Developments in the 
Processing of Lyocell Fabrics 
 
By:  
Dr. Tanveer Hussain 
 
 Developments in the Processing of Lyocell 
Fabrics 
 
By: Dr. Tanveer Hussain 
Lyocell (CLY) is defined as “a regenerated cellulosic fibre obtained by spinning of dissolved
wood pulp in an organic solvent: NMMO (N-methyl-morphaline-N-oxide)” [1]. Lyocell fibres are
derived from 100% natural wood pulp using a solvent spinning process. Lyocell was first made
commercially available in 1988 by Acordis (then Courtaulds plc) under the brand name
“Tencel®” [2]. According to www.fibresource.com, the fibre was first commercially available is
US in 1992. Lyocell is currently being produced by Lenzing [3]. The registered brand names of
lyocell include NewCell® (Akzo Nobel), Lenzing Lyocel®l (Lenzing), Alceru® (TITK), Cocel®
(Hanil) and Tencel® (Courtaulds/Acordis). NewCell® is a filament while others are staple fibres
[4, 5]. Production route for Lyocell Fibre is given in figure 1 [2,3,6].
Figure 1 Production Route of Lyocell Fibre

TENCELL®  Lenzing Lyocell® 

Wood pulp is shredded and mixed with NMMO (N‐methylmorpholine‐N‐oxide) and water 

The water is evaporated from the slurry by stirring in a vacuum vessel at elevated temperature 

The cellulose dissolves to form a “dope”

The dope is filtered

The dope is extruded through tiny holes (spinning jets) with high pressure and high viscosity into 
a spinning bath containing an aqueous solution of NMMO 

The filaments are gathered together to form a tow – a rope of parallel filaments 

The tow is cleaned by countercurrent  The tow is cut into staple fibers 
washing with water 
A mat is formed and cleaned by 
The tow is bleached (option) countercurrent washing with water 

The finish is applied  The fibers are treated with H2O2

The tow is dried  The finish is applied

The tow is crimped  The fibers are dried

The tow is cut into staple fibers The fibers are opened 

The fibers are baled The fibers are baled

Main ingredients for lyocell manufacturing are:
• Wood from oak tree or birch (Figure 2 & 3)
• An amine oxide [N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMNO)
• Water
• A finishing agent such as a silicone-based lubricant

Figure 2 Oak Logs Figure 3 Birch Logs

The wood pulp is obtained from a self-sustaining resource of harvested trees. The solvent
amine oxide, used to dissolve the wood pulp, is non-toxic and is recycled within the process
resulting in minimal and harmless effluent [7,8].

Tencel® A100 is a non-fibrillating variant of the original Lyocell fibre by Courtaulds. Tencel®
A100 is not the replacement but a complement to Tencel® fibre. While Tencel® has to be
processed in specialized jet machine such as air-jets, Tencel® A100 may be processed in
conventional aqua-jet machines. Two key differences of Tencel® and Tencel® A100 varieties is
that the Tencel® A100 is non-fibrillation and has higher colour yield as compared to Tencel®
[2].

Properties of Lyocell Fibres

Some notable properties of lyocell fibres are as follows [9-11]:

• High strength in both wet and dry states
• Dry and wet tenacity higher than viscose and cotton fibres (see Table 1)
• High incidence of crystalline areas and high degree of orientation
• Higher crystallinity and larger crystal size as compared to viscose rayon [12]
• Low shrinkage in water, resulting in good dimensional stability of the garments
• Unique property of fibrillation, i.e. stripping away of the outer layers of the fibre like the
peeling away of bark from the trees
• Higher dyeability as compared to cotton or viscose
• High stability to alkali as compared to viscose
• High fibre swelling capacity, which can lead to crease marks or stress marks when
processing heavy wovens, particularly in rope forms
• Degree of swelling increases with NaOH treatment and decreases with polycarboxylic
treatment [13]
• High suitability for the creation of the mill-wash, sand-wash, used-look or peach-skin
look fabric
• Can absorb excess liquid (perspiration) and quickly release it to the atmosphere
 • TENCEL® absorbs 50 % more moisture than cotton. An increase of moisture in a textile
when the textile is moved from a relative humidity of 65% to a relative humidity of 100%
is given in figure 4 [14]
• Good wearer comfort because of less resistance to thermal transmission and higher
vapour permeability as compared with cotton (good thermal management and moisture
management) [15].

Tencel® Viscose Cotton Polyester

Dry Tenacity (cN/tex) 38-42 22-26 20-24 55-60

Wet Tenacity (cN/tex) 34-38 10-15 26-30 54-58

Dry Elongation (%) 14-16 20-25 7-9 25-30

Wet Elongation (%) 16-18 25-30 12-14 25-30

Table 1 Comparison of tenacity and elongation of Tencel® with other fibres

Figure 4 Moisture regain of lyocell as compared to other fibres

Lyocell fabrics have the following key characteristics:

• Distinctive soft handle
• Excellent drape
• Silky lustre
• High strength
• Good wash stability

Typical Processing Routes for 100% Lyocell Woven Fabrics

A. Open-width desizing, scouring, etc. → Primary fibrillation in a suitable jet with 1-5 g/l
Sodium Carbonate at 90-120°C → Rinsing → De-fibrillation with cellulase enzymes
(typically with 2-4 % o.w.f. at pH 4.5-5, 55°C )→ Denaturing of Enzyme by increasing
 temperature up to 80°C → Rinsing → Dyeing (with reactive dyes of low reactivity and
low-to-medium substantivity) + Secondary Fibrillation → Rinsing → Soaping/Washing-off
→ Rinsing → Softening → Tumble Drying (to enhance peach-skin effect). (see figure 5)
[16]

Figure 5 Typical Processing Route for 100% Lyocell Woven Fabrics [16]

B. Open-width desizing, scouring, etc. → Combined primary fibrillation and Dyeing (at
130°C using high-temperature stable reactive dyes) → Rinsing → Washing-off/Soaping
→ Rinsing → Enzyme wash/ De-fibrillation (typically at 55°C) → Denaturing of enzyme
(by raising temperature to 80°C) + Secondary fibrillation → Rinsing → Softening →
Tumble Drying (to enhance peach-skin effect). (see figure 6) [16]

Figure 6 An Alternative Route for Processing 100% Lyocell Woven Fabrics, Combining
Primary Fibrillation & Dyeing [16]

C. Open-width desizing, scouring, etc. → Combined dye exhaustion (of reactive dyes stable
at 130°C) and primary fibrillation → Enzyme Wash/De-fibrillation (typically at 55°C) →
Denaturing of enzyme (by raising temperature at 80°C) + dye fixation (by adding alkali, if
 necessary) + Secondary Fibrillation → Rinse → Washing-off/Soaping → Rinse →
Softening → Tumble Drying (to enhance peach-skin effect). (see figure 7) [16]

Figure 7 An Alternative Route for Processing 100% Lyocell Woven fabrics, Combining
Secondary Fibrillation and Dye Fixation [16].

Some more example routes, mentioned by K. Siedow, are given as follows (Figure 8-10) [17]:

Singeing (open‐width) 

Desizing (open‐width) 

Optional: Alkalization/ Bleaching (open‐width)

Primary Fibrillation (rope‐form/air‐jet) 

Enzyme Defibrillation (rope‐form/air‐jet

Enzyme Denaturing + Dyeing/ Secondary  Enzyme Denaturing/ Secondary Fibrillation 
Fibrillation (rope‐form/ air‐jet (rope‐form/air‐jet) 

Cold Pad Batch Dyeing (open‐width) 

Drying & Mechanical Tumbler Finish (rope‐
form/ air‐jet) 

Softening/Resin Finishing 

Figure 8 An Alternative Processing Route for Lyocell, including Pad-batch Dyeing

 Singeing (open‐width) 

Desizing (open‐width) 

Scouring (rope‐form) 

Bleaching (rope‐form) 

Dyeing (rope‐form/air‐jet) 

Enzymatic Defibrillation (rope‐form/air‐jet)

Resin Finish 

Figure 9 An alternative Processing Route for Lyocell without Secondary Fibrillation

Singeing (open‐width) 

Desizing (open‐width) 

Scouring (open‐width) 

Bleaching (open‐width) 

Dyeing (open‐width) 

Resin Finish 

Figure 10 Processing Route for Non-fibrillating Lyocell

Anti‐fibrillation Scouring (open‐width) Non‐fibrillating Lyocell  Scouring (open‐width)

Bleaching (open‐width) 

Dyeing (open‐width or rope‐form/air‐jet)

Resin Finish 

Figure 11 An Alternative Processing Route for Non-fibrillating Lyocell

Typical Processing Route for Polyester/Lyocell Blends

Lyocell is blended with polyester for compensation of properties between the fibres, cost
optimization and improvement of spinnability [18]. A typical processing route for polyester/lyocell
blended fabric is given as follows:

A. Open-width desizing, scouring, etc. → Dyeing Polyester at 130°C + Primary Fibrillation

→ Rinsing → Alkali/Reduction Clearing Rinse → Enzyme Wash → Enzyme Denaturing
→ Rinsing → Dyeing of Lyocell with Reactive Dyes + Secondary Fibrillation → Rinsing
→ Washing-off → Rinsing → Softening → Tumble Drying (to enhance peach-skin
effect). (see figure 12) [16]

Figure 12 A Typical Processing Route for Polyester/Lyocell Blends [16]

Pre-treatment of Lyocell Woven Fabrics

General Requirements in Pre-treatment of woven lyocell include [19]:
• Complete removal of size
• Good absorbency
• Adequate whiteness
• Good dyeability
• Good dimensional stability
• Crease-free fabric
• No abrasion marks
• End-to-end and side-centre-side levelness of treatment
• Good reproducibility
The amounts of contaminants present in Tencel® A100, cotton and Modal are given in Table 2
[2].
 Cotton Tencel® A100 Modal

Total Ash Content (%) 1.41 0.11 0.21

Acid insoluble Ash (ppm) 143 23 37

Sodium (ppm) 89 590 840

Calcium (ppm) 760 16 20

Magnesium (ppm) 720 4 8

Table 2 Contaminants in Cotton, Tencel® A100 and Modal Fibers

Lyocell fabrics are singed to remove the protruding fibres and simplify the de-fibrillation process
later on. Desizing is normally done in open-width. If the fabric contains only water-soluble sizes,
it is washed-only on open-width washing machine or jigger. If starch is present, desizing may be
done by enzymatically or oxidatively using cold pad-batch method, open-width washing machine
or jigger. Some examples of typical desizing processes are given in Table 3.

Size Type Process Ingredients Conditions

Water-soluble Continuous 2-5 ml/l Wetting agent/ Temperature 80-95°C
sizes open-width Detergent Time 1-4 minutes
washing 1-2 ml/l Sequestrant Final hot rinse
machine X g/l Soda Ash or Caustic Soda
(depending on type of size)

Jigger 1-2 ml/l Wetting agent/ Liquor ratio 1:5

Detergent Temperature 80-90°C
1-2 ml/l Sequestrant No. of passes 4 or minimum 30 minutes
X g/l Soda Ash or Caustic Soda Final hot rinse
(depending on type of size)
Starch/ Cold Pad- 2-6 ml/l Amylases Enzyme Impregnation at 20-60°C
Water- batch 3-5 ml/l Wetting agent/ Pick-up 100%
insoluble Size Enzymatic Detergent Dwell time 4-24 hours
Desizing 1-2 ml/l Sequestrant Final Hot rinse
Jigger 2-4 ml/l Amylases Enzyme Liquor ratio 1:5
1-2 ml/l Wetting agent/ Temperature depending on type of enzyme
Detergent used
1-2 ml/l Sequestrant Time minimum 30 minutes
Addition of enzyme only when suitable
temperature reached
Final hot rinse

Table 3 Typical Desizing Procedures for Lyocell fabrics

Three-in-One (T-I-O) process may be used for oxidative desizing, bleaching and causticizing in
one step [19].
 Figure 13: T-I-O Pre-treatment Process

The position of T-I-O process in the overall processing route is given as follows: Singeing → T-I-
O pre-treatment process → primary fibrillation → enzymatic de-fibrillation → Dyeing → Finishing

T-I-O process consists of impregnating the fabric at room temperature with 8-15 ml/kg H2O2
(35%), 40 g/kg NaOH (100%), 8-12 ml/kg “Tinoclarite CBB” and 3-6 ml/kg “Invatex CRA”. The
pick up is adjusted to 100% and the impregnated fabric is batched to dwell for 4-24 hours before
a hot wash.
It has been found that fabrics undergone T-I-O process exhibit better colour yield as compared
to enzymatically desized fabrics.

Mercerization with NaOH causes increase in degree of lyocell swelling. However, there is a
notable decrease in tensile strength when lyocell is treated with strong alkali solutions higher
than 7.5 wt% while Mercerization at 10 wt% causes more than 10% weight loss in lyocell fibres
[13].

Fibrillation

Fibrillation is a unique property of lyocell fibres involving the stripping away of the outer layers of
the fibres similar to the peeling away of bark from the trees, so that the fibrils developed on the
surface of the fibres remain attached to the main body of the fibre. In other words, fibrillation is
the partial detachment of microfibrills from the fibres. These microfibrills are typically less than 1
to 4 microns in diameter and give, on one hand, a white “frosty” appearance to the fabric and,
on the other had, special peach-skin soft handle. Main causes of lyocell fibrillation tendency are
the high wet swelling (approx. 65% increase in volume) of lyocell and weak lateral links between
the crystallites rendering it susceptible to mechanical abrasion [20].

Primary Fibrillation

Primary fibrillation often results in the presence of long fibrils which are able to entangle and
result in fabric pilling. Primary fibrillation is usually done is a suitable air-jet machines such as
“Luftroto” from Thies, “Airflow” from Then, “Airjet” from Henrickson or fully flooded machines
such as “Soft Stream” from Thies or “Futura” from Gaston County.
A guide process for primary fibrillation is as follows: load the goods in a suitable jet. Pour in 2 g/l
suitable lubricant while setting the bath at 60°C. Add 2 g/l crease inhibitor and 2-3 g/l soda ash
or caustic soda lye. Increase the temperature to 80-95°C. Treat the goods for 60-120 minutes.
Drain off the bath, rinse and neutralize.

A general primary fibrillation process given by Alexander Nikolov includes treatment of fabric
with 5 g/l caustic soda or soda ash at a liquor to goods ratio of 10:1 to 20:1 for 60-90 minutes at
80-120°C, draining and then rinsing [1]. For garments, the treatment comprises 2 g/l caustic
soda or soda ash for 15-20 minutes at 60-80°C, draining and rinsing. For treatment of lyocell
blends, the above conditions may be a little bit too harsh and should be adjusted depending
upon the type and sensitivity of the blending component.

Nikolov has also suggested another approach involving treatment of the fabric with sodium and
potassium salts such as phosphate, acetate, sulphate and chloride. A suggested NovoLyoTech
method involves treatment of the fabric with 5 g/l sodium chloride, 1 g/l sodium acetate, 1.5 g/l
amylases enzyme and 4 g/l lubricant at 50-60°C for 30-45 minutes. NovoLyotech method is
advantageous in terms of time, energy and water savings. There is no need to neutralize the
fabric as it is necessary after alkaline de-fibrillation method. Another added advantage is a gain
in fabric strength contrary to loss in strength in case of alkaline defibrillation method.

Defibrillation or Enzyme Clean

Defibrillation can be done on the jet machines using acid cellulases enzymes, which result in
catalytic splitting of the 1, 4 glucosidic bonds of the cellulose. Cellulases are mixtures of various
enzymatic components, viz. endoglucanase (EGs) or endocellulase (β-1,4-D-glucan-4-glucan
hydrolase), cellobiohydrolase (CBHs) or exocellulase (1,4-β-D glucan cellobiohydrolase), and β-
glucosidase (BGs) or cellobiolase (β-D-glucosid glucohydrolase) [21]. All acid cellulases are not
alike in their performance. Whole cellulases have different performance as compared to endo-
enriched cellulases which again differ in their performance according to their compositions.
Selection of the most suitable enzyme depends, among other factors, on enzyme performance,
their compatibility and total processing cost [22]. The cellulases first attack the more externally
exposed microfibrills at the fabric surface rather than the cellulose of the main fabric structure
[23]. The process is carried out using a suitable cellulases enzyme (1-3% o.w.f.), 2 g/l crease
inhibitor and 2 g/l lubricant at a liquor ratio of 5:1-10:1. A strict control of temperature and pH
(using buffer system) is ensured before the addition of enzyme. The pH and temperature is set
as per the enzyme manufacturer’s recommendations. The treatment is carried out for 45-90
minutes and then the enzyme is denatured either by raising the temperature or pH by using
sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate. The bath is drained off and the goods are given a
final hot rinse.

The benefits of cellulases treatment include [24]:

• Improved softness and surface smoothness
• De-fuzzing
• De-pilling
• Pill prevention
• Improved drapability
• Improved surface appearance after repeated laundering
• Reduced tendency to fibrillate
Conducting primary fibrillation and de-fibrillation before dyeing has the following advantages
[19]:
• Better abrasion resistance
• Better control of de-fibrillation since the activity of cellulases may be blocked after dyeing
with some reactive dyes
• More uniform secondary fibrillation after dyeing

Efficacy of cellulases treatment can be assessed as a function of the degree of de-fibrillation,

fabric strength loss and weight loss [22].

Secondary Fibrillation

Unlike long-staple irregular primary fibrillation, secondary fibrillation results in the presence of
short fibrils which are not usually able to entangle and cause pilling. Secondary fibrillation is
usually done after dyeing and finishing. Two main effects of the secondary fibrillation are:
• A small pile created on the surface of the fabric, giving the fabric a special surface feel
known as peach-skin hand
• Fibrils, being a fraction of the size of the fibres, appear much lighter in colour than the
fibres even when they contain the same amount of dye. This optical effect gives the
dusted or mill-wash appearance to the fabric.

Both fibrillation and de-fibrillation treatments significantly modify physical as well as dyeing
properties of lyocell fabrics. While mechanical fibrillation treatment affects only the surface
fibres, the enzyme treatment has potential to affect all the fibres in the fabric. Therefore, the
degradation in mechanical properties of lyocell is higher in case of enzyme defibrillation than
that in case of mechanical fibrillation. The dyeability of fibrillated lyocell has been reported to be
slightly higher as compared to the untreated fabric [25].

Factors that Affect Fibrillation

Main factors that affect fibrillation are as follows:

(a) Physical properties of the fibre, such as crystallinity and intrinsic viscosity: fibrillation
index is affected positively by relative crystallinity and negatively by intrinsic viscosity
[26]
(b) Yarn count
(c) Yarn twists per inch
(d) Type of goods (woven or knitted)
(e) Cloth density (GSM)
(f) Cloth surface structure
(g) Wetness of the fabric: wet fabrics are more prone to fibrillation as compared to dry
fabrics
(h) Processing temperature: increase in processing temperature increases the amount of
fibrillation by increasing the energy available to the system
(i) Processing pH: increase in processing pH increases the amount of fibrillation, possibly
due to increased swelling of the fibres and hence increased access of more water into
the fibre forcing apart the fibrils in the fibres
(j) Mechanical action: increase in mechanical action increases the fibrillation. Machines
with low mechanical action require higher pH and temperature for good fibrillation while
machine with high mechanical action require low pH and temperature for the same
 amount of fibrillation. In jet machines, one of the considerations is the difference in the
speed of the winch and the fabric to control the mechanical action.
(k) Processing time: fibrillation usually increases with increase in processing time
(l) Fabric load: increasing mechanical load in the machine increases fibrillation
(m) Liquor ratio: fibrillation increases by decreasing liquor ratio
(n) Resin finishing: resin finishing results in control of fibrillation
(o) Colorless crosslinking agents: they also control the fibrillation
(p) Multifunctional reactive dyes: some multifunctional reactive dyes (e.g. Cibacron LS in
exhaust dyeing & Cibacron C in pad dyeing) also result in reduction in post fibrillation
due to interfibrillar crosslinking. Dye properties which govern its ability of interfibrillar
crosslinking, include [27-29]:
a. Dye reactivity
b. Number of dye chromophores
c. Size of dye chromophores
d. Stearic orientation of the reactive groups in the dye molecule
e. Distance between reactive groups as a function of molecular size
f. Dye diffusion characteristics
i. In pad steam and pad thermosol dyeing, dye penetration and interfibrillar
crosslinking is poor as compared to pad batch dyeing
ii. Cold pad batch may give better results even as compared to exhaust
dyeing
g. Flexibility of the dye molecule

Tests for checking fabric propensity for fibrillation, include:

• Wet abrasion test: Fabric appearance is noted after wet abrasion (100% humidity)
• Repeated washing test: Fabric appearance/shade depth is assessed (visually or
colorimetrically) after repeated washing

Dyeing of Lyocell Fabrics by Exhaust Method

Lyocell fabrics can be dyed by using same classes of dyes and methods as are used for other
cellulosic fibres. However, the dyeability of lyocell is higher as compared to that of other
conventional cellulosic fibres (see figure 14)[27]. Comparison of dyeability of Tencel and Tencel
A100 brands is given in figure 15 [2].

Figure 14 Dyeability of Lyocell vs. Other Cellulosic Fibres [27]

 Figure 15 Dyeability of Tencel® vs. Tencel® A100

Appropriate dye selection is important keeping in view the fact that natural affinity of reactive
dyes for lyocell is greater than that for cotton. Those reactive dyes are suitable which are
characterised by:
• Excellent exhaustion and fixation
• Good migration properties
• Excellent level dyeing
• Robustness to process variables
• Easy wash-off profile

Bi-functional and tri-functional reactive dyes have been reported to improve the wet abrasion
strength of lyocell while non-cross-linking mono-functional dyes are ineffective in that respect
[30].

Main parameters for dyeing lyocell in rope form, in jet dyeing machines, are:
• Fabric tube/rope diameter
• Fabric speed
• Rope circulation time
• Differential pressure
• Liquor add-on (in aerodynamic systems), which depends on:
o Fabric type (woven or knitted)
o Fabric density
o Fabric GSM (grams per square meter)
o The final fabric appearance required
• Difference in winch speed and fabric speed
o Higher speed differences may cause over-fibrillation

Typical auxiliaries which are used for dyeing lyocell with reactive dyes include [2]:
• Wetting agent (may be omitted if appropriate emulsifiable yarn lubricants are used)
• Sequestering agent to sequester alkaline earth metals that may be introduced by water
or electrolyte
 • Electrolyte to increase exhaustion (note: due to high affinity of reactive dyes for lyocell
than for cotton, the electrolyte requirement for dyeing lyocell is less than that for dyeing
cotton)
• Fabric lubricant with good emulsifying properties
• Alkali for dye fixation

Key parameters which must be monitored are:

• Specific gravity
• Water hardness
• pH
• Time/Temperature gradient

The dyeing process may also be combined with scouring when only easily emulsifiable yarn
lubricants are presents in the greige fabric. Since the amount of salt used for dyeing lyocell is
less as compared to that used for dyeing cotton, number of rinses required to remove the
hydrolysed dye may be less as compared to cotton dyeing.

Dyeing of Lyocell Fabrics by Cold Pad-batch Method

Dyeing of lyocell by cold pad-batch method has been reported by Siedow [17]. The method
consists of padding the pre-treated fabric in the dye liquor, squeezing to a suitable pick-up and
batching for fixation.

Cold pad-batch method has the following characteristics [17]:

• High productivity as compared to exhaust method
• Low energy costs
• Low water costs (around 60 l/kg or less as compared to >100 l/kg in exhaust dyeing)
• No use of salt
• Low effluent load
• Limited fibrillation
• No abrasion marks
• Less crease marks
• Long fixation times
• High cost of correcting faulty shades
• Risk of tailing

The conditions necessary for obtaining good results in pad batch dyeing include, but are not
limited to:
• Good fabric hydrophilicity for ensuring uniform dye uptake
• Freedom from residues
• Uniform moisture content and temperature (20-25°C) of the fabric throughout the length
and width of the fabric
• Small liquor trough for ensuring rapid liquor exchange (in less than 3 minutes),
particularly for dyes of low liquor stability, in order to prevent premature dye hydrolysis
and reduce risk of tailing
• Good control of temperature of dye and alkali liquors and the trough temperature for
ensuring bath stability
• Use of trichromatic combinations with similar substantivity
• Optimum fabric speed to ensure fabric immersion time of about 1 sec.
 • Liquor pick-up of 85-100%
• Approximately 30-60 sec. air passage after padding and before batching up, to minimize
pressure on the batching roll due to lyocell swelling
• Use of relatively high-diameter foam-covered batching rolls, to provide room for fibre
swelling while on the batcher
• A centre wind to ensure constant winding tension on the batching roll

Fastness Properties of Dyed Lyocell Fabrics

Washing fastness is comparable with the fastness properties achieved by same dyes on fabrics
made from other cellulosic fibres. However, a poor rating may be obtained as compared to other
cellulosic fabrics because of fabric fibrillation.

Producing Classic-Look Lyocell Fabrics

In order to produce classic-look lyocell fabrics with no peach-skin appearance, fibrillation should
be avoided. This can be achieved by avoiding mechanical action while the fabric is in wet state.
This may be possible by open-width processing of fabrics using jiggers, pad batch or pad
continuous machines. Even if any fibrillation is produced due to unavoidable mechanical
actions, this can be removed by using cellulases enzymes subsequently. However, any further
wet processing must be avoided to prevent any re-fibrillation. Since, fabrics have to be
ultimately undergo domestic washing, these are subjected to resin finishing or cross-linking
treatments in order to avoid any re-fibrillation during home laundering.

Processing of Lyocell in Garment Form

Processing of lyocell in garment form can be done to obtain different effects such as:
• Mill-wash appearance
• Excellent hand
• Bulk
Main processing routes for processing lyocell garments are:
• Indigo garment wash
• Piece dye for garment wash
• Garment dye
Lyocell garment wash may follow three-stage process comprising:
• Primary fibrillation, usually obtained during the desizing operation
• De-fibrillation using cellulases enzymes under controlled temperature and pH
• Secondary fibrillation, which may be created during the softening stage

Garment Dyeing

Route 1:
Primary fibrillation of garment → De-fibrillation with enzymes → Dyeing (where secondary
fibrillation occurs)
Characteristics of Route 1:
• Peach-skin hand
• Classic appearance
• Good batch to batch shade reproducibility
Route 2:
Dyeing (where primary fibrillation occurs) → de-fibrillation with enzymes → Secondary fibrillation
Characteristics of Route 2:
• Peach-skin hand
• Distressed look
• Poor shade reproducibility due to use of enzyme after dyeing

Machinery used for Lyocell Fabric Processing

Air-flow jet machines are more suitable as compared to aqua-flow jet machine for processing
damage-free lyocell fabrics. Examples of suitable machines are: Then AFS, Krantz Aero-Dye
and Thies Luft-roto.

Jiggers, Pad-batch and Pad-continuous machines are suitable when classic-look finish, with no
fibrillation is required. Tumble machines may be used for fibrillation and enzyme treatment but
not usually best suitable for fabric dyeing. Examples of suitable tumble machines are:
Biancalani Airo, MAT Combisoft, Thies Roto-tumbler and ICBT Zephyr.

Finishing of Lyocell Fabrics

Handle Modification/ Peach-skin Effect

This can be achieved through secondary fibrillation by the exhaust method either on jet machine
or alternatively on a suitable tumbler. The process is usually carried out after the defibrillation
with cellulases has been done. The handle modification treatment in jet or tumbler is done in the
presence of a suitable softener e.g. 2-4 % silicone emulsion or any silicon-free softener at a L:R
of 1:5-1:20 for 20-30 minutes at a temperature of 30-40°C (or as recommended by the softener
manufacturer) and pH 5-5.5 (or as recommended by the softener manufacturer).
The softener can also be applied by pad method. The padded fabric is dried with 20% residual
moisture and them tumbled which leads to secondary fibrillation. To increase the durability of
fibrillation, suitable cellulose crosslinking agents can be applied afterwards.
If only softness is required with no peach-skin effect, the fabric is simply dries and cured after
softener padding, without tumble treatment.

Different variations in the softening recipe may be used depending on the type of softener used
with and without crosslinking agents. Different types of silicone emulsions are available
including macro-, micro-, semi-micro- or nano-emulsions with amino or amido groups in the side
chains, which enable crosslinking. Traditional amino-functional crosslinking macro-emulsion is
known to give excellent softness and surface smoothness. Micro-emulsion may be used for
more internal softness with less surface smoothness. There is a great variety of silicone-free
softeners which can also be used for a variety of effects (see Table 4).

Table 4 Silicone-free softeners [19]

Polyethylene Paraffin wax Fatty acid amide Fatty acid ester
Emulsion emulsion
Handle Good Good Very good Moderate
Sewability Very good Excellent Good Good
Abrasion Excellent Good Very good Moderate
resistance
Hydrophilicity Low Hydrophobic Low Very good
Sublimation Very low High Very low Low
Durability Very good Very good Good Moderate
Wet-soiling Low Moderate Low Very low

Resin Finishing (Cross-linking Agents)

Resin finishing has both positive and negative effects on the lyocell fabrics [31]. The positive
effects include:
• Reduced tendency to crease in washing and wearing
• Increased wet abrasion
• Reduced shrinkage
• No or less pilling
The negative effects include:
• Loss in tear strength
• Reduced dry abrasion resistance
• Modified hand
• Risk of de-fibrillation with high resin

Suitable cross-linking agents are used to increase the durability of peach-skin effect as well as
improve the dry and wet crease recovery angles. However, too much use of cross-linking
agents may result in decrease in breaking/tear strength and abrasion resistance to
unacceptable levels. Cross-linking agents improve the wet abrasion resistance of lyocell.
However, the effect of most beneficial crosslinking agent for wet abrasion may be negative as
far as dry abrasion resistance is concerned. In contrast the less effective wet crosslinker has
less deteriorating effect on dry abrasion resistance [30].

Lyocell easy care performance can be maximized by [31]:

• Choosing a balanced and open-weave fabric structure that allows room for the fibres
and yarns to swell
• Avoiding the creasing in the loom-state fabric
• Giving good pre-treatment
• Generating more space in the fabric by controlled swelling in caustic soda or liquid
ammonia
• Applying appropriate amount of resin

Different types of cross-linking agents have been reported for use on lyocell fabrics for
enhancement of easy-care properties as well as for control of fibrillation. These include N, N-
dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea (DMDHEU), its modified products and polycarboxylic acids
such as 1,2,3,4,-butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA) [32].

Oil & Water Repellent Finishing

Fluorocarbon finishes can be used to impart oil and water repellency to lyocell fabrics. Long and
densely located fluorocarbon chains reduce the surface energy of the fabric leading to repellent
effect both to water and oil-based substances.

Flame Retardant Finishing

Durable flame-retardant finishing of lyocell can be achieved with the application of Pyrovatex CP
new (by CIBA) along with melamine cross-linking agent. As with resin finishing, such a
treatment also results in loss in fabric tear strength and abrasion resistance.
Common Problems in Processing of Lyocell and Their Countermeasures

Common Problems in Processing of Lyocell and Their Countermeasures are given in Table 5.

Table 5 Common Problems in Processing of Lyocell and Their Countermeasures

Problems Causes Countermeasures

White (crease) lines - Formation of creases occurs due to
high swelling nature of lyocell. White
lines are produced due to localised
fibrillation at creases because of
abrasion at these places.
- Fabrics with high residual shrinkage
are more prone to crease formation. In
garment processing, these crease are
more common around seams,
interlinings, plaquets, collars and hems
Fabric damage Localized fibrillation
Localized fibrillation Repetitive mechanical action on the
same area of the fabric, e.g. due to
rope processing
- Avoid machine loading
Make use of suitable lubricants
during processing
- In case of garment processing,
good garment design, manufacture
and handling can help preventing
these kind of creases.
- Use of suitable lubricants
- Careful machine selection
- Careful machine selection

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About the Author

The author is the Assistant Professor for Department of Textile Chemistry, National Textile
University, Sheikhpura Road, Faislabad, Pakistan.