Mod 7.14 B1

THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
Module 7.14: MATERIAL HANDLING
CAR 66 Level
Objective
Reference B1
MATERIAL HANDLING 7.14
• SHEET METAL 7.14.1 2
Marketing out and calculation of bend allowance;
Sheet metal working, including bending and forming;
Inspection of sheet metal work.
• COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC 7.14.2 2

Bonding practices;
Environmental conditions;
Inspection methods.
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 1 of 69

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METAL ofmaterial waste.
FABRICATION TECHNIQUE Machining processes provide excellent precision, but the

processgenerates a large amount ofwaste material.
GENERAL
Assembly techniques enable complex shapes to be constructed
Whilst many of the fabrication techniques and methods used in from simpler parts or units.Welding, adhesive bonding,
aircraft manufacture are beyondthe scope of the maintenance mechanical fasteners come under this latter heading. The
engineer, an appreciation of the processes used may assist in the methodsof assembly are covered elsewhere and are therefore not
understanding of the properties and repair procedures applied to included in this section.
different parts of the aircraftstructure. The following section is
outside the requirements of EASA Part 66 but may be ofvalue to CASTING
you. It contains basic descriptions of some of the more common
metal formingprocesses. This involves the pouring of molten material into a shaped mould
and allowing it to solidify tothat shape. It is an ancient process,
METHOD USED IN SHAPING METALS which enables complex shapes to be produced in a widerange of
materials in a single step operation. Cast components can range in
There are four basic methods of converting raw material into the size from the smallteeth of a zip, to large casings of several
required manufactured productwhilst also achieving the metres in diameter. Ocean-going ships' propellers, upto 10 metres
desiredmaterial properties: in diameter, are produced this way. Careful choice of alloy,
control of cooling ratesand processing of cast components can
• casting, result in fine grained, high precision, high strengthproducts.
• deformation,
• machining, and Modern casting techniques have resulted in:
• assembly.
• high quality (i.e. minimum porosity and reasonably defect-
Casting exploits the fluidity of a liquid as it takes shape free products)
andsolidifies in a mould. • high production rates
Deformation exploits the remarkable property of most metals to • good surface finish
flow plastically in the solid statewithout deterioration of • small dimensional tolerances
theirproperties. Processes such as these, result in a minimum • the ability to cast a very wide range of materials.

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Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and While the characteristics of the sand are important, the design of
ceramics but, by far, the mostwidely used are those of sand and themould must also meet certain standards, some of which are:
metal.
• The top and bottom halves of the mould ('cope' and
'drag'respectively), mustincorporate positive alignment
SAND-CASTING features.
The two basic types of sand-casting are: • The pattern must be shaped such that withdrawal from thesand
leaves a perfectimpression. Tapered (or 'drafted') faces are,
• Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal) therefore, better than perpendicularfaces.
• Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene which vaporise when the
metal is poured). • Suitable feed channels must be provided for the molten metal
to enter the mould andflow evenly through it. These channels
Although sand-casting is simple in principle, there are many vital are called the 'sprue' (vertical) and the'runners' (horizontal).
aspects of the technique,which are necessary to produce good
castings. • Strategically placed reservoirs (called ’risers') must be
incorporated to ensure properfilling of the mould as the metal
The sand must have adequate binding qualities and to achieve shrinks and begins to solidify. Typical steel shrinkageis
this, a small percentage of clayis added. It must also have suitable around 3%-4% and aluminium shrinkage, 6%-7%.
porosity characteristics to permit the escape of gas orsteam,
formed in the mould. There are also different requirements for • The incorporation of vents, where necessary, to permit the
steel and aluminium. escape of gas and steamwhen the molten metal contacts the
sand and disposable pattern when used.
The sand is graded by a sieve which ensures it is the correct grain
size. Its strength is controlledby the amount of bonding agent • Local 'chills’ are sometimes included in the mould, to
present. It must be able to resist the molten metal temperatures encourage more rapid, localsolidification of the metal.
without fusing or melting and have an adequate hardness.
Cavities and hollows within the casting can be made using 'cores',
The moisture content should be between 2% and 8% and is shaped sand negativeswhich are placed in the mould prior to
checked by weighing the sandbefore and after drying. casting.

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After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and The advantages of sand-casting are that it is a simple process,
removed from the casting. The metalfrom the sprue and risers, which does not requireelaborate equipment and is economical for
and any flash is cut from the rough casting. small batches. It is also suitable for most metals.
Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from The major shortcomings are that the process is not very rapid, it is
the initial cooling and to addhardness - in the case of steel or iron, not particularly accurate (dueto lack of sand rigidity) and it is not
by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be suitable for thin-wall sections.
furtherstrengthened by surface compression treatment like shot
peening that adds resistance to tensilecracking and smoothes the TYPICAL CASTING DEFECTS
rough surface. High quality or precision surfaces can be Casting defects vary to some extent, depending on the
producedby machining. castingprocess used, but the mostcommon ones are:
• Inclusions (e.g. sand or mould lin ing material sticking to the

surface)
• Porosity (usually caused by gas/vapour, which is unable to
escape beforesolidification)
• Cold Shuts (when local areas of me tal are not molecularly
joined, due tosolidification occurring too rapidly).
• Hot Tears (where the material is crack ed by excessive tensile
stresses, resultingfrom thermalcontraction).
SHELL-MOULDING
Shell-moulding is a process in which a thin shell is produced, by

bringing a mixture of sand anda thermosetting resin into contact
with a heated pattern.
Fig 7.14.1 When a sufficiently thick shell has been produced, the shell is
finally cured. The shells are joined together to form a mould
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF SAND-CASTING which is backed up by sand or steel shot in a moulding box. The

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molten metal is then poured in. When cooled the shells are broken automation andcan achieve excellentdetail, super finish, low
away from the casting. porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but
veryhigh production rates are possible. Automatic ejection may
The advantages of shell-moulding over conventional sand- be usedand, on small components,100 units per minute is
castingare: notuncommon. Hollow castings cannot be made by this method.
• It can be semi-automated, which reduces cost CENTRIFUGAL-CASTING

• finer sand can be used, which results in a smoother surface
finish. This technique involves the molten metal being poured into a
rotating mould. The process is used for the manufacture of hollow
DIE-CASTING cylinders, bronze or white metal bearings. The rotation canresult
in acceleration forces of up to 60g and this produces high-
This process uses a permanent metal mould, which results in quality,dense castings, sinceall of the slag migrates to the bore
more accurate, and betterfinished, castings than those produced in (due to it being of lower density than the metal) and it canthen be
sand. Die-casting, can be sub- divided into 'gravity' or'pressure' machined out.
processes, depending on how the metal is fed into themould.
INVESTMENT-CASTING (LOST WAX)
Gravity Die-Casting - sometimes known as 'Permanent-Mould This is a very old method of casting (which was used by the
Casting'. This casting process is virtually identical to sand- ancient Chinese), but it onlybecame of great industrial importance
castingexcept that the mould (die) is metal. A wide range of in the 1950's, when gas turbine manufacturing began toincrease.
metalscan be cast and hollow castings are possible if a sand core The process was ideally suited to the production of complex-
is used.Fine grain structures areproduced, due to the more rapid shaped nozzle guidevanes and turbine blades which, often,
rate of cooling, compared to that achieved in sand-casting. contained tortuous inner passages, very thin sectionsand had to be
cast in exotic materials. The basic process is as follows:
Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high
pressure (thousands of psi) and held during solidification. Most 1. A master die negative is made first from an easily
pressure die-castings are in non-ferrous materials (aluminium, workedmetal such as brass.
magnesium, zinc, copper and their alloys), because steels 2. Hot wax is then injected into the die, under pressure,
havetoo-high a meltingtemperature for the metal dies toproduce a wax pattern.
toaccommodate. The dies are, usually, made from hard, tool- 3. The wax pattern is then removed from the die, connected
steels and are water cooled. This process lends itself to tosprue and coated with alayer of investment material (a
ceramic slurry or paste and very fine sand), usually bydipping

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a number of times.
4. When the investment coating is set, it is then heated to
allowthe wax to run out, andmolten metal is then poured into
the investment mould.
5. When cool the investment coating is then broken away
fromthe cast, metalliccomponent.
For obvious, reasons this investment-casting process is

oftenreferred to as the 'Lost Wax'process. It is a technique, which
is capable of producing precision castings with a
dimensionalaccuracy of less than 0.1 mm. Surface finish is also
excellent, butthe major advantage, that theprocess offers, is the
ability toproduce accurate, complex shapes which would be
impossible toachieve by machining.

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conducted by the blacksmith, tothe massive, mechanical,powered

rams, used for very large forgings. The forging hammerwilloften
have a relatively low strike rate, but sometimes high-speed,
pneumatic hammers are usedfor High-Energy-RateForming.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and
produces a controlled ofgrain flow. Both of these are
desirablefeatures for many engineering applications,
particularlyforhighly-stressed components, such as crankshafts
and especially ifthey are subject to amechanical fatigue
environment. Machining processes cut the metal and produce
discontinuousgrain flow, reducing fatigue strength.
Investing Casting Process DROP-FORGING

Fig 7.14.2
DEFORMATION Drop-stamping, or drop-forging, involves the use of shaped dies
and a heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The
FORGING piece of material to be forged, is placed between the
topandbottom dies and the drop-hammer is allowed to fall the
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to necessarynumber of times for thecontact faces of the dies to
achieve largedeformation/shaping of the material. The process is come together. 'Flash gutters' are provided, to accommodate
usually carried out hot (i.e. above the re-crystallisation theexcess metal (flash), which squeezes out between the top and
temperature), so that these large deformations can be bottom dies.
attainedwithout beingaccompanied by any massive, residual
stresses.
Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this

instance, the material will beharder, stronger and pre-stressed
(i.e. still containing unrelieved internal stresses).
Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations,

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Fig 7.14.3
HOT-PRESSING
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is Fig 7.14.4

actuated by one, long, steady, squeezing operation, as compared to ROLLING
a number of blows. This process tends to affect the wholestructure
of the component, whereas some forging processes, using multiple When done hot, rolling is capable of achieving major re-
(but light) blowswill, mainly, affect the material closest to the forming/reshaping, and slabs can bereduced to plate or sheet while
surface. bars of circular or rectangular cross section can also beproduced.
Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes such as'H' or T
UPSETTING section beams.
Upsetting is, sometimes, called 'Heading' and usually involves If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality,
locally heating of the end or endsof the rod material, immediately better accuracy, and increasedhardness/strength. Hot, dilute,
prior to forging. Poppet valves are formed in thisway, as areforged sulphuric acid is used to remove the hot scale from steelprior
bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is tocold rolling. The rolling process is also used to produce the clad
referred to as 'ColdHeading'), and some rivet heads are formed in (and unclad) sheets ofaluminium alloys.
this way.
Both hot and cold rolling will align the grains of the metal
producing a stronger crystallinestructure.
DRAWING

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Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out

hot.Wire, rod and tubing, can beproduced by this process,
wherethe material is pulled through a shaped, hardened die.
Aductile material is essential.
PRESSING/DEEP DRAWING
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers forshaping

sheet material. The sheet isplaced between the formers,which are
then forced together by a powered ram. Pressing isusually done
hot (except for the soft, ductile materials) andproduces moderate Fig 7.14.5
deformation e.g.flanges for lightening holes. RUBBER-PAD FORMING
STRETCH-FORMING In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a

hydraulic ram, which forces apiece of sheet metal to conform to
This is a technique used for shaping pre-formed sheet metal or the shape of a forming block.
extrusions over a stretch-blockor former. The sheet metal isfirmly
gripped by clamps and the section is then stretched overtheformer Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so
(by moving the clamps or the former) and thematerial is stretched iteliminates critical matching andalignment problems
beyond its elastic limitso that permanent deformation occurs. ofconventional pressing, when used for small batches (e.g.
aircraftproduction), low-cost, easy to machine materials can be
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is used for the forming block.
particularly financially attractivesince only one former is needed)
but, local changes of form (concave/convex or vice versa)cannot HYDRO-FORMING
be produced by this process.
This uses the same principle, but incorporates a flexiblediaphragm
and hydraulic pressure inplace of the rubber pad. The hydraulic
pressure of up to 15000 psi pushes the metal into a die
or pattern, forming complex shapes without thinning the
walls.The process can also be used ontubular material, the
pressure inside expanding it into the die to form complex hollow

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shapes. in the production of tin cans while manually large deeply

dishedshapes can bemanufactured. Cones, flares, bowls and bell-
mouth shapes, are produced by spinning.
Fig 7.14.6
Fig 7.14.7
METAL SPINNING
EXTRUSION
Metal Spinning is a process by which circles of metal are shaped
The extrusion process forces hot metal through a shaped die, to
over mandrels (also calledforms) while mounted on a spinning
produce circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, and other more
lathe, by the application of levered force with various tools.It is
complex sections.
performed rotating at high speeds on a manual spinning latheor
performed by CNCcontrolled automated spinning machines. For
The process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal
thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can bemanipulated by hand,
froma heated billet, throughhardened dies by compression (like
while, for thicker gauge materials, a hydraulic actuator is used
toothpaste from a tube), whereas in drawing, it is achievedby
onapurpose-built machine.
tension. Malleability is an essential material property for
theextrusion process.
The flat metal disc is clamped against the mandrel and a series of
sweeping motions thenevenly transforms the disc around
Extruding is normally restricted to aluminium alloys and copper
themandrel into the desired shape. The automated processis used

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alloys, where extrusiontemperatures of 400°C-500°C and 650°-

1000°C respectively are used. Steel is extremelydifficult to
extrude, due to the excessive pressures required. The process
aligns the grains in the metal increasing its strength.
Fig 7.14.9
SINTERING
Fig 7.14.8 Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to

IMPACT-EXTRUSION approximately 70%-80% of itsmelting temperature and then
squeezed to shape in a die.
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation akin to forging,
which is suitable for very softand malleable materials The process is often used to form components made from
(e.g.aluminium). The shaped component is formed, by forcing a materials with a very high meltingtemperature (e.g. tungsten). It
punchonto a 'blank' of material within a shallow recess. The also allows non-metallic materials, such as graphite and carbon,to
extrudedshape results from the metalbeing forced to escape be incorporated into the mixture.
through the small gap, between the punch and the recess.
The operation is usually conducted in a controlled atmosphere
(typically argon or nitrogen) toprevent oxidation. Under the high
pressures used, a metallurgical bond occurs (diffusionbonding),
between the particles of powder. The sintered end-product
is,typically, around 10%-20% porous and can then be
impregnated with graphite (or high melting-point grease),
toprovide excellent, self-lubricating properties for plain bearings,

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bushes etc.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials

are required, as when copperand graphite are used for electrical
brushes (i.e. copper to carry the current and graphite to actas a
low-friction contact)
Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way,

by incorporating tungstencarbide particles within a cobalt
matrix.Hot Isostatic-Pressing uses a similar technique tosintering,
but uses higher temperature and very much higher pressures
toproduce zeroporosity. The technique is sometimes used to
healmicro-porosity in super-critical castings.
Fig 7.14.10
SUPERPLASTIC FORMING MACHINING
Some Aluminium and Titanium alloys when heated, CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

becomeextremely ductile and canplastically deformed without
necking occurring. This superplasticity can be exploited in Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques,
theforming process, when an inert gas is used to blow the material which are:
into therequired shape. It is particularly useful for Titanium due to
the problems encountered when cold working it. • Drilling/reaming
• Turning
• Milling
• Sawing
• Shaping/planing/slotting
• Broaching
• Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)

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These techniques have been well established for many years, and machine is a more sophisticated computer device. Eachmachine
most of the advances, untilrelatively recently, have been confined can be independently programmed and can store the
to tooling improvements which have permitted highermaterial programmesrequired to make avariety of parts.
removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel tools, have
beensuperseded by high-speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy Although the capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the
steels), cemented carbides and ceramics. following advantages make suchmachines technically desirable
and economically viable, where super-light, complex, high-tech,
However, the biggest single machining advance in modern times manufacture is concerned:
(especially with regard toaircraft manufacture) has been the
introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. • Complex shapes with integral features are possible
NCmilling, in particular, has revolutionised airframe manufacture. • The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
• A reduction in manufacturing time
In the original NC machines the motion was controlled by a series • Adaptable to short runs
of numbers, either viapunched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, • Greater accuracy and consistency
on the tape, were based on the Binary System (ora variant). • Program can be changed to accommodate modifications
The primary advantage of NC machining is the ability to Modern systems allow computer generated drawings (orComputer
accurately control the spindle, the toolor the work- Aided Design - CAD) to beproduced by CNC machines
piecemovements in three directions (x, y and z axes) (Computer Aided Manufacture - CAM) with
independently or littlehumanintervention. The CAD drawing may be generated in
simultaneously. Turret mounted tools with programmed thedesign office and downloaded onto theCAM machine from
toolchanges allow a high degree ofautomation. amainframe computer system. Such CAD-CAM operations are the
basis ofmost modern factories.
NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which 'tells'
the control unit how muchactual movement is made, analysis is
then done and final compensation eliminates any error(i.e. the
motion ceases when the input and feed-back signals
agree).Electrical control of themachine servo-motors can control
movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
CNC (Computer Numerically Control) machines differ from NC

machines only in that theelectronic control unit on the CNC

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Fig 7.14.11 Fig 7.14.12

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Fig 7.14.13
Fig 7.14.14
'Machining Centres' have also been developed, which are capable

of CNC control andautomatic tool changes, doing difficult types
of machining without the need for transferring workto a different
machine and resetting up. In this way a much more
versatilemachine tool hasevolved.
Accuracy to within microns (0.000001m or 0.000039") is

possibleand repeatable. The tools andwork pieces can be moved
in relation to each other in a number of axes. The orientation of

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eachaxis and number of tool holders varies between machines.

Below is the possible layout for a 7axis machine.

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Fig 7.14.15
CHEMICAL MILLING
Sometimes referred to as chemical etching or "chemilling", it is

apurely chemical process.
Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of

producing complex shapes andlightweight parts and is used for
incorporating integral ribs and stiffeners in sheet metal.Tapered
sections can also be easily formed with the unwanted
materialbeing eaten away by asuitable chemical.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical,

in this instance, is a hot alkalinesolution (usually caustic soda)
and, while it is a relatively slow process, its unique
advantagesmake it very attractive for airframe components.
The blank shape is dipped in a plastic solution covering the whole

surface. An indexed patternis laid on the part and the areas which
are be etched by the fluid are transferred across with aknife. The
plastic coating is then peeled off of these areas, leaving
theremainder masked orprotected by the thin layer of plastic.
Theamount of material removed by the etch processdepends on
the strength of the solution and the length of the exposure to
it.Complex shapescan be produced by re-masking and revealing
new areas. The material must be thoroughlycleaned after each
chemical dip to remove the corrosive solution.
Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough, a drop

in fatigue strength does resultand, in critical applications,
restoration of fatigue strength is desirable. A light shot
peeningoperation, using glass beads or steel shot achieves this.

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Fig 7.14.15
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Fig 7.14.16
By making the workpiece the anode of the dc electrical circuit, ELECTRO – DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
and pumping electrolyte underpressure through the gap between a
shaped cathode (also referred to as the tool) and theworkpiece, This process is sometimes called spark machining (or spark
electrolysis can be used to erode the material. erosion), because rather than using electrolysis, the technique
involves the removal of metal b y the energy (and heat) of
The tool is moved slowly towards the workpiece, by a ram, so that electrical sparks. The energy travels from the electrically negative
metal is progressivelyremoved from the workpiece, until the tool electrode, through a dielectric fluid and explosively strikes
desired shape is achieved. the electrically positive work-piece.
The ECM process is ideal for very hard metals, which are The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to
difficultto machine by conventionalmethods, and the finish instantaneously vaporize, without a molten metal phase (a process
achieved is good. High electric current is required, and the tool known as ‘sublimation’), though, away from the actual centre of
needs tobe a good conductor (copper or brass). It must also resist the explosion, molten fragments of metal are washed away, with
corrosionbecause the electrolyte isoften a salt solution. the vapour, by the dielectric fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed under pressure, between

the electrode and the workpiece, to maintain a uniform electrical
resistance. The spark rate is around 10,000 per second and the gap
between the tool and the workpiece is critical and must be

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maintained, throughout the operation, at approximately 0.025 mm

– 0.075 mm (0.001 in – 0.003 in).
The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on

materials which are difficult to machine conventionally, but it also
excels in its ability to produce high – aspect ratio, very small holes
of any cross – sectional, in very hard metals.
Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of

0.025 mm diameter x 750 mm deep (0.010 in x 3 in).
A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as Fig 7.14.17

‘wire cutting’, which uses a moving, fine piece of copper or nickel
wire as the electrode. The wire, 0.05 mm – 0.25 mm in diameter DIFFUSION BONDING
(0.002 in – 0.010 in), is positioned by, and fed over, two pulleys Joining in the solid state, unlike welding, no melting of
and resembles a simple band – saw operation. themetallic materials takes place.Materials are heated to high
temperatures in a vacuum environment and subjected to
The work-piece is mounted on a table, which can be moved in two pressureshigh enough to cause plastic deformation. Intimate
axes and, when the table is computer controlled, the wire-cutting contact of thesurfaces under theseconditions assures a quality
process can cut accurate, complex shapes in metals (e.g. dovetails, bond, having the strength and ductility of the parent metal.
fir – trees etc.) which are difficult to machine with conventional
tools.

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Titanium can be used in a high temperature vacuumenvironment

as a getter. Titanium will absorb its own surfaceoxides. When
heated to temperature, Titanium will stick to itself even under low
pressure. Other materials can be readilyjoined together by these
methods. The basic requirements are the same.Even greater
caremust be taken to assure that contamination of the surfaces
does not occur during heating totemperature.Titanium foil can be
used to clean up oxides within the vacuumchamber.
Dissimilar metallic materials can also be joined together, if they

are compatible with each other.If they react with each other to
form brittle intermetallics, then barrier materials must be
placedwithin the joints to achieve a transition.
FIG 7.14.18
Diffusion bonding, however, is a misnomer. There is no
masstransfer of atoms across the jointinterface. Re-crystallization
Fig. 7.14.19
is not required to achieve high strength quality bonds. If
Titanium can be joined together as sheet metal laminates, or as
thesurfaces to be joined are clean and free of metallic oxides or
various combinations of sheet, plate, bar, or machined
other forms ofcontamination, andare brought together under high
parts.Tooling is required to hold the pieces together to form
heat andpressure, they will join together to form a solid statebond.
complexstructures made up from these elements. Large
Atomsin the joint, will lock together if they achieve interatomic
Titaniumstructures have been fabricated usingthese concepts for
spacing.Hightemperatures result in wide spacing as well as
the production B-1 Bomber and the Space Shuttle.
rapidmolecular activity. Both of these factors assist in achieving
high quality bonds.
Tooling was machined from stainless steel plate or bar
stock.Tooling may also be fabricatedfrom castings to achieve
Titanium is a metallic material that is ideally suited for this typeof
greater resistance to creep deformation under sustained
processing. Titanium is highlyreactive at elevatedtemperatures.

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pressuresduring bonding. Castings also provide a more cost

effective method offabrication for sometooling configurations. Some sheets are covered, on one or both surfaces, with a thin
protective paper or plasticmembrane. It is beneficial to leave it in
Stainless steel retorts were used to enclose the bond place, at least the underneath, while the marking out isdone, to
assembly.Vacuum lines were attached topurge the interior of the minimise the possibility of the surface sustaining
container.Inert gas was used to flush out air. Multiple purges undesirablescratch marks and toprotect unused material when it is
wererequired. returned to the rack. If no protective membrane is applied tothe
sheet, then care must be taken over the condition of the surface of
Titanium structures were heated to temperatures of 1700 F under a the table,or workbench,upon which the sheet is to be laid for the
pressure of 2,000 poundsper square inch, and held at pressure for marking out procedures.
three hours. The mass was then allowed to cool toroom
temperature. The retort was opened, the tooling removed, and Other factors, which should be considered (as with all work)
asingle Titanium part wasremoved that was made up from concern the requirements to ensurethat:
hundreds of individual pieces.
• Material wastage is kept to a minimum
SHEET METAL HANDLING • The task is done correctly, first time, so that valuable time is
not wasted.
GENERAL
The first point is usually obvious, due to the cost of the materials
By definition, sheets of aluminium alloy are comparatively thin in involved, but the second pointquite often gets forgotten, when
cross-section and, as such,they not only pose a health hazard, work is being done, but the actual labour costs far outweigh
through cuts, when being handled but they are, also, proneto thematerial costs on most tasks.
buckling and creasing if handled carelessly.
CARE OF METAL
Large sheets of aluminium alloys are, usually stored upright, on
their longest edge andsupported, clear of the floor, in a wooden The metal widely used for aircraft skins and parts is an aluminium
rack so they are protected from damage andcorrosion. Care must alloy. Aircraft built in Americamainly use a sheet material which
be taken when removing a large sheet from its storage rack – is coded with the numbers 2024 or 7075, and aircraft built
atask whichnormally involves at least two persons - and good inBritain use a material which is coded L163 or L165.
communication between the carriers isimportant so that the task is Airbusaircraft are manufactured withmaterial conforming to
completed in a safe manner and no damage is done to the various American, British and European standards systems.
sheetmetal.

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Materialscoded 2024, L163 and L165 are very similar to each

otherwhereas 7075 is a little different. Theconstituency of
thesealuminium alloys is explained elsewhere in these notes.
Materials exposed to adverse environmental conditions are clad

(coated) with pure aluminiumon each side. The thickness
ofcoating is around 5% of the gauge of the material.
Thealuminium alloy used in sheet form is strong but has a poor
resistance tocorrosion, whereas thecoating of pure aluminium has
a high resistance to corrosion.
The coating gives protection only when undamaged, therefore

every precaution must be takento preserve its condition when
work is being done on it. The following instructions must
befollowed:
• All development lines and marking out must be made with a

suitable fine felt-tip penor wax pencil. On completion all lines
should be removed. Under no circumstancesmay graphite
pencils be used as they cause corrosion of highstrength
aluminiumalloys.
• Scribers may only be used on lines that are to be cut as they

damage the claddingand can also create stress raisers which Fig 7.14.20
initiate cracks in the material. MARKING OUT
• All surfaces must be protected against damage by Repair or modification drawings must be studied to ensure there is
filings,swarf and vice jaws. no doubt about the data anddimensions provided. After
confirming that the correct metal (to the appropriate heat-
• To reduce the possibility of formation of cracks all edges must treatmentstandard) is being used, the technician can proceed
have a lengthwisedraw-file finish. withmarking out the pattern for the partwhich is being formed.

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The method used to cut sheet aluminium will depend on the

Firstly the overall dimensions of the part must be calculated and, thickness, size and quantity to becut. Great care must be taken
where necessary, a bareoutline drawn on the large sheet, so when using any cutting tool as the blades are usually
thatthe metal can be cut to produce a smaller piece upon dangerousand cut material often has sharp edges and burrs. When
which to work. It must be remembered that, the metal should using cutters which produce swarf,chips or dust, suitable eye
becut so that any identificationmarkings remain on the larger andrespiratory protection must also be used.
piece, for future users of the sheet.
Large sheets will normally be cut using a guillotine. This is
The drawing of the outline is achieved by establishing a datum amachine with one fixed and onemoving blade which act with
line or point on the surface of themetal and taking all dimensions ashearing motion to cut the material. They can be hand or
from the datum so that cumulative errors are eliminated. foot(treadle) operated or electrically or hydraulic powered.
Poweredmachines have a greatercapacity, being able to cut larger
The drawing surface of the metal should be cleaned of any sheets,thicker material and, in some instances, steel sheet.
protective oil (or plastic membrane)before marking
outcommences and the sheet should be laid flat on a clean,
firmworkbench ortable in good lighting conditions.
Hole positions are marked with a centre punch as an aid to

drilling. Before any centre punchmarks are made it must be
confirmed that they are in the required location.
The punch should be only lightly tapped with a hammer (or a

suitably adjusted automatic centrepunch used), so that the punch Fig 7.14.21
marks do not distort the thin metal sheet.
Once the marking out has been verified as being correct, the
forming of the final shape of thesheet metal component can be
achieved by the use of appropriate cutting and, if
necessary,bending tools.
SHEET METAL CUTTING

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Fig 7.14.23
Bench guillotines or shears are used for cutting smaller jobs and
employ a lever operatedmoving blade. Many are unguarded and
so must be used with caution. A safety pin is ofteninstalled to
Fig 7.14.22 prevent accidental operation.
Guillotines normally have a facility to support large sheets,
guidesto ensure the sheet ispresented square to the blades,
adjustablestops so that uniform sizes can be cut and a
fingerguard/clamp to hold the material and prevent accidental
injury. Some also containan internallight to aid cut line sighting.
All guillotines have a bin or rack at the back to collect

cutmaterial. This area must also beguarded to prevent access
whenthe machine is in use.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
blade,and the angle of 5° to thehorizontal must be maintained.

The pivot point should be oiled frequently and the pivot
nutadjusted so that the handles move freely but without excessive
play.
As they leave small fractures at the edge of the material,

snipsshould not be used to cut to aline. Instead the cut should be
made approximately 1/32" from the line and then filed to size.
Fig 7.14.24
Snips are hand held cutters used for small and intricate work.They
are available in a variety ofsizes and shapes, each with its own
properties. Size is determined by overall length. Fig 7.14.25
Unlike the previously mentioned shear type cutters, saws remove
They should never be used to cut thick material, however material as part of theircutting action and leave a rougher edge
Universal Pattern or Aviation snipsare designed to cut heat treated which needs more filing than a guillotined edge. Theyalso have a
aluminium alloys and thin stainless steel. Straight snips areused to tendency to distort the edge of the metal.
cut straight lines and outside curves and Curved snips forinside
curves. UniversalPattern and Aviation snips are available in both Hacksaws are commonly used in all hangar and workshop
right and left hand versions and can be used forstraight and gently areasand pneumatically poweredsaws are sometimes used in
radiused cuts. Aviation snips have small teeth on thecutting edge. restricted spaces.
Sharpening should be done by grinding the flat edge of the Electrically powered Jigsaws (Sabre Saws) and Band saws
aresometimes used in workshopenvironments, however great

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
caremust be taken because of the risk of damage to thematerial's

surface clad caused by the movement of the tool in relation to The Router is an air tool which uses a high speed rotating cutter
thesheet. and is particularly good forcutting curved and irregular
surfaces.The cutters are selected for different materials. Like
In use, all saws should be equipped with a blade with enough teeth theNibbler, it produces small chips and debris which must not be
per inch (T.P.I.) so that atleast two are in the cut at any time. The allowed tocontaminate aircraftsystems and structures.
machine speed for band saws should be set inaccordance with a
table affixed to the machine and the feed for either type will be
determined byexperience.
Fig 7.14.27
Where small amounts of material need to be removed, a hand file
is usually the best tool to use.However, where larger amounts of
material are involved or large jobs have to be trimmed,various
power tools can be used instead of hand files.
Fig 7.14.26 These include:

The pneumatically powered Nibbler is a tool designed to cut thin
sheet steel and light alloy insitu. It uses a reciprocating punch and • Abrasive discs which can be self adhesive, 'Velcro' backed or
die to remove material and gives a clean edge with nodistortion. It have a thread typemounting are attached to flexible disc
does, however, produce many small chips which must beremoved holders. The holder fits into the chuck of a drill.Discs are
from the workarea. It can be used to cut round a template leaving available in various grades and sizes.
only a small amount to be removed byfiling.

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• Abrasive drums are similar to discs but can be used on internal

curves.
• Flap wheels consist of leaves of abrasive coated cloth bonded

onto a shaft. They areused in a normal pneumatic drill and are
available in a range of sizes and abrasivegrades. They can be
used for operations from edge polishing to trimming.
• Rotary files or burrs are metal cutters similar to routers but

Fig 7.14.28
aredesigned for shaping inrestricted spaces. They are available
Care must be taken when drilling aluminium sheet, due to
in a range of sizes, shapes and cuts. Abrasivestone heads can
thedanger of cutting enlarged holesin the soft, thin metal and to
also be used. They are normally used in a high speed airmotor.
the tendency to distortion, caused by the application of too great
aweight on unsupported aluminium sections. Hole positions must
• Linishers are machines which employ an abrasive belt. They
always be centre punched toprevent drill wander. Twist drills
range in size from handheld to floor mounted models and are
must be of the correct type and size, with accurately-
particularly useful for the rapid cleaning of edges.Fixed
groundpoints, and their passage, through the metal, must be
installations must always be fitted with a dust extraction
carefullycontrolled at all times. Off-cuts ofscrap wood should be
system.
placed behind (or underneath) sheet metal parts while drilling is
inprogress and both the backing piece and the part must be
Never use silicon carbide (carborundum) abrasives on aluminium
firmlyheld, to prevent movementduring the drilling procedures.
alloys. Microscopic particlesof abrasive can become embedded in
the surface and have a detrimental effect on the alloy.
Similarly, scrap wood should be used, as backing, when hack-
sawing or filing sheet metal andprotection must be given, against
possible damage, when such components are held in the jawsof
vices, by the use of 'soft' vice clamps.
Second cut and/or smooth files (used with long, smooth strokes)
must be regularly cleaned witha file card to prevent the build up
of pinnings. Rubbing chalk on the file reduces the cut andusing it
'side on' when draw filing results in a very smooth finish.

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SHEET METAL BENDING thickness. For thisreason all bends in sheet metal are in the form
of a curve, the radiusof which is determined by the material,
Practically all sheet metal components require forming or shaping condition and thickness ofthe sheet.
of some type. A skin panelmay require only a one dimensional
curve formed by rolling while a complex bracket may havebends, Bend radius tables can be found in the Structural Repair
folds and joggles in all three dimensions. These bends Manual(SRM) for each aircraft type.
willnormally be made against aformer such as a bend bar, a die or
a stake. BEND ALLOWANCE AND SETBACK
Initially we will consider simple two dimensional bends made When making a bend or fold in a sheet of metal, the bend
using bend bars or a bendingmachine. allowance must be calculated. Bendallowance is the length of
material required for the bend. This amount of metal must be
addedto the overall length of the layout pattern to assure adequate
metal for the bend.
Fig 7.14.29
If a right angle bend is to be made in a piece of paper, a sharp
corner can be formed, however if we try to do the same to a
pieceofsheet metal it will crack at the bend point. This is partly
due to themalleability of the material and partly due to its

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By experimentation with actual bends in metals, aircraft

engineershave found that accuratebending results could be
obtained byusing the following formula for any degree of bend
from 1degree to 180 degrees:
Bend Allowance = (0.01743 × R + 0.0078 × T) × N
Where:
R = The desired bend radius,
T = Thickness of the material, and
N = Number of degrees of bend.
This formula may be used in the absence of a bend allowance

chart. To determine bendallowance for any degree of bend by use
of the bend allowance chart find the allowance perdegree for the
number of degrees in the bend.
Fig 7.14.30
Bending a strip compresses the material on the inside of the curve Radius of bend is given as a decimal fraction on the top line of the
and stretches the material onthe outside of the curve. However, at chart. Bend allowance isgiven directly below the radius
some distance between these two extremes lies a spacethat is not figures.The top number in each case is the bend allowance for a90
affected by either force. This is known as the neutral line degree angle, whereas the lower placed number is for a 1 degree
orneutral axis and occurs ata distance approximately 0.445 times angle. Material thickness is given in the left column of the chart.
the metal thickness (0.455 x T) from the inside of theradius of the
bend. To find the bend allowance when the sheet thickness is 0.051”,
the radius of bend is 1/4 “(0.250”), and the bend is to be 90
When bending metal to exact dimensions, the length of the neutral degrees. Reading across the top of the bend allowance chart,
line must be determined sothat sufficient material can be allowed find the column for a radius of bend of 0.250”. Now find theblock
for the bend. To save time in calculation of the bendallowance, in this column that is oppositethe gauge of 0.051 in the column at
formulas and charts for various angles, radii of bends, left. The upper number in the block is 0.428, the correct
materialthicknesses, and other factors have been established. bend allowance in inches for a 90-degree bend (0.428” bend
allowance).

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
determining this, the radius of bend and the thickness of the

If the bend is to be other than 90 degrees, use the lower number in material.
the block (the bendallowance for 1 degree) and compute the bend
allowance. The lower number in this case is0.004756. Therefore, Note that setback is the distance from the bend tangent line to the
if the bend is to be 120 degrees, the total bend allowance in inches mold point. The mold point is the point of intersection of the lines
will be120 x 0.004756, which equals 0.5707 inches. extending from the outside surfaces, whereas the bendtangent
lines are the starting and end points of the bend. Also note
When bending a piece of sheet stock, it is necessary to know the thatsetback is the same forthe vertical flat and the horizontal flat.
starting and ending points ofthe bend so that the length of the
“flat” of the stock can be determined. Two factors areimportant in

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To calculate the setback for a 90-degree bend, merely add the then substitute this value in the formula,
inside radius of the bend to thethickness of the sheet stock:
Setback = K(R + T).
The value for K varies with the number of degrees in the bend.
FOR EXAMPLE:
Calculate the setback for a 120-degree bend with a radius of

bendof 0.125” for a sheet 0.032”thick;
Setback = K (R + T)
Setback =1.7320 (0.125 + 0.032)
Setback = 0.272 inches
Fig 7.14.31
To calculate setback for angles larger or smaller than 90 degrees,
consult standard setbackcharts or K chart for a value called K, and

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BRAKE OR SIGHT LINE
The brake or sight line is the mark on a flat sheet that is set even
with the nose of the radius barof the cornice brake and serves as
guide when bending. The brake line can be located bymeasuring
out one radius from the bend tangent line closest to the end that is
to be insertedunder the nose of the brake or against the radius
form block. The nose of the brake or radiusbar should falldirectly
over the brake or sight line as shown.
Fig 7.14.34
MAKING LAYOUTS
It is wise to make a layout or pattern of the part before forming it

to reduce wasted material andto get a greater degree of accuracy
in the finished part. Where straight angle bends are concerned,
correct allowances must be made for setback and bend allowance.
RELIEF HOLES
Fig 7.14.32 Wherever two bends intersect, material must be removed to make
room for the materialcontained in the flanges. Holes are therefore
drilled at the intersection. These holes, called reliefholes, prevent
strains from being set up at the intersection of the inside
bendtangent lines thatwould cause the metal to crack. Relief holes
also provide a neatly trimmed corner from whichexcess material
can be trimmed.
Fig. 7.14.33

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Developed length calculations
Straight length AB =
Straight length CD =
Curved length BC =
Fig 7.14.35
The size of a relief hole varies with thickness of the material. Size
should be not less than 1/8inch diameter for aluminum alloy sheet
stock up to and including 0.064 inch thick, or 3/16 inchfor stock
ranging from 0.072 inch to 0.128 inch thickness. The
mostcommon method ofdetermining the diameter of a relief hole Fig 7.14.36
is to use the radius of bend for this dimension, providedit is not
less than the minimum allowance (1/8 inch). MATERIAL, FINISH.
DIMENSIO TOLERANCE. t
16 SWG LI63 FILED
NS IN 0.015
Relief holes must touch the intersection of the inside bend tangent INCHES
lines. To allow for possibleerror in bending, make the relief holes TITLE.SINGLEBENDBRA SCALE 1:1 DRAWINGNO.EUF
so they will extend 1/32 inch to 1/16 inch behind theinside end CKET 1Q00
tangent lines. It is good practice to use the intersection of
theselines as the centerfor the holes. The line on the inside of the EXERCISE 2
curve is cut at an angle toward the relief holes toallow for the
stretching of the inside flange. Using the bend allowance formula in these notes, and your
mathematical knowledge calculatethe total length of metal
EXERCISE 1 required for the bracket shown below.
Using the bend allowance chart in these notes, calculate the total
length of metal required forthe bracket shown below.

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Fig.7.14.37
SRM BEND RADIUS TABLE EXAMPLES

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SRM BEND ALLOWANCE TABLE

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BEND BARS
PRACTICAL BENDING
• When marking out use short lines for development and

fulllines for the sight line.
• Where possible mark the sight line so that the shortest part of
the material is abovethe bend bars
• After marking out ensure that the material is the right way up,
i.e. that the sight line isabove the end from which the
calculation was made
• Before forming the second bend of a double bend protect the

first bend, if possible, byplacing it below the bend bars
• Always use a fine felt tip pen for development and sight lines.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
FIG 7.14.39
FOLDING AND BENDING MACHINES
FIG 7.14.38 These are used to produce bends of small radii or sharp ‘sets in
TO FORM THE BEND: sheet metal. Examples areflanging and folding-up box section,
trunking etc.
The material should be squarely positioned in the bend bars with
the sight line level with the topof the bend bars. When positioned The machine is comprised of:
correctly the whole assembly is tightened and secured andthe
metal bent over the radius of the bend bar. Use a block • The bed; a flat machined surface upon which the work
ofhardwood between the hammerand the material to issupported.
preventdamage to the surface of the metal.
• The ‘yoke'; suspended above the bed and extends the
fulllength of it. This can beraised or lowered, and has attached
toits underside a steel bar which grips the workand also acts as
a former for the bend. This former is detachable and may be
replaced by others of varying sections to suit
workrequirements.
• The ‘bending beam’; pivoted along the front edge of the bend.
When swung up itforces up the ‘overhang’ of the work around

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
the former to produce the required bend.
The two main types of machine are the ‘open end’ and the ‘closed
end’. The former allowsflanges of practically unlimited length to
be made, while the latter limits the length to that of the
yoke and beam.
The bending beam is normally adjustable, up or down. This

adjustment is to accommodate thevarious gauges of material
which may be bent on the machine. FIG 7.14.41
BOX FOLDER
This machine has detachable fingers of various widths that can be

placed togetherto form any size box required and works exactly as
any other folding machine.
FIG 7.14.40
Fig 7.14.42

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The rollers must be kept scrupulously clean to prevent damage

tothe material being rolled.
Fig 7.14.43
ROLLING MACHINE
These are used for forming curved or cylindrical work and

consistof three rollers.
The two front rollers are in vertical alignment, the top one being
adjustable to accommodatedifferent thicknesses of material.
Theyare geared to each other and turned by means of ahandle.
Thebottom front roller usually has a swivel bearing which allows
thecomplete cylinderto be withdrawn from the machine. The
rollers may have wiring grooves of different radius atone end.
These are used for forming wired edges.
The height of the back roller is adjustable to form curves of

different radii. Great care must betaken to keep the rollers level
and prevent the curve becoming distorted.
In use, work may need to be passed through the machine several

times to attain the requiredcurvature and most curves will need to
be formed in stages.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
FIG 7.14.44
FORMING
Forming complex shapes and three dimensional curves in sheet

metal is a skill which takesmuch time and practice to learn.
Whether working with aluminium or tinplate, the tools

andtechniques are similar but the practicewill vary according to
the material and it's characteristics. The following notes refer
mainly to theforming of aluminium.
In manufacture, machine presses are widely used, however most

of the shaping or formingprocesses encountered in the fabrication
of repair parts involve hammering the material overstakes, dies
and formers.
The following pages describe many of the tools and

principlesused in sheet metal work.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
forming starts to ensure that theblank is of sufficient size. Excess

material can be removed after the forming process. It must
beremembered that some techniques stretch the material while
others shrink it.
With aircraft grade clad material it is important that surface

FIG 7.14.45 damage is avoided. The materialmust be protected by fibre vice
jaws and great care must be taken when forming takes place.
Skilled sheet metal workers can stretch and shrink formed

curves using various techniques andmachines are available to
assist in this.
Hollowing is a process used only for forming shallow curves as

it stretches and thins thematerial. The bank is held on a leather
sand bag or a forming block and beaten with a suitablemallet or
hammer at a point just ahead of the point of contact with
theformer. The work piece isslowly rotated under the hammer
blows and worked in towards the centre as it is stretchedaround
the former.
FIG 7.14.46
BASIC PROCESSES
The material to be formed must be of the correct heat treatment

state (annealed) prior toworking and may need to be re-treated
during the process. Many aluminium alloys have a limiton the
number of times they can be heat treated before the structure
ofthe material ispermanently changed. The forming process
must be planned so that this limitation is notexceeded.
The amount of material required must be calculated before FIG 7.14.47

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Raising is a process used for forming deep shapes as the material curved surfaces. It is performed using hammers and stakes
is contracted and thickened.This is done by hammering over a withhighly polished surfaces.
stake, driving the material into the shape. The angle of thehammer
blows and point of contact are important. If the metal istrapped
between the hammerand the stake, it will become thin and no
shaping will take place.
FIG 7.14.49
PRESS WORK
Some repetitive processes are best performed using a specially

made press tool. One such is the flanging of holes.
Where permissible, holes are cut into sheet metal structures to

reduce weight. These are knownas lightening holes. They are
usually flanged to strengthen and restore rigidity to the structure.
In manufacture this may be done using a powered press, however
when fabricating repair partsa fly press is normally used.
FIG 7.14.48
Planishing is usually the finishing process, used for removing The hole is cut or punched and it's edges polished to prevent the
irregularities from formed curvesand flattening distorted surfaces. propagation of cracks. Maleand female dies are attached to the
A convex hammer face is used for flat surfaces, and a flat facefor press and their alignment checked. The stop on the press

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
should also be set to prevent the work being pinched by Specially trained and approved NDT personnel may use
thetooling. EddyCurrent, Ultrasonic orRadiographic procedures to detect
faults inaluminium alloy sheet metal work.
The work piece may require lubrication prior to forming,
especially if the flange has to be formedin several stages. The dies Dimensional accuracy must be checked by measuring
must be kept clean and any damage dressed out before themanufactured part. If possible, trialfitment should be carried
use.Pressure must be applied evenly to produce the desired outto ensure bends and angles are accurate.
flange.On completion the work must be inspected for cracks and
distortion. When the part has been inspected and proved to conform to
thedrawing requirements, it maythen be heat treated if required
andprotected with surface conversion, primer and paint
asapplicable.
COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC
BONDING PRACTICES
GENERAL
Adhesive bonding is a material joining process in which

anadhesive, placed between theadherend surfaces, solidifies
Fig 7.14.50
toproduce an adhesive bond. Adhesively bonded joints
INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK
areincreasing alternatives to mechanical joints in
engineeringapplications and provide manyadvantages over
As far as aircraft maintenance technicians are concerned,
conventionalmechanical fasteners. Among these advantages are
theinspection of sheet metal work isconfine to visual or
lower structural weight, lower fabrication cost, and improved
assistedvisual methods. Cracks originating in bends or from holes
damagetolerance. The application ofthese joints in structural
orcorners, scratches or scores, dents and distortion may all
components made of fibre-reinforced composites has
bedetected by eye. Personnel whohave approval may also
increasedsignificantly in recent years. The traditional fasteners
performdye penetrant procedures in the search for cracks in
usually result in the cuttingof fibres, andhence the introduction of
suspectareas.
stress concentrations, bothof which reduce structural integrity.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
By contrast, bonded joints are more continuous and have potential strength and low weight, leading to a highly efficient structure.
advantages of strength-to-weight ratio, design flexibility, and
easeof fabrication. In fact, adhesive bonding has Other advantages offered by sandwich construction are
foundapplications invarious areas from high technology elimination of welding, high insulatingqualities, and design
industries, such asaeronautics, aerospace,electronics, and versatility. In its simplest form, this type of construction usually
automotive to traditionalindustries, such as construction, sports, consists oftwo thin outer face sheets of stiff, strong material (in
andpackaging. Theseapplications are in the form of single skin as this case, a composite) separated by athick, lightweight layer of
well as sandwichconfigurations. core material (e.g. foam, honeycomb, or corrugated).
The structures could potentially be made up using different

fibretypes, fibre architectures andweaves, and resins. Bonded
jointsare frequently expected to sustain static or cyclic loads
forconsiderable periods of time without any adverse effect on
theload-bearing capacity of thestructure. A lack of suitable
materialmodels and failure criteria has resulted in a tendency
to‘overdesign’ composite structures. Safety considerations often
require that adhesively bondedstructures, particularly
thoseemployed in primary load-bearing applications, include
mechanical fasteners (e.g. bolts) as an additional safetyprecaution.
These practices result in heavier and more costly components.The

development of reliabledesign and predictive methodologies can
be expected to result in more efficient use ofcomposites and
adhesives. To design structural joints in engineering structures,
itis necessaryto be able to analyse them. This means to
determinestresses and strains under a givenloading, and to predict
the probable points of failure. There are two basic
mathematicalapproaches for the analyses of adhesively bonded
joints: closed-form analysis (analyticalmethods) and numerical
methods (i.e. finite-element analyses). On the other hand,
sandwichcomposite constructions are increasingly used in various
Fig 7.14.51
applications inmany industries due tothe combination of high

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
Virtually all types of composites from sheet mouldingcompound The most common misconception in surface preparation isthat the
to prepregs can be used asskins with a wide range of polymeric, only requirement for a goodbond is a clean surface. Aclean
metallic, and ceramic materials used as corematerials. surface is a necessary condition for adhesion but it is
notasufficient condition for bond durability. Most structural
Most of the early work on adhesive joining of composites was adhesives work as a result of theformation of chemical
done in the 1970s and early1980s for the aerospace industry. bonds(mainly covalent, but some ionic and static attractive
There have been many analytical, finite element, and experimental bondsmayalso be present) between the adherend surface atoms
studies performed over the years. and the compounds constituting theadhesive. These chemical links
are the load transfer mechanism between the
Despite composite (single skin and sandwich) structureshaving adherends.Mostadhesive bond failures can be attributed to poor
gained substantial importancein many applications where the processes during fabrication, with lack ofquality
weight saving has become more and more important, a lack surfacepreparation being the most significant deficiency.
ofreliable material models still exists limiting in this way a more Typicalcomposite surfacetreatments include traditional
widespread application ofadhesively bonded joints of composite abrasion/solvent cleaning techniques for
structures in principal load-bearing structuralapplications. thermosetcomposites,whereas thermoplastic composites require
surface chemistry and surface topographicalchanges to ensure
EFFECT OF SURFACE PREPARATION strong and durable bond strength. For these composites the
primaryaim ofthe surface treatment is to increase the surface
The surfaces play an important role in the bonding process and energy of the adherend as much as possible.
are, perhaps, the most important process governing the quality of
an adhesive bond joint. Surface treatments decrease water contact angle, increase surface
tension, and as a resultincrease bond strength.
Appropriate pre-treatment can sometimes confer additional
properties to the surfaces. Surfacetreatments prior to A variety of surface treatments have been used with
theapplication of adhesives are recommended to variousdegrees of success to increasesurface tension, increase
achievemaximummechanical strength. Bond strength can surfaceroughness, change surface chemistry, and thereby
besignificantly improved by surface treating theadherends priorto increasebond strength and durability of polymer composite
bonding. The formation of a suitable surface chemistry isthe most adhesive joints:abrasion/solvent cleaning,grit blasting, peel-ply,
importantstep in the surface preparation processbecause the tear-ply, acid etching, corona discharge treatment, plasma
integrity of this surface directly influencesthe durability of the treatment, andlaser treatment. However, the recommended surface
adhesive bond. preparation for these composites is a lightaluminium oxide grit
blast in drynitrogen. The abrasion should just remove the surface

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
of theresin without exposing fibres. Since the epoxy surface Similar to plasma treatment, corona discharge uses ionization of
bonds well toother epoxies, nochemical modification is required. agas to effect surfacereactivity and roughness. Reactive
By increasing surface tension, increasing surface roughness,and groupssuch as carbonyls, hydroxyls, hydroperoxides,aldehydes,
changingsurface chemistry, a more intimate bond can be formed, ethersor esters are introduced to the surface. Corona discharge has
whichallows for increasein strength and durability. alimited shelf-life and requires parts to be assembled in a
limitedtime period. Corona discharge is commonlyused on
SURFACE PREPARATION METHODS polyolefinsubstrates. Both plasma and corona treatment require
aninvestment incapital equipment or outsourcing of treatment.
In order to enhance adhesion, materials designated as hard-to- Likeplasma exposure, corona treatment is mostfrequently used
bond require surface preparationprior to joining. onpolyolefin substrates bonded with cyanoacrylate or light-
Surfacepreparation methods for hard-to-bond plastics include curingacrylicadhesives. The treatment generates reactive groups
bothchemicaland physical treatments designed to increase thatserve as potential bonding sites for theadhesive, and results in
reactivityand roughness on the surface of thesubstrate. Common a significant enhancement of bond strength.
methodsinclude plasma or corona treatment, flame treatment,
chemicaletching or surface priming. Chemical treatment methods such as chromic acid etching are
often used on polyolefins andacetals. Like other surface treatment
Plasma treatment is used on a wide variety of substrates methods, chromic acid etching adds reactive species to
includingpolyolefins and polyester. Agas such as oxygen, argon, asurface.Because it can be hazardous, chemical treatment is used
helium or air is excited at low pressure, resulting in the on alimited basis to treat avariety of substrates prior to bonding
productionof freeradicals. The ions generated bombard the withcyanoacrylate and light-curing acrylic adhesives.Handling
substrate surface andform reactive groupsthat increase surface and storage of hazardous substances is one potential drawback
reactivity andwettability. One of the major drawbacks with ofchemicaltreatments. Surface changes are controlled by
plasma treatment is its potentially short shelf-life. Most substrates twovariables: the solvent selected and theoverall exposure time.
treated with plasmamust beassembled within a very short period
of time since thereactive surface is re-exposed to air andrapidly In flame treatment, various reactive groups such as
reverts back to itsnormal state. Plasma treatment is frequently hydroxyls,carbonyls and carboxyls areintroduced to bonding
used withcyanoacrylate,light-curing acrylic, and light-curing surfacesthrough an oxidation reaction when the substrate is
cyanoacrylateadhesive technologies. Since each plasmagas exposed toflame. In addition, flame treatment increases the
imparts differentcharacteristics onto a substrate, end-users should surface energy ofthe substrate surface, allowing for better wetting.
consult theiradhesiveand substrate suppliers to determine the Flame treatmentis commonly used on polyolefins and
optimum gas forthe materials used. polyacetals,and is most frequently used when bonding with
cyanoacrylate adhesives.

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material properties, and introduce high local

Surface roughening results in mechanical interlocking sites and stressconcentrations. Unlikesurface preparation,
causes bond strength toincrease dramatically. A surfaceroughness jointconfiguration is usually a product of design. A wide variety
of approximately 63-125 micro-inches is often usedas a guideline of joints are available to the designer. Commonly, joint
for assemblies that are to be bonded with adhesives.Surface configurations that have beenanalysed in theliterature are single-
roughening willsignificantly increase the bond strengthof most lap joints, double-lap joints,scarf joints, and stepped-lap joints.
adhesive technologies, and is highlyrecommended for both hard-
to-bond and traditional substrates.
Primers are solvent-based systems in which a reactive species is

dissolved. Applied to asurface using a brush or spray, theprimer’s
solvent evaporates, leaving behind the reactivespecieson the
substrate. The reactive species acts as a linking pin orbridge
between anadhesive and the substrate.
Fig no 7.14.52
A variety of substrates exhibit enhanced bond strengths The strength of a given type of joint depends, for a given type of
followingtreatment with primers, including polyolefins, load, on the stress distributionwithin the joint, which in
acetals,fluoropolymers and TPVs. Although using a surface turndepends on the joint geometry and the mechanical properties
primer isoften viewed as a two-step bonding process, primers can ofadhesive and adherend. In the case of FRP composite
beapplied with little to no capitalexpenditure and many substrates,the high through-thicknessstresses at the overlap ends
remainactive on substrates for more than eight hours. Polyolefin are ofparticular concern, due to the relatively low through-
primersare frequently used on hard-to-bond substrates joined thicknessstrength of most composite materials. This often means
withtraditional and/or light-curingcyanoacrylate that jointsmade with highstrength adhesives are more likely to
technologies.Introducing the active species to the substrate failprematurely in the composite before failure in
surface generallyincreases bond strength three-fold for traditional theadhesiveoccurs.
ethylcyanoacrylate adhesives.
EFFECT OF JOINT CONFIGURATION
Joints represent one of the greatest challenges in the design of

structures in general and incomposite structures in particularsince
they entail discontinuities in the geometry of thestructure and/or

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
Fig 7.14.54
The single-lap joint is the most common joint used mainly due
toits simplicity and efficiency.
Fig 7.14.53 JOINING SANDWICH STRUCTURES

The joint should be designed to minimize stress
concentrations.Some stresses, such as peeland cleavage, should be The development of adhesively bonded sandwich joints has been
minimizedand others maximized, i.e. shear and compressive driven by the requirement forreduced structural weight and
stresses.In composite-metallic adhesive joints, the layered nature theever-increasing demand for more efficient
ofcomposite adherends and relativeweakness in the through-the- structures.Severaltypical joint configurations for sandwich panels
thickness direction makes the failure mechanism more (foam core) areillustrated below.
complex.Due to these uncertainties in joint strength many
designers usehigher safety margins in theirstructure resulting in a
non-optimum use of materials. For example, slight variation in
jointdesign can vary the peel stresses. Comparing to single-lap
shearjoints, the double lap, thescarf, and the stepped joints
aredesigned to decrease the peel stresses. Adherend shaping isalso
used to decrease the peel stresses in the composite joints.

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Fig 7.14.56
Various improved T-joints have been designed and
investigatedsome with focus on improvedstrength and others on
reducedweight. Also, T-joint connection can have foam fillets in
the formof a pad or two triangular inserts combined with
overlaminates.
ADHESIVE PROPERTIES
Fig 7.14.55
Joining of sandwich structures is a complex task. For example, ina Adhesives used in structural applications include: epoxies
sandwich T-joint, joining oftwo sandwich panels at right angleto (havinghigh strength andtemperature resistance), cyanoacrylates
each other with continuous fibre reinforcement at thecorners (fastbonding capability to plastic and rubber, but poorresistance
isconsiderably difficult. Continuous fibre-reinforcement tomoisture and temperature), anaerobics (suitable for
facilitatesefficient load transferbetween the two composite parts bondingcylindrical shapes),acrylics (versatile adhesives with
andincreases the joint strength substantially. The compositeT- capabilitiesof fast curing and tolerate dirtier and less
joint is being used extensively in the marine and aerospace preparedsurfaces),polyurethanes (good flexibility at low
industries. Atypical design of thistype of joint consists of panels temperatures and resistantto fatigue),silicones (excellent sealant
joined by fillet and overlaminates. for low stress applications,high degree of flexibility and very
high-temperature resistance),and high- temperature adhesives
(phenolics, polyimides, andbismaleimides).
The Table presents several typical properties for different types

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
ofadhesives. The increasedusage of high-temperature resin-matrix of compatible and equally heat stable adhesive systems.
systems for composite materials has necessitated thedevelopment

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B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
in service. Also, the cost of the adhesive maysometimes be

animportant factor of adhesive selection in a particular
Epoxy adhesives that are very frequently used for the composite productionsituation.
matrixes, are commonly usedto bond composites based on
epoxymatrix because of the compatibility between resin Before an adhesive can be specified for an application,
andadhesive. screeningtests should be conducted tocompare and evaluate the
variousadhesion parameters. This is especially true for
Typical mechanical properties values for different types structuraladhesives where failures during actual use can have
ofadhesives are presented in the Tablebelow: devastatingconsequences. Properties ofadhesives can vary greatly
and anappropriate selection is essential for a proper joint design.
Thus, to determine the stresses and strains in adhesive joints in

avariety of configurations, it isnecessary to characterize the
adhesive behaviour to know its mechanical properties, particularly
the stress-strain curve and the modulus. The approaches used
fordetermining the properties ofadhesives are the measure of
theproperties of bulk adhesive specimens and the use
ofspeciallydesigned joint geometries with a thin bond line (often
referred toas ‘in situ’ testing). Agreat variety of test geometries
andspecimens are used to obtain adhesive properties.
Themeasured parameters are the load and strain, which are needed
to create failure. The testgeometry should provide a pure state of
stress, uniformly distributed across the contact surfaceand through
As it is well-known, to achieve a good bond, first it is necessary the bondline, free of stress concentrations, and the surface
to start with a good adhesive.The adhesive selection process treatment should besufficient to ensure cohesive failure in the
isdifficult as there is no universal adhesive that will fulfil adhesivelayer.
everyapplication, and the selection of the proper adhesive is
oftencomplicated by the wide variety ofavailable options. Currently there are many ASTM and ISO standards, which
However,adhesive selection includes many factors, such as type havebeen written to analyse andexperimentally verify adhesive
and nature properties. These standards provide a basis for
of substrates to be bonded, cure and adhesive application method, testing.Commonly, test methods that have been developed and
and the expectedenvironments and stresses that the joint will face used to obtain properties of theadhesives include: tensile tests,

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
shear tests, compression, peel, durability tests, and dynamictests. adhesively bonded joint can affect, in turn, the
The typical test for strength characterization is lap shear test; for ultimatemechanicalperformance of the joint. These factors must
the fracture toughness, itis the double cantilever beam (DCB) test; beconsidered a critical factor in determining thelong-term
and for the assessment of the resistance to solvents,it is the wedge durability of adhesively bonded joints and need to be carefully
test. There are several test methods to measure the shearproperties identified and related tothe type of service the material will
of theadhesives, such as the notched beam shear method, the perceive. The main environmental factors in climatic expo-sure
notched plate shear method, torsion ofbulk material,butt torsion are temperatureand humidity. The prolonged exposure or even
(napkin ring or solid specimen), and the thick-adherend shear short-termexposure toelevated temperatures will often produce
testmethod (TAST). The TAST (ISO 11003-2:1993) is usually irreversible chemical and physical changes withinadhesives.
preferred for determining designparameters as the thick, rigid
adherends reduce (but do not eliminate) the peel stresses. As the temperature increases, the bond strength decreases.
Also,the moisture absorbed in apolymeric material can lead to a
The state of stress is predominantly shear, but there are wide range of effects, both reversible and irreversible,
peelstresses at the end of the overlap.However, the most widely includingplasticization, swelling, and degradation. At
used adhesive bond test specimen is the single-lap tension test. temperatures belowthe glass transition temperatureTg , polymer
Thefailure mode of the single-lap joint is rarely controlled by property reduction is reversible upon dehydration, whereas above
theshear strength of the adhesive butis largely the result of Tg , the matrixproperties are permanently degraded.
jointdeflections and rotations and induced peel stresses. Due to
therotation at the overlap, data from single overlap tension The presence of moisture in adhesive joints may not only
testspecimen cannot be used to obtainadhesive shear design data, weakenthe physical and chemicalproperties of the adhesive itself
but are often used for screening tests to compare several but also the interface between the adhesive and the substrate.
adhesivesystems and the effects of the environment on the
adhesiveproperties in the selection processof the adhesive. In the case of composite joints exposed to humid environments,
the mechanisms of degradationare quite different compared to
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS adhesively bonded metal joints. Unlike metals, the work
ofadhesion for composite to epoxy joints remains positive in
Adhesively bonded joints may be exposed to thepresence of water, thusdecreases the likelihood of
variousenvironmental conditions during theirservice life. As has interfacialfailure on ageing. Also, the composite adherend will
been shown, the performance of adhesive systems can be absorb water, which can affect the kinetics of water absorption
considerably into theadhesive.
deteriorated when exposed to harsh environments.
Theenvironmental factors that can affectthe properties of an Temperature and moisture can also influence the mechanical

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
properties of the composite matrixmaterial, and the interface The failure prediction of the composite bonded joints is
between fibres and matrix may be weakened in the presence stilldifficult because the failure strengthand mode are
ofmoisture. differentaccording to various bonding methods and parameters.
Primaryfailuremodes for composite sandwich structures are
FAILURE MODES buckling,local delamination, and fatigue/fracture.Buckling is one
of themost important failure modes for composite structures,
Failure modes are determined by the quality of the bond at each whichhave lowmodulus of elasticity. For all kinds of loading on
interface, specimen geometry,and loading. They must be skinsand joints between composite materials,local delamination is
characterized to gain a full understanding of the properties of one of the most severe failure modes since it can result in
theadhesive and the joint being investigated. catastrophic
failure for the global system structure.
In FRP composite adhesive joints, there are seven
typicalcharacterized modes of failure. Theyare: adhesive failure, Interlaminar shear strength and through-thickness normal strength
cohesive failure, thin-layer cohesive failure, fibre-tear must then be carefullydesigned to prevent composite structures
failure,light-fibre-tear failure, stock-break failure, or mixed from local delamination. The initiation of the variousfailuremodes
failure. Thetypical bonding parameters are surfaceconditions depends on the material properties of the constituents (facings,
(e.g.contamination, abrasion, and plasma treatment), fillet, adhesive, andcore), geometric dimensions, and type of loading.
bondlinethickness,surface ply angle, stacking sequence, There are various studies referred to failuremode of sandwich
environmentalconditions, and so on. structures bonded joints.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
The main reason for utilising composite materials, in aerospace

structures, is to reduce weight,which has a direct benefit
inlowering operating costs. Composites also provide further
benefitsin their ability to be easily formed, comparatively
lowerproduction costs, resistance to corrosionand reduced
maintenance costs.
The principal types of composite materials are those involving

Fig 7.14.57 fibrous elements which may beused as strands, or be woven
intofine ‘tapes’ and ‘cloths’ (or coarser ‘mats’), held in a

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
suitableresin matrix and formed into the required shapes. of chopped strand mat, (i.e.glass fibres in a random, non- woven
state) but, where considerable strength is required, uni-directional
TYPES OF COMPOSITES glass cloth is used.
GLASS-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP) To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can
be laid up at 90° to each other,in a similar manner to the grain in
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and usedfor plywood. Sometimes such sheets are used as facings for
fire-proof curtains or (whenextremely pure glass is used),made aninternal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a
into fibres which are able to transmit light over longdistances. veryefficient structure in terms ofstrength, stiffness and weight.
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already
diameterglass fibres is extremely high, although the strength is impregnated with resin andpartially cured (‘Pre-preg’), in which
reduced significantly if the fibres are slightly damaged. case it is necessary to keep the material in
refrigeratedstorage.Resin curing is usually done at elevated
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre temperatures (120°C-170°C), with the GRPcomponent in its
orfibreglass, when glass fibres (invarious forms) are mould and, often, underpressure, in an autoclave.
bondedtogether by appropriate resins.
The main reasons for using GRP are:
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also,
ofconsiderably lower strength but,nevertheless, good • in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes
GRPstructures are stronger than mild steel and, on a simple or other non-electricalconducting applications)
strength-for-weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile steel • the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
if thefibre form and lay-up is nearoptimum. It is • to provide good strength/weight ratio
however,considerably less stiff than steel or even aluminium. • its ability to produce selected directional strength.
A graphic example of GRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and,
which takes place in the poleduring a pole vault. As the glass as such, is not suitable forapplications subject to high structural
fibres are about a hundred times stronger than the resin, it is loadings.
obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into themoulding
as possible. CERAMIC FIBRES
Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a percentage

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic and pressure to cure). Somespecialist items are made by a
fibres are a form of glass fibre, usedin high-temperature laborious, but ideal, process called ‘Filament Winding’, in which
applications. They can be used at temperatures up to 1650°C a carbon fibre string is wound over a former in the shape of the
andaresuited for use around engine and exhaust systems. Ceramic workpiece whilst bonded withresin.
fibres are heavy (and expensive)and are only used where no other
materials are suitable. Because of CRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used
extensively to stiffen GRP oraluminium alloy structures.
CARBON-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (CRP)
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also
CRP (also referred to as ‘Graphite’) is a composite material,which graphitised), is used for the rotorsand stators on brake units. It
was primarily developed toretain (or improve upon) the high offers a significant weight saving, as well as high efficiency,
strength-to-weight ratio characteristics exhibited by GRP, butwith duetothe fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly.
very much greater stiffness values.
Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CRP would
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, result in a 40% saving in totalstructural weight and CRP is used
the Young's Modulus (‘E’) valuecan be higher than steel. CRP is on such items as the wings, horizontal (and vertical)
not only six times stiffer than GRP but is also over 50% stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.
stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength aluminium
alloy and three times thestiffness. The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor
blades, has led to significantincreases in their life and, in some
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) cases, they may have an unlimited life span (subject todamage).
indiameter and are produced bysubjecting a fine thread of The modern blade is highly complex and may be comprised
asuitable nylon-type plastic to a very high temperature ofCRP, GRP, stainlesssteel, a honeycomb core and foam filling.
(todecompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (ARP)
withthe exception of carbon. Thecarbon thread is then stretched,
at white heat (2000°C-3000°C), to develop The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type ofsynthetic
strength.Unfortunately, the process is complex and very costly. fibres and are well known fortheir superior toughness, strength-to-
weight characteristics and heat-resistance. Tyres,reinforced with
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CRP can offer aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforcedwith steel cords.
considerable weight savingsover conventional materials. CRP
components are generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet (fibres Better known under its trade name - Kevlar - in cloth form, it is
impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only require heat asoft, yellow, organic fibre thatis extremely light, strong and

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
tough. Its great impact-resistance makes it useful in areas, tolerance composite parts is thecoefficient of thermal expansion
whichare liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas of all the related materials. As previously discussed, theprocess
aroundengine reverse-thrust buckets.Kevlar is used to typically involves the generation of or the use of externallyapplied
manufacturebullet-proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in heat. The use ofmaterials with the same or similar coefficients of
aircraft fueltanks. expansion for moulds is preferred. If a mould isfabricated using
materials with coefficients of expansion differentthan those of the
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES FOR COMPOSITES compositematerials, adaptations for the different expansion rates
must be included in the mould design.
From previous discussions, it is clear that composite parts may be
fabricated into a variety ofconfigurations, depending upon the The first step in mould design, when using materials withdifferent
design needs determined by the aircraft engineer. Thefabrication coefficients of thermalexpansion is to determine how the finished-
may be accomplished by the use of moulds or dies. Since this text part dimensions change at the curing temperature.For example, a
deals primarilywith maintenance-related activities the discussion composite part that has a dimension of 10 in. at room temperature
is limited to fabrication techniques usingmoulds. mightmeasure 10 1/32 in. at the elevatedcuring temperature.
Therefore, for the part to be at the 10in. finished dimension at
Forming these configurations is accomplished by combining the room temperature, it must be 10 1/32 in. atcuring temperature.
fibres and matrix over a form,called a mould. A mould is a tool
that conforms to the desired shape of the finished product.Moulds The mould must also be at the expanded dimension at the elevated
may be either open or closed moulds. curing temperature.However, if the coefficient thermal expansion
of the mould material is different than that of thefinished part, the
Open moulds, often referred to as a bond form or lay-up tool dimensions of the mould will be different at room
allow easy access to thecomposite materials during thefabrication temperature.Continuing thepreceding example, the mould must
process and depend upon gravity and atmosphericpressure or have adimension of 10 1/32 in. at elevated temperature.When
externally applied pressure to mould the compositematerial cooled to room temperature the mould will have different
against the mould untilthe curing process is complete.Closed dimensions. Forexample,assume that the coefficient of thermal
moulds are designed in a matched male-femaleconfiguration. expansion for theme material was half that of the partmaterial.
Forcing the two mould halves together ensures thatthe composite The mould cooled to room temperature would measure 10 1/64 in.
material takesthe shape of the mould. Gravity from the weight on When the mould isfabricated, it is fabricated to the cool
the top mould half or externally appliedpressure may be used to dimension, which when heated to the elevated curingtemperature,
ensure the proper mating of the mould. would result in a mould dimension equal to the dimension of the
part at the curingtemperature.
One important consideration in the design of moulds for close-

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
The diagram below illustrates the proper relationship between the isfabricated.
coefficients of expansion ofthe mould material and the part
material. The proper relationship between the In low-volume production processes and repairs, a vacuum bag,
coefficientsexpansion of the part and mould materials depends which is a plastic bagsurrounding the part from which air has been
upon theconfiguration of the finished part.For example, if the part evacuated, and a separate heat source may beused. Common heat
is U channel and the mould form is the inside the channel, sources include controlled ovens, portable “hot bonders,”
thecoefficient of thermal expansion for the mould material must andheatblankets.
greater than that of the partmaterial. If this were not true, the
mould would not reduce dimensionally enough to allow thepart to Compensating for the different coefficients of thermal expansion
contract to the proper finished dimension, causing interference of mould and part materials are bonded in close proximity to each
between the mould andthe part. However, if the mould is the other. The strength of the lay-up depends on the volume of
outside the ‘U’ channel, the coefficient of thermalexpansion for thefibres and their orientation.
the mould material must be less than that of the part material or
interference willagain develop as the part and mould are cooled to High volume and critical composite structures are often heated
room temperature. using an autoclave, which is anoven that heats the material while
it is under pressure.
WARP-ORIENTATION TECHNIQUES
As previously mentioned, the strength, or load-carrying properties

of a fibrous composite are greatest when the load applied runs in
the same direction as the fibres. Loads that do not runparallel to
the reinforcement fibres must, at least in part be
transferredthrough the matrix, whichtypically has the lowest load-
carrying capability.
Fig no 7.14.57
The removal of the composite materials from the mould can When designing a composite part, the engineer considers the
resultin damage to the part if themoulds are not properly prepared relation of the design load to anarbitrarily selected orientation line
with a release agent or release film, which used to preventthe on the part. The reinforcing fibres in a composite material
bonding of the matrix to the mould itself The type of releasing willusually be designed to run parallel to the load. It is, therefore,
media used is determined bythe type of matrix used, the heat of important that the fabricator of thepart understand the directional
the curing process, and material from which the mould relationship of the fibres to the design of the part. To do this the

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
engineer will specify a 0° plane as an alignment indicator.

Theorientation of the warp fibres as afabric is rolled off the bolt is
defined as the 0° position for the fabric.
Because the alignment indicator is not always in the same plane

as the design loads, theengineer may specify a warp orientation in
terms of degrees relative to the reference, or 0°plane. This is
frequently done in the form of a warp clock, which is a circle
divided into fourquadrants. Each quadrant has a plus or minus
orientation, which reflects the direction of rotationrequired of the
warp fibres if they were to be positioned parallel to the alignment
line. Clockwise is usually plus. Counter-clockwise is usually
negative.
Fig 7.14.58
A warp clock is typically included as part of the manufacturing If the warp fibres are positioned in such a manner that they lay in
drawing or in the text of themanufacturers’ specification sheets only one direction, they are said to be unidirectional, or
for the particular aircraft. Generally, most manufacturers anisotropic, in stress design. Quasi-isotropic stress design refers to
use the same orientation for warp clocks as just discussed, but the design capabilities that are capable of carrying loads in more
technician should alwaysconsult the particular manufacturer’s than one direction but not in alldirections. For example, if the
information sheets before building a part or makingrepairs. warp fibres are laid perpendicularto each other - that is, at a 0°
and a 90° point—they are said to be bi-directional because the
stress design is in twointersecting directions, they are also
considered quasi-isotropic. If the warp fibres are placed in
such a way that they fall at a point of 0° and 45° to the alignment
point (0° on the lay-up tool),the lay-up is again said to be quasi-
isotropic. When the warp fibres are assembled in a laminate
with the fibres heading in the 0°, 45°, 90°, and -45° positions, the
lay-up is said to be a cross-plystress design. This multidirectional
pattern is sometimes referred to as isotropic, because thestress
design is in all directions typically specified on the warp-
orientation indicator. Isotropic refers to the capability of

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
amaterial to bear loads in all directions, so technically cross-

plyapplications are not truly isotropic. Honeycomb structures are best cut with a cutting wheel or a saw
tipped with carbide or diamondmaterials, with the teeth of the saw
TRIMMING AND DRILLING OF COMPOSITES shaped like a bread knife. When routing out fibreglass orNomex
core, use a coarse router bit, because a fine one will notcut the
Since composites are usually an assembly consisting of laminated material. A diamond-coated router bit is also too tine to be
layered materials, they aresubject to delamination. Indelamination effective.
the layers of material are forced apart and are nolonger bonded
together. Therefore, care must be taken during trimming and Edges of composites can be finished with sanding disks and
drilling to avoiddelamination. sandpaper with a grit of 80 or finer.Be careful in dealing with
KEVLAR structures because the fuzzy nature of the material will
Drilling and trimming of composite materials is difficult because cause it to grab at the surface of high-speed tools and pull the
standard tool steels will rapidlydull in the process. Problems can sanding disks or cutter from thepower tool’s jaws, throwing the
occur because of the way drills are shaped and sharpened. tool.
As a drill dulls, it tends to push against the material rather than

cut, causing layer separation.The drill bit should be shaped in a
spade form or a long tapered form sometimes referred to asa
dagger drill.
Diamond-tipped equipment will allow more cuts to be taken per

tool. When drilling carbonproducts, it is best to use a high-speed,
low-feed combination with the drill motor.
Kevlar and fibreglass are highly fibrous materials, and using adrill
that is diamond-dust coatedwill only aggravate the situation. The
fibres will grab at the drill bit and pull the diamond from the
base metal or fill the voids in the dust pattern with material. These
Fig 7.14.59
composite materials shouldbe drilled with a specially ground drill
bit that causes the material to be sheared during thedrilling
process. This point will also reduce the fuzziness of the drill hole
typically found afterdrilling.

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FIG 7.14.61
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR COMPOSITE
MATERIAL HANDLING
The environmental conditions required for composite material

handling and good bonding include :
• Air temperature 18°C to 30°C

Fig 7.14.60 • Repair surface temperature 18°C to 30°C
Graphite Epoxy presents unique problems to tool wear, • Relative humidity 65% maximum (humidity should be kept as
delamination, fibre breakout on thesurface of the material, and low as possible. Dependenton the temperature)
dust. Metal removal tools are designed to help solve • Dust free atmosphere (positive pressure work area to keep
theseproblems and extend the life of the tool outthe dust)
• No smoking
DOUBLE ANGLE DRILL-CARBIDE 8 FACET <- • No exhaust or other oily fumes
POINT TWIST DRILL X • No aerosols
'O • No silicone release agents are permitted in any composite
CARBIDE TAPER REAMERS WITH DRILL POINT shop. This includes WD40and any other silicone de-watering
CARBIDE DRILL COUNTERSINK fluids
• Clean white cotton gloves must be worn at all times during
GRAPHITE EPOXY and after surface preparation prior to bonding
• Handle parts by their edges (do not touch the faces to
Kevlar is a highly abrasive material. Metal removal’s unique W- bebonded at any time)
Point Drill design lasts longerand helps solve other problems
common when drilling Kevlar. These include fuzz, delamination Resins should not be used if excessive humidity exists (>85%)
and burn. because water will condense onthe resin and affect the cure and
subsequent properties. Containers should also be
closedimmediately after removal of the required quantity of resin
orhardener. This is especiallyimportant for the curing agent which
picks up atmospheric moisture more quickly than the resin.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURE INSPECTION

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
tones would be where a laminate changes to a sandwich area.

GENERAL The honeycomb will give a different sound than the solid sheet.
The specific inspection method used for a composite structure An ultrasonic tester can be used to transmit a sound wave signal
varies with the compositematerial used and the using into a solid laminate panel.The sensors of the analyzer send and
organization’s experience with inspection methods. receive the sound signal and evaluate the speed at whichit moves
through the structure. The analyzer then displays the signal
Acoustic emission, holography, ultrasonics, X rays, timeon a cathode-raytube. A trained operator can evaluate the
thermography, and ring tests are some ofthe non-destructive display and determine the location, depth, and extentof voids,
inspection (NDI) techniques currently in use. The information delaminations, occlusions (debris), resin richness or starvation,
presentedhere is a summary of the methods commonly used. and other damage asthe sending/receiving probe is positioned on
However, the aviation maintenancetechnician should always different parts of the structure. A couplant or thincoating of
consult the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for specific petroleum jelly, oil, or water is used between the sending unit and
testingand repair procedures as they apply to a particular aircraft. the materialsurface as a sound-transmission medium. Thecouplant
A ring test can be used to detect voids (no matrix between provides an airtight bond between thematerial being tested and the
thefibres and delaminations (separations) between the layers. A signal pickup device.
1oz hammer, a coin, or other lightweight metal-tappingdevice is
used to tap on the bonded areas. If the bonding is intact, the Radiology can be accomplished using X-ray signals. These can
tapping gives a solid“ring.” If there is a void or delamination beused to locate moisture andcorrosion in honeycomb,
under the surface, the tapping results in a dull sound. Ifa delaminations, and separations of the core from the skin. The use
separation is located, the extent of the separation has to be ofradiology is a complex operation that requires the services of
evaluated by other inspectionmethods to be assured that there specially trained technicians to operate the equipment andinterpret
really is a problem. the exposed films.
When performing the ring test, the sound may change due to a Acoustic emission monitoring is used to detect corrosion and
transition to a different internalstructure, the technician striking disbonding of the adhesive bond.This system also relies on the
the part at a slightly different angle, and/or pressure. Variations transmission of sound waves through a material. This
in the sound during the ring test may be caused by factors other inspectionmethod employs a very sensitive microphone and
than internal damage. This testis quite quick but “unscientific” amplifier. The microphone is placed on thesurface of a bonded
and is more a cause for continued inspection using structure. If active corrosion is present the noise associated with
othertechniques than a true indication of component failure. An thebubbles generated by the corrosion activity can be detected as
example of a change in internalconfiguration that would change a hissing sound. If the panelbeing inspected is heated to about

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
150°F (82°C) disbonding of the adhesive will be indicated bya amoisture meter is impractical, X-ray methods may be helpful
crackling sound. inassessing moisture quantity.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Damage to composite components can result from a number

ofcauses, such as rain or hailerosion, lightning strikes or static
discharges, bird strikes and impact by thrown up runwaydebris,
catering lorries etc.
Physical damage may be hard to detect, since the surface

willoften spring back to its originalshape after impact. The
damage may only be visible as cracks, crazing, stains or scuffs in
thepaintwork. Any such marks must be investigated to ascertain
whether damage to the compositematerial has occurred.
Thestructure should also be examined for secondary damage such
as
may occur at attachments and fittings, and where the shock FIG 7.14.62
mayhave been transmitted toadjacent parts. DELAMINATION
MOISTURE DAMAGE Delamination, the separation of plies from each other or from the
core, may be caused bymoisture absorption or impact damage and
Any damage to the surface of a composite laminate or honeycomb when either is known to exist, the area surroundingthe visible
core will allow moisture toenter the structure and cause damage. damage should be checked to ensure the structuralintegrity of the
Once moisture has entered, the repeated cycle offreezing and laminations. Thiscan be determined by tapping the skin with a
thawing during flight operations will progressively destroy small metallic object such as a coin. This shouldproduce a live
thebonded structurefrom the inside, thus extending the damage resonant tone if the bonding is sound, but ifdelamination has
over a wide area. When it is suspected thatmoisture has entered occurred, a flat,dead response will beobtained.
the structure through a skin puncture, in investigation should
becarriedout to check the extent of the moisture absorption. On
glass fibre components such asradomes, a moisture meter is
recommended for detecting water ingress. Where the use of

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
considerablydepending on the type of structure and itslocation It

must be emphasised that repairs may onlybe made in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions, and that repairsmay be
prohibitedin certain areas. In some cases, repairs may not be
permitted within a specific distance from theedge of a panel or
fastener hole, while in other instances temporary (room
temperature) repairsmay be permitted, but these must usually be
replaced by a permanent repair within a specifictime period.
Fig 7.14.63
LIGHTNING DAMAGE
OTHER INSPECTION METHODS
Since composite components are often situated at the extremities
Exotic inspection equipment may be used today, however visual
of an aircraft, such as itsnose, tail and wing tips, they can be quite
inspection is still the principalmethod of damage detection. Some
susceptible to lightning strikes and static discharges.Where this is
of today’s more common methods of Non-DestructiveInspection
the case, lightning diverter strips are often fitted to a radome and
(NDI) are as follows:
bonding stripsand static discharge wicks are often fitted to other
composite components. These are thenelectrically bonded to the
adjacent metallic structure. The electrical bonding of • ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
thesecomponents should be checked after removal and
replacement. Non-conductive materials suchas glass and aramid With laminated sheet and monolithic construction the easiest
composite panels are often treated with a coat of conductive paint way of assessing materialquality by ultrasonic inspection is to
to aidelectrical bonding. scan the sheet and to measure the attenuation of anultrasonic
beam transmitted through it. This can be done by a single
DAMAGE LIMITS transmission of thebeam and the use of a pair of probes held in
a calliper. It is often more convenient to usea single probe as
The extremities of any damage found in a composite structure both transmitter and receiver, and to let the ultrasonic beam
should be marked, and themaximum area and depth of the damage returnthrough the specimen by using a reflector plate or
should be assessed in order to determine whether arepair is byexamining the back surface echo.
required, and if so, the type of repair which should be carried out
The limits of thevarious standard repairs which can be carried out Ultrasonic inspection can help indicate the presence of
are defined in the relevant manual, (StructuralRepair Manual or delaminations, voids, foreignmaterials, moisture ingress and
Repair Scheme) for the aircraft concerned andmay vary disbonds.

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019
it has undergone a repair.

• RADIOGRAPHY
X-ray is widely employed for inspection of metal and carbon

fibre composite components.It provides an excellent means of
detecting transverse cracks, foreign inclusions such asmetal
swarf in solid composite, the position of core inserts andshims,
damage tohoneycomb and moisture ingress.
• VIBRATION METHODS
Probably the oldest test for the inspection of laminated

constructions is the coin tap test.This is a subjective vibration
method which depends upon the experience of the operatorto
detect any damage present.
An automated version of this test, known as the Acoustic Flaw

Detector (Woodpecker) isnow in use which takes away some
of the subjectivity of the coin tap test when used bytrained
personnel. It can be used to detect all types of compositedefect
and largestructures can be tested in a short period oftime,
which is very attractive.
• THERMAL IMAGING
Thermal photography can be used to survey large areas of the

airframe in service but willgenerally only reveal gross water
damage and delamination.
These methods are not only employed in assessing damage,

but are also used toconfirm the integrity of a component once

B1.1 7.14 1 Aug-2019

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THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

Module 7.14: MATERIAL HANDLING

• COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC 7.14.2 2

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 1 of 69

METAL ofmaterial waste.

FABRICATION TECHNIQUE Machining processes provide excellent precision, but the

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 2 of 69

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 3 of 69

• Inclusions (e.g. sand or mould lin ing material sticking to the

Shell-moulding is a process in which a thin shell is produced, by

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 4 of 69

• It can be semi-automated, which reduces cost CENTRIFUGAL-CASTING

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 5 of 69

For obvious, reasons this investment-casting process is

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 6 of 69

conducted by the blacksmith, tothe massive, mechanical,powered

Investing Casting Process DROP-FORGING

Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this

Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations,

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 7 of 69

Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is Fig 7.14.4

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 8 of 69

Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out

Pressing involves the use of male and female formers forshaping

STRETCH-FORMING In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 9 of 69

shapes. in the production of tin cans while manually large deeply

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 10 of 69

alloys, where extrusiontemperatures of 400°C-500°C and 650°-

Fig 7.14.8 Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 11 of 69

Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials

Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way,

Some Aluminium and Titanium alloys when heated, CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 12 of 69

CNC (Computer Numerically Control) machines differ from NC

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 13 of 69

Fig 7.14.11 Fig 7.14.12

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 14 of 69

'Machining Centres' have also been developed, which are capable

Accuracy to within microns (0.000001m or 0.000039") is

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 15 of 69

eachaxis and number of tool holders varies between machines.

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 16 of 69

Sometimes referred to as chemical etching or "chemilling", it is

Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of

The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical,

The blank shape is dipped in a plastic solution covering the whole

Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough, a drop

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 17 of 69

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Fig 7.14.16

A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed under pressure, between

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 18 of 69

maintained, throughout the operation, at approximately 0.025 mm

The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on

Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of

A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as Fig 7.14.17

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 19 of 69

Titanium can be used in a high temperature vacuumenvironment

Dissimilar metallic materials can also be joined together, if they

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 20 of 69

pressuresduring bonding. Castings also provide a more cost

CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO. REVISION DATE Page 21 of 69