Solid materials

Elastic and plastic deformation

▪ A material undergoing elastic deformation will return to
its original size and shape when the deforming force is
removed.

▪ In plastic deformation, material will be permanently

deformed.
Hooke’s Law
This states that up to a given load (limit of
proportionality), the extension of a spring is directly
proportional to the force applied to the spring.

Fx
F =k x
Where k is the constant of proportionality known as
stiffness constant.

SI unit of k:
Spring combinations
▪Parallel & Series combinations
Investigating Hooke’s Law
▪ Set up the apparatus as shown above.

▪ Record the scale position of the spring without the load.

▪ For six different loads, record the corresponding scale

position of the spring.

▪ Find the extension using

 scale reading   scale reading 

extension =   −  
 with the load   without the load 

▪ Plot a graph of load against extension,

 loading Unloading
Average
Load/g Scale Scale extension/
Extension/cm cm
reading/cm Extension/cm reading/cm
▪ Readings are taken while loading and unloading to ensure
that the elastic limit of the spring is not exceeded.

▪ Readings are taken at the eye level to avoid parallax error.

▪ A set square can be used to check whether the rule is

vertical.

▪ Base of the retort stand can be clamped to the table to

avoid toppling it.

▪ Use a box to catch falling weights.

▪ Wear goggles to protect eyes of the experimenter.

Expected graph
Gradient = spring constant, k

Area under the graph= elastic

strain
energy
Force-extension graphs
▪ Limit of proportionality
This is the point up to which the
extension is directly proportional
to the load applied.

▪ Elastic limit
This is the maximum load which a
body can experience and still
regain its original size once the
load has been removed.
▪ Yield point
This is the point beyond which there is a significant increase
in extension. Beyond this point, material shows plastic
deformation.

▪ Break point
The point beyond which the material breaks.
Stress, Strain & Young modulus
If forces are applied to a material in such a way to deform it,
then the material is said to be being stressed. As a result, the
material becomes strained.

The importance of stress and strain as opposed to force

extension is that they are material properties: a stress-strain
graph is always the same for a given material, where as a
force-extension graph depends on the dimensions of the
sample.
▪Stress ()
force
This is defined as stress =
cross − sectional area

If the material is stretched,

tensile force
tensile stress =
cross − sectional area

If the material is compressed,

compressives force
compressive stress =
cross − sectional area

SI unit of stress:
▪Strain ()
change in length
This is defined as strain =
original length

▪Young modulus (E)

The ratio (stress/strain) is constant for a given
material provided that the limit of proportionality
has not been exceeded. This ratio is called Young
modulus of the material.
stress
E=
strain
SI unit of E:
 
E =

F x
= and =
A l

Fl
E=
Ax
Stress-strain graph
▪ Gradient = Young modulus, E

▪ Area under the graph= strain

energy
density

What is the SI unit of strain

energy density?
…………………………………
 Determination of Young modulus
▪ Measure the initial length of the test wire using a
meter rule.
▪ The diameter of the test wire is found for various
points along its length and an average diameter
calculated. Hence its mean radius r can be found.
▪ Vary the load and record the corresponding
extension using the vernier arrangement.
▪ Calculate stress and strain values.
load
stress =
cross sectional area

extension
strain =
original length

▪ Plot stress against strain graph.

▪ Young modulus = gradient of the graph.
Precautions
▪ Main scale of the vernier arrangement is fixed on to a comparison
wire suspended from the same support.

This is to avoid errors due to sagging the support.

▪ Both wires are made up of the same material.

Errors due to expansion, as a result of temperature

change during the experiment can be avoided.

▪ Wires are long and thin.

This is to obtain as large an extension as possible.

▪ A small weight is fixed to the comparison wire to keep it taut.

This is to remove kinks in it.

Determining Young modulus using a
horizontal wire
 Mechanical properties of materials
Stiffness
This is a measure of the resistance offered to change the size
and/or shape of the object.
Stiffer materials has a larger values of Young modulus.
Stress

strain

Flexible: Opposite to stiffness

Strength
materials that can withstand a large stress
without breaking are strong.
ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is a measure of
the strength of a material.
Hardness
This is a measure of how difficult it is to scratch a material.
Harder materials are difficult to indent they surfaces.

Toughness

A material that undergoes a large plastic deformation before

breaking it is said to be tough. A tough material requires a
large amount of energy density to break it. (It would have a
larger area under its stress against strain graph.
Brittle
Brittle materials demonstrate little or no plastic
deformation prior to breaking.

Brittle materials fracture due to the rapid growth of cracks

and are generally strong under compression than they are
under tension.

Ductile
Ductile materials demonstrate a large degree of plastic
deformation before fracture.

Ductile materials are also tough.

Malleable
Malleable materials can be hammered into shapes and beaten
into very thin sheets.
Hysteresis
The energy absorbed
when rubber is being
stretched is greater than
the energy that is released
when the stretching force
is removed. This is called
hysteresis.
▪ The difference in energy is represented by the area of
the hysteresis loop, shown shaded in the stress–strain
graph.

▪ The effect of hysteresis in rubber is to transfer energy to

its molecules, resulting in heating.

▪ If you repeatedly stretch and release a rubber band, you

can feel the effect of heating caused by hysteresis.
END