, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 s e lf - g e n e r a t io n , 9 5 , 9 7 , 100, 1 3 5 , 140, 20 6 , 209
p o s i t i v i s m , 1 79 s e lf - o r g a n i z a t io n , 1 0 1 , 104, 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 , 1 6 1 ,
p o s t m o d e r n i s m , 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 , 1 99 , 2 1 6 , 2 3 6 n s , 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 , 168 , 1 70 , 1 7 6 , 1 9 5 - 1 9 7 , 2 j 8,
241 n n y , 1 1 , 242116 22 o , 22 6 , 2 2 8 - 2 3 0 , 2 4 2 0 6
258 Index
S o w , F a t o u , 18 3
V a n W y k , G a r y , 200
spectru m , 5 - 6 , 49, 5 1 - 5 2 . 56, 1 7 2 - 1 7 3 , 176,
v i d e o , 99 , 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 4 2 0 3
231-234
v i r t u a l c o n s t 1 net i o n , 2 1 , 29 , 1 83— 1 8 4 , 2 1 3 ,
S p i l l e r s , H o r c e n s e , 194
230 , 235115
spiral, 2 3 - 2 4 , 29 , 3 1 , 4 5 , 4 7 - 4 8 , 7 6 - 7 9 , 8 1 ,
v o d u n , 9 0 - 9 3 , 9 4 - 9 5 , 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 1 44 , 1 6 6 , 170,
8 6, 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 , i i 2 , 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 , 148,
■74. ' 7 5 1 t 83, 190, 1 94 , 2 1 6 , 2 3 8 0 1 3 ,
1 62 , 364, 2 j o , 2 1 6 , 22 4 , 226, 23808,
24004
242113
v o n N e u m a n n , J o h n , 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 , 108
sp i ri t, 4, 28, 3 1 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 ,
v o o c l o o . See v o d u n
1 2 6 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 4 1 , 148 , 1 74 , 1 7 5 ,
voting, 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 , 229 -230
1 8 6 , 18 8 , 1 9 3 , 194, 200, 2 0 4, 2 3 7 0 7
S p i v a k , G a y a t r i , 184 W a sh b u r n , D orothy, 48, 187
s q u a r e ro o t , 205 W e s t , C o r n e l , 194
s t a t e , 3 9 - 4 0 , 5 1 , 189 , 2 3 6 m w h i t e n o i s e , 1 5 4 — 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 - 1 6 1 , 1 7 3 - 1 7 4 , 228,
s ta ti s t ic s , 18, 2 4 1 0 9
2 39n 7
sta tus , 2 6 - 2 9 , 5 5 , 68, 2 3 5 6 5 W i e n e r , N o r h p t t , 21 4
s t o c h a s t i c v a r i a t i o n , 9 3 , 24 111 9 W o l f r a m , S t e p h e n , 1 0 6 , 1 5 s . 1 58
S t o l l e r , Pa u l, 3 1 , 1 95
W o l o f , 162
S t o n e w o r k , 29 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 3 , 1 3 5 - 1 3 7 . 1 8 5 , 1 96 ,
w om b, 34, 133, 212
2 10 w o m e n , 24 , 3 2 - 3 4 . 9 0 , 1 2 4 , 1 9 5 , 2 0 0 , 204,
s t o o ls , 5 5 - 5 6
2 1 2 - 2 1 3 , 2 2 2 - 2 2 7> 24 ° n 5 , 2 4 2 0 4
s tr u c t u r a l i s m , i 8 t , 188
S u d a n ,8 1,1 3 5 Y o r u h a . 8 1 . 8 2 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 7 4 . 1 8 3 , 190.
s y m b o l s , 6, 7, 8, 20, 24, 3 4 , 4 2, 4 3, 5 5 , 7 1 , 1 96 , 240114, 241117
7 7 —7 8 , 9 3 - i o t , 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 , 120, 1 2 6 —1 2 8 ,
1 3 1 , 139, 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 , Z a i r e . See D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f C o n g o
1 6 4 ,17 9 ,18 1-18 2 ,18 6 ,18 8 ,19 2 -19 4 , Z a m b i a , 8, 26 , 2 2 0 - 2 2 2
1 96 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 1 , 2 4 0 0 1 , 2 4 2 n3 Z e n o o f E l ea , 2 0 3 - 2 0 5
sym m etry, 7 , 3 1 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 4 5 - 4 7 , 79, ' ' 3 , ' '8 , Z h a h o r i n s k y r e a c t i o n , 1 0 4 , 162
1 8 6 - 1 8 7 , ' 9 0 , 1 9 7 , 2 2 2 , 236113 Zim babw e, io o , 196,200
S y r i a , 89 Z u l u , 222