Temperature regulation is, perhaps, the most variable and the most noticeable f

orm of homeostasis. All enzymes have their happy place, and in their case, it h
appens to be a particular reading on the thermometer. If the body temperature
goes outside of the acceptable range, the cells can’t perform their chemical reac
tions. Plus, if the cellular goo inside our cells freeze, we’re pretty sure that’s goi
n g t o b e b a d .

Sensors in the blood vessels are constantly sending the brain updates on intern
al temperatures. This information gets sent to a part of the brain called the hyp
othalamus. The hypothalamus analyzes the data, then sends the animal a messa
ge to do something. Shiver, run around, get a Fanta, whatever it takes to cool
d o w n o r h e a t u p .

Image from here.

Animal Classification

You’ve probably heard the phrases warm-blooded and cold-blooded before. Scie
ntists don’t use those antiques anymore, since they led to a lot of confusion. T
he actual temperature of the animal's blood doesn’t really have anything to do
with it. Now, the naming system is much more specific. It's also a little more co
mplicated to understand. Don't worry; we've got you covered.

Animals can be divided into three categories, depending on how they regulate t
heir temperature.

Homeotherms: animals who maintain a constant internal body temperature acros

s a wide range of environmental conditions. Most mammals and birds are home
otherms.

Poikilotherms: animals whose temperature changes depending on the environme

ntal temperature. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles are poikilotherms, as are most in
vertebrates. The only mammal known to be poikilothermic is the naked mole rat
. But those things are just weird.

Heterotherms: animals which usually keep a constant body temperature, but hav
e specific periods where their temperature is different, such as during hibernatio
n. We said most mammals were homeotherms. The ones that aren’t (except for
the naked mole rat) are heterotherms. Ground squirrels and bears are heterothe
rms, as are some birds and reptiles.

A wild boar in the snow. Boars are mammals and produce their own heat. To r
etain their heat and keep out the cold they also have special fur to insulate the
ir bodies. Image from here.

Animals can also be divided by another classification system based on whether t

heir heat primarily comes from an external source or an internal source.

Ectotherms: Animals that receive heat primarily from external sources (reptiles, a
mphibians, and fish).

Endotherms: Animals that create their own heat (mammals and birds).

These two systems overlap. Homeotherms and heterotherms can also usually be
classified as endotherms, and poikilotherms can usually be classified as ectother
ms. However, these rules aren’t always true. For example, there are deep sea fis
hes who are ectotherms and don’t produce their own heat, but since they live i
n a constant-temperature environment, they’re considered homeotherms. There a
re also insects that are poikilotherms with body temperatures that change with t
he environment. In order to fly, these bugs produce their own heat. Therefore, t
hey aren’t true ectotherms.

The chief benefit for ectotherms is that they don’t have to expend too much en
ergy generating their own heat. The downside is that they are at the mercy of
their environmental temperature, and their cells must be able to function over a
wide range of internal temperatures.

Endotherms, on the other hand, benefit from staying at a constant optimal tem
perature. This allows all of their enzymes can work at full efficiency all of the ti
me. They are also capable of withstanding extreme temperatures for a short tim
e without a serious detrimental effect. It's why people can do the polar bear pl
unge. Unfortunately, though, they need to spend a great deal of energy on tem
perature regulation.

Keep these basic concepts about heat transfer in mind. Heat can be gained or l
ost by conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction means that heat can b
e transferred between two objects that are touching. Convection means that hea
t can be transferred between objects and the liquid or gas that surrounds them.
 Radiation means that absorption of electromagnetic waves (AKA sunlight) can c
ause heat.

Ectotherms

Since ectotherms don’t produce their own heat, they have to regulate their tem
perature in other ways. The circulatory system plays a big role in temperature r
egulation. The blood gets everywhere in the body, so if the blood is nice and
warm, it’ll keep the cells cozy. For this reason, ectotherms have their blood vess
els close to the skin for quick heat exchange, and they usually don’t have hair
or feathers. Those things just get in the way.

Most heat exchange occurs in an animal's extremities, such as its feet or tail. W
hen it’s cold, they can restrict blood flow to those regions and concentrate on
keeping the vital organs warm. The opposite is true too. If the body is too war
m, sending the blood to the toes can let off some steam.

Fish can conserve heat using something called a counter-current heat exchanger.
Sounds like something they bought at Best Buy. The blood circulates past the
gills for gas exchange, but that also means that blood is pretty close to all that
cold water.

Diagram of blood vessels in countercurrent heat exchange setup in fish.

To retain heat, the blood vessel going to the gills run parallel and opposite to
vessels returning from the gills. Warm blood goes towards the gills and passes
cool blood that’s heading for the body. The heat from the warm blood transfer
s to the cool blood and the fish is left with lukewarm blood.

Countercurrent heat exchange can also be found in the legs of the arctic fox, s
o that heat is not lost when the warm blood passes through the cold paws.

Another way for ectotherms to regulate their temperature is by just changing th

eir behavior. If a lizard is cold, it just hangs out on a sunny rock. If it's too war
m, it can move over to the shady rock. Pretty simple system.

An iguana sunning itself on a warm rock to get warm. Image from here.

Iguanas are known to feed in the cold seawater. Then they find a hot rock to li
e on for digestion. The enzymes required for digestion can’t function at cold te
mperatures, so iguanas have learned that they must seek out warmth in order t
o digest their food.

There are many other examples of ectotherms adapting their behavior to conser
ve, receive, or lose heat. Fish dive to cooler waters when they get too warm. S
nakes dive into holes on hot days. Butterflies and other insects sun their wings
to warm up their flying muscles.

Ectotherms are capable of surviving at a range of temperatures, but quick temp

erature changes can be deadly. That might explain why all our tropical fish died
in our outdoor winter wonderland aquarium. Fish have different enzymes that
work at different temperatures, but each enzyme still has its sweet spot. When t
heir internal temperature drops, some enzymes become less effective and their
metabolism decreases. Lower metabolism means less energy, and less energy m
eans less movement.

Both cars and ectotherms need to prepare for winter by filling up with antifreez
e, or in science language, cryoprotectants. A cryoprotectant is something that pr
events things from freezing. Although it is not directly involved in temperature r
egulation, it can prevent some of the effects that extremely low temperatures ca
n cause. Ectotherms that live in extreme climates go on an extreme binge of pa
rticular carbs and amino acids before winter to protect their cells from freezing.
One of those carbohydrates, propylene glycol, is actually the same chemical use
d in automotive antifreeze.

Endotherms

Endotherms can exhibit many of the behavioral changes for temperature regulati
on as ectotherms. Pigs, for example, are notorious for soaking in a pile of cool
mud on a hot day. While we all like to sit by the fire on a cold day, we endot
herms can also create our own heat through metabolism. For this reason, endot
herms need to consume more food than ectotherms, and the metabolic rate for
an endotherm is a lot faster than a similarly sized ectoderm.
The cycle of temperature regulation in endotherms.

Endotherms use blood vessel constriction or dilation to regulate their temperatur

e. Since we spend all this energy creating heat from within, we’re pretty keen o
n conserving it. That’s one reason endotherms have hair and feathers: to keep t
he body heat in and the environmental heat out. Instead of hair, marine mamm
als have a layer of blubber that keeps them snug in frigid ocean water.

Polar bears and other arctic species have several layers of fur to keep the harsh
winds off of their skin. They also can contract the hair follicles to make the hai
r stand on end. This is called piloerection, and most mammals can do it (even
you). Piloerection can be used to make an animal look bigger (think of a cat wi
th its hair all up), but it has a temperature regulation function too. Fluffing up
your fur or your feathers allows warm air to become trapped close to the skin.

Shivering is another way we can produce body heat. Shivering is caused by tiny
muscle contractions, and those contractions create heat; it’s also what causes t
eeth to chatter together. Despite his snowsuit, this pug is still shivering to stay
warm.

All right. So we’ve covered what to do when we get too cold, but what about
when we get too hot? To release heat, many mammals use evaporation. Sweat
glands release liquid that gets evaporated from the skin, taking heat with it. Pan
ting is another evaporation trick. Dogs and other animals pant and the saliva g
ets evaporated.

Some endotherms are heterotherms who sustain periods of lowered body tempe
rature. In the winter, we call this hibernation. In the summer, it’s estivation. Yes,
there are animals that sleep through the summer. Tragic, we know.

In preparation for dormancy, animals eat large amounts of food and store it as
fat in order to sustain their low metabolism through the off season. Hibernating
ground squirrels allow their body temperature to drop to environmental levels. T
hey then remain in a deep slumber, unable to be roused until the spring. Bears
, on the other hand, keep their body temperatures at a moderate level, and are
able to be roused without much difficulty. Although waking a sleeping bear is
NOT recommended.