COMPARISON BETWEEN PILE DRIVING ANALYSIS AND MAINTANED LOAD TEST

IN TERM OF ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

MUHAMMAD ASRAF BIN ROZALI

SEKOLAH KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The scale of activities involving piling in a country normally relates with the
development of that particular country. In Malaysia, piling activities are currently
active all around the country due to the various development projects that are
ongoing, funded by both the Government and the private sector. Types of piles
used for these development projects can broadly be divided into two type which is
displacement and replacement pile. Displacement pile, these are precast or pre-
formed piles which are driven into the ground by a huge piling hammer or by
hydraulic jack in. These displace the earth they are driven through. On the other hand
Replacement piles, these are piles which are put into holes dug or augured out of the
earth. The concrete, or steel, simply replaces the earth, clay which has been
excavated. Driven reinforced concrete (RC) pile is type of displacement pile that
transmits loads from structures into the soil stratum through shaft friction and end
bearing capacity of the pile.

Construction of foundations using RC piles is popular and common in

Malaysia, especially for buildings that are of some degree of height. Construction of
driven RC piles foundation is commonly chosen by developers as it is relatively time
saving with a flexible construction schedule, the RC piles are normally readily
available and construction methodology is straight forward and not complicated.
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However, if driving is not carried out correctly, it will result in piles that have
not adequately set. Set criteria for driven RC piles are pre-determined by calculation
before pile-driving activity begins. If the set criterion for a certain pile is not
achieved, excessive settlement of the particular pile may be encountered and this will
eventually affect the stability and integrity of the supported structure or building.

Given the numerous uncertainties inherent within the design and construction
of piles, it's hard to predict with accuracy the performance of a pile. in order to
mitigate and prevent such occurrences, and comprehensive pile-testing program
should be incorporated in each project. Loading tests will be applied on preliminary
piles to verify the pile design or on working piles as a proof loading tests. Although
pile load tests add to the cost of foundation, the saving is substantial in the event that
improvement of to the foundation design can be materialized. Pile tests will typically
be divided into 2 main categories, that are static and dynamic tests. An example of
static testing is the Maintained Load Test (MLT) while Pile Driving Analyzer
(PDA) is a type of dynamic test.

MLT has been conventionally used to test piles in static condition. Most
projects require a certain number of driven RC piles to be selected and tested by
the MLT method. The MLT test method is well known to be burdensome due to the
test set and testing process. It is a very costly test method and the long duration
required for testing makes it undesirable. Unfortunately, the MLT is one of the
most direct methods of testing driven RC piles and if procedures are strictly followed,
the results are extremely reliable and the settlement of driven RC piles can be
accurately determined.

PDA test currently has gained so much demand in the market in recent years
due to it being relatively cost-efficient, timesaving and easy to perform. Due to
its cost which is much less compared to MLT, PDA can be performed on more
driven RC piles thus providing a bigger sample of tested piles.
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However, accuracy of data from PDA testing can sometimes be in doubt due
to the uncertainties in the energy transmitted to the pile during testing and wave
stress propagation theories.

As both of the methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, a

combination of data obtained from MLT and PDA testing is proposed to provide a
clear picture of the driven RC pile bearing capacity and expected settlement.

1.2 Problem Statement

As of now, not many comparisons are created between PDA and MLT testing
for driven RC piles, specifically for cohesive soil in Malaysia. Accurate and
elaborate studies showing attempted calibration between PDA and MLT in order to
determine the effectiveness of PDA isn't usually carried out. By comparison the
results of ultimate pile capacity using each PDA and MLT, it's envisaged that
eventually, the number of MLT will be reduced and substituted by conducting
additional PDA tests instead. Thus, by comparing the results from PDA and MLT,
the Engineer can gain the confidence and dependability of using numerous PDA with
limited MLT tests.

1.3 Objectives

The main objectives of this research are:

a) To choose the most suitable calculation method for obtaining pile

capacity from MLT
b) To determine the ultimate capacity of driven RC piles in cohesive soil
utilizing data from MLT and PDA respectively.
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c) To compare the results and data obtained from MLT and PDA. The
relationship is to be used for future testing programs for cohesive soil
whereby the number of MLT can be reduced and replaced with more
PDA tests

1.4 Scope and Limitations

For the purposes of this research, only driven RC piles in cohesive soil will be
considered. This limitation is necessitated by the available data, which involves
driving of RC piles in mainly cohesive soil.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, four main sub-topics will be presented. These include literature
review on driven reinforced concrete piles, maintained load test, pile driving analyzer
and the comparison between maintained load test and pile driving analyzer in terms
of their advantages and disadvantages. Information for this chapter is based on
published literature on topics related to this thesis with the relevant publications listed
in the references.

2.1 Driven Reinforced Concrete (RC) Piles

Reinforced concrete (RC) piles are pre-cast members that are driven into the
ground. RC piles are normally produced in a centralized casting yard by independent
pile manufacturers, many of whom possess their own concrete batching plants.
Usually, these manufacturers produce a variety of piles according to different types,
sizes and lengths. In order to be used for a particular construction project, the piles
must meet the requirements of the project Technical Specifications. Client or
Contractors will choose piles from these manufactures taking into account
considerations such as supply, pricing, delivery time and distance from project site,
quality and availability of required sizes/lengths.
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RC piles usually are manufactured with a square or octagonal cross section,

although RC piles in other shapes can also be produced. Sizes of RC piles in the
market normally range between 250mm to 450mm in diameter and are manufactured
in lengths of 12m to 30m. They are able to carry working axial loads of 450 kN to
3500 kN (Coduto, 2001). However, RC piles of different lengths, cross sections and
capacities from those listed above are also produced depending on the needs and
requirements of construction projects. RC piles are normally driven into the ground
using machinery such as pile drivers equipped with drop hammers, as shown in
Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Driving of RC piles

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Pre-cast driven RC piles are either made using ordinary reinforcement or may
be pre-stressed. Pre-cast piles made using ordinary reinforcement are designed to
resist bending stresses during loading/unloading and transport to the project site from
the casting yard. They are also designed to resist bending moments from lateral loads
and to provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads and tension forces developed
during driving of the piles. During pile driving, the head of RC piles can be severely
damaged if not adequately protected. Therefore, sufficient cushioning and damping
must be provided in the drop hammer and driving set-up. This normally involves
usage of hammer cushions and pile cushions. A typical set-up of drop hammer and
pile driving is as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Set up for pile driving

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Even though driven RC piles are the most popular type of displacement piles
used in the country, there are a few drawbacks that are associated with its use. Some
of the advantages and disadvantages of these piles are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of RC Piles

Advantages Disadvantages

Material of preformed section can be Pile section may be damaged during

inspected before driving
Driven cast-in-place concrete piles are
adaptable to variable driving lengths
Installation is generally unaffected by
groundwater condition
driving
Founding soil cannot be inspected to
confirm the ground conditions as
interpreted from the ground investigation
data
Ground displacement may cause movement
of, or damage to, adjacent piles, structures,
slopes or utility installations

Soil disposal is not necessary
Driving records may be correlated with
in situ tests or borehole data
Displacement piles tend to compact
granular soils thereby improving bearing
capacity and stiffness
Piles cannot be easily driven in sites with
restricted headroom
Excess pore water pressure may develop
during riving resulting in false set of the
piles, or negative skin friction on piles upon
dissipation of excess pore water pressure
Underground obstructions cannot be coped
with easily

Cause less ground disturbance Heavy piling plant may require extensive
site preparation to construct a suitable
piling platform in sites with poor ground
conditions.
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2.2 Maintained Load Test (MLT)

There are a few methods to carry out static load test on RC piles. These include
MLT, Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) test and Osterberg load test,among others.
As previously mentioned in Chapter 1, MLT has been traditionally used to test
piles in static condition and is the preferred method of statically testing piles.

2.2.1 Background

In the design process, geotechnical engineers normally estimate pile capacity

from soil strength estimates obtained from site soil investigations to obtain a
preliminary design length for bidding purposes. Numerous correlations and empirical
correction factors for soil strength were developed for Standard Penetration Test(SPT),
Cone Penetration Test (CPT), or other soil sampling tools.

However, there is generally considerable scatter in strength prediction results

and local experience does not transfer to differing conditions or differing sampling
methods. Numerous prediction events have demonstrated that such predictions are
generally highly inaccurate, particularly in sandy soil conditions where strength is
determined by SPT N-values (Long, 2002). Thus, because of large inherent risk due
to poor prediction accuracy, most code requires a safety factor of around 3 for piles
installed using only a static analysis. In general practice, driven piles are almost never
installed to a depth from a static analysis alone, but the final installation is governed
by blow count determined by dynamic methods or confirmed by a static load test
such as the MLT.

The objectives of pile testing with MLT include the determination of the load
bearing capacity of the driven piles, the settlement and residual settlement of the pile
under load and determination of the stiffness of the soil/pile system in regards to the
 10

design load.

The ultimate load of a driven RC pile may range from a few tonnes to more
than a thousand tonnes. As such, the provision of a reaction or load to jack against
requires careful consideration. Normally, a reaction of around 20% more than twice
the working load is provided for testing purposes. The centre of gravity of the reaction
mass must be as near as possible to the pile axis. Particular attention to the set up
and geometry of the pile-reaction arrangement must be emphasised to minimize
interaction between pile-reaction and to avoid any movement of reference beams.

2.2.2 Equipment and Test Procedure

The most common method of providing the reaction to the pile under test is
by utilising kentledge. Kentledges are specially cast concrete blocks that normally
weight between 2.5 to 5 tonnes each. The load can be symmetrically distributed and
placed with ease over the testing frame, as the blocks are usually equal in weight and
size. Load is applied to the test pile by means of a hydraulic jack.

A normal MLT will consist of 2 loading cycles. During the first cycle, the
pile will be gradually loaded until its proposed working load in step loads. Each step
load is usually about one-fourth of the proposed working load. The step loads are
maintained for a certain period of time (normally 1 hour) until the proposed working
load is achieved whereby the load will be maintained for a longer period (around 8
hours). The process is repeated in reverse and loads are decreased in steps until there
is no load applied to the pile. For the second cycle, the pile is gradually loaded in
steps until 2 times the proposed working load. Once the maximum required load is
achieved, it is held for a period of about 24 hours and then the loads are decreased in
steps.
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Figure 2.3 Typical kentledge arrangement for MLT

Figure 2.4 Typical arrangement for a Maintained Load Test (MLT)

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2.2.3 Measurement of Settlement

Dial gauges are used to measure the settlement of the pile under test. These
dial gauges are attached to the reference beams, which are positioned on either side
of the pile. For any load, Q the net pile settlement can be calculated using the following
equation:

snet = st - se (1)

where, snet = net settlement

se = elastic settlement of the pile
st = total settlement

The values of Q can be plotted against the corresponding net settlement in a

graph. The ultimate load bearing capacity of the pile can then be determined from the
plotted graph.

Figure 2.5 Set-up for measurement of settlement

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2.3 Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA)

2.3.1 Background

Dynamic testing was pioneered by Dr. G.G. Goble and his colleagues at Case
Western Reserve University in Cleveland Ohio and is now a routine pile capacity
evaluation method. Dynamic testing requires measuring pile force and velocity
during hammer impact and subjecting this data to a signal matching analysis to
determine the soil behavior. Extensive correlations between static and dynamic
testing have verified the method's reliability

PDA is one of the most widely used dynamic test equipment in the market. It
was developed by Pile Dynamics Inc., USA. PDA is used at site to perform the first
stage of interpretation of stresses in real-time. The hardware of the PDA consists of
strain and accelerometer gauges connected to it. It can be regarded as a computer
loaded with software to capture the strains and accelerations measured near the pile
top, which then computes a closed-form solution of the pile-soil-hammer system in
real-time.

To obtain a reliable ultimate capacity from dynamic pile testing, some very
basic guidelines must be followed. The hammer input must produce a minimum set
per blow so that the soil is loaded sufficiently to mobilize the full soil strength. In
cases where the set per blow is very small (e.g. large "blow count"), the dynamic pile
test will activate only a portion of the full soil strength and thus will under predict the
true ultimate capacity, so the result is conservative. The pile capacity of driven piles
often changes with time after installation (usually increases due to "setup", although
in some cases reduction due to "relaxation" are found). To measure these time
dependent capacity effects, the driven pile should be tested by re-strike after an
appropriate waiting time. Re-strike tests are recommended standard practice for
capacity evaluation by dynamic pile testing (Likins, 2004).
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Dynamic testing provides other benefits for driven RC piles. Dynamic pile
testing provides valuable additional information on driving stresses, which is too large
can result in pile damage. Pile integrity can be evaluated dynamically for both location
and extent of damage, if any. Proper hammer performance is extremely important for
driven piles because engineers rely on the blow count (or set per blow)as a driving
criteria for pile acceptance, thus implicitly assuming that the hammer isperforming
properly.

Figure 2.6 Testing of piles using PDA

By periodical monitoring throughout larger projects it can be assured that the

hammer is performing properly and consistently during the entire project so that the
same initial driving criteria can be used for all piles with confidence. Periodical testing
can check site variability and investigate the cause of piles that are too shortor too
long or that have unusual blow count records to determine if the cause is the hammer
or the pile or the soil. According to Likins (2004), guidelines for checking site
variability and periodic hammer verifications are mentioned in certain codes such as
Pile Driving Contractors Code (PDCA).
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The generally used procedure is to use a drop weight for the impact so that
the drop height and number of blows applied is controlled. A relatively thin plywood
cushion (typically 50 to 100 mm) is placed at the pile top to distribute the loads.
Usually an initial small impact is applied to check the instrumentation and alignment.
Blows with increasing drop height are then applied until either the stresses reach the
strength limits of the pile, or until the set per blow exceeds about 3 mm whichactivates
the full capacity, or until the result indicates a capacity sufficiently inexcess of the
requirements for the project, whichever comes first.

As mentioned by Likins (2004), the recommended drop weight is at least 1%

of the required ultimate capacity to be proved for shafts installed in clay soils or into
rock sockets. For piles with larger expected end bearing contributions, the recommended
percentage increases to at least 2% of the load to be tested.

2.3.2 Wave Equation Analysis

Blows from a drop hammer will create a stress wave on the pile top. This
stress wave travels from the pile top through the pile to the toe. Gauges mounted on
the pile just below the pile top measure the strains and accelerations as the wave
travels down. The pile material and soil surrounding the pile dampen, transmit and
reflect the wave as it travels down the pile. At the pile toe (tip), the stress wave is
reflected back to the top of the pile. As the wave makes it way to the top, the gauges
measure the strains and accelerations due to the returning wave.
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Figure 2.7 Wave equation theory set-up and parameters

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As the stiffness of the pile is known, the force can be calculated from the
strain measurements. The accelerations can be integrated over time to yield the velocity
of the waves. The force and velocity measurements are the principal data used in
the PDA to compute the unknown soil resistance. By examining the force and velocity
trace, a diagnosis of the characteristics of the pile-soil-hammer system can be made
and abnormalities in pile driving can be detected. In most PDA applications,the hammer
is not instrumented and only the pile-soil system is considered and analyzed.

Figure 2.8 Strain gauges and accelerometers are fixed to RC piles

during PDA testing
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Current PDA testing method is based on a one-dimensional wave propagation

theory. For a stress wave travelling down a pile due to a hammer impact on the pile
top, the compression force and velocity are related by the following equation:

F = Zv (2)
Z = EA/c (3)

where, F = compression force

Z = impedance
v = velocity
E = Young's Modulus
A = cross-section area
c = wave speed

For a given material, E, A and c are constants. As the wave travels down the
pile, any change in the pile impedance such as changes in cross-section area, splices
or defects will cause the wave to be reflected. The governing equations for the force
and velocity transmitted and reflected at points of impedance change are given by:

Ft = 2Fi / (1+B) (4)

Fr = Fi / (1-B) / (1+B) (5)
vt = vi2B / (1+B) (6)
vr = vi(B-1) / (1+B) (7)

where, i = incident
t = transmitted
r = reflected
B = ratio of impedance before and after section considered
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In addition to changes in the pile impedance, the soil resistance along the pile
will also affect the wave propagation. Part of the incident wave will be reflected due
to the soil resistance. The governing equations for the force and velocity transmitted
and reflected due to soil resistance are as follows:

Ft = -R/2 (8)
Fr = R/2 (9)
vt = vr = -R / (2Z) (10)

where, R = soil resistance

The force or velocity trace at the pile top due to a hammer blow therefore can
be analytically computed by applying the equations to a discrete finite element model
of the pile-soil-hammer system and solving it in the time domain. The wave input
can be either the measured force or velocity. By suitably adjusting the soil model, the
computed force or velocity trace can be made to match the actual measured value.

Once this is achieved, the soil model is said to be represent the actual soil
condition. The resulting soil model then provides the required information on the soil
resistance and its distribution along the pile length. The pile model usually is a known
input, except where it is required to determine unknown defects in the piles.
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2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of MLT and PDA

Table 2.2: Comparison of MLT and PDA in terms of respective advantages and
disadvantages
Test Type Reaction Maximum Advantages Disadvantages
System Test Load
Maintained Kentledge Normally Suits all soil Kentledge tests
Load Test around. conditions and pile are relatively
(MLT) 3000 kN types. Manual and expensive. Setting
(300 automated systems up and
tonnes). available. Piles can dismantling the
be instrumented. test equipment
Higher test Tension and lateral involves
loads are testing possible. operatives
possible. Very high test loads working at height.
achievable. Long duration.
Kentledge and
frame are
required

Pile Driving Piling 3000 kN Fast and relatively May require

Analyzer hammer (generally, inexpensive. calibration with
(PDA) or but can be Suitable for both static test. Results
separate greater). driven and bored may be
drop piles. Correlation unrepresentative
weight Hammer with static tests on in soils that
weight bored piles exhibit relaxation.
should be in generally good. Correlation of
the range 1 dynamic and
to 2% of static results on
load piles in cohesive
soils and chalk
must consider
time-related
effects and the
length of pile
tested.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Background

The study was conducted based on data from a single project site.
Description on the project will be presented in Chapter 4. The data were grouped in
static and dynamic test results. Analysis of the different data was carried out
separately.

High strain dynamic test and CAPWAP analysis results from the each of the
data were reviewed in terms of shaft distribution and pile load-settlement. Similarly
the same procedures were employed to MLT results. The output of the PDA results
and CAPWAP analysis, and MLT analysis were compared to obtain a relationship.
The results were compared based on ultimate pile bearing capacity and settlement.
Discussions on the obtained results are presented and conclusions made based on the
results. Finally, recommendations are provided.
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The methodology of the study is as presented in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1 Flow Chart for the study

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3.2 Data Collection

The first stage of this study included identification of an appropriate

construction project. The data required was from driven RC piles that were tested
both by MLT and PDA. The results were made sure to be complete for comparison
purposes.

There were many data obtained but data that contained only a particular test
method, either MLT or PDA alone were rejected during this stage of study

3.3 Data Analysis and Results

The second stage of this study was to analysis the data that was obtained from
the construction site. Based on the raw data, pile load vs. settlement data were
tabulated and subsequently plotted.

The PDA data were also analyzed based on shaft distribution. The shaft
distribution was obtained from results of CAPWAP analysis. These results were
tabulated for easier presentation. The percentage of shaft distribution through the
length of the pile in regards to the total capacity obtained was observed.

In the MLT tests, certain pile capacities were obtained. The same also
applies to PDA tests whereby capacities of piles were also obtained. Both the
capacities were compared available methods and plotted to get a comparison for all
of the analyzed piles.
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3.4 Summary

The third and final stage of the study was to draw a conclusion based on the
results of the analysis. It is understood that from previous studies there has been
good correlations and comparisons between dynamic test and static load test results.

The result that was derived from the analysis were carefully studied based on
the objectives. The closeness and the deviation between the results obtained were
checked.

Reasons and factors that influence test results were identified and presented.
Recommendations were included to for use during future pile load testing programs
and for further research works on similar subjects.
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