Chapter 6

Recapitulation

6.1 Summary
Figure 6.1 schematizes the results we have reached thus far in our first five chapters.
Note the dividing line in Fig. 6.1. In Chap. 1 we stated that any problem has two
fundamental aspects to its solution: (1) we must select the correct mathematical tool
to describe the functions and their changes, and (b) we must incorporate the appropriate
physical laws that define the problem fully.
Three methods govern the mathematical modeling of any problem: methods of
analysis, description, and approach. When we analyze a problem, we must first select
the appropriate control: we can choose either a system (where we identify a fixed
mass), or a control volume (where we identify a volume of space). Once we have
selected the control, we then determine the method that describes the fluid's behavior
for that control. If we have chosen a system, we select the Lagrangian description,
because we want to study the history of a fixed mass. If we have chosen a control
volume, we select the Eulerian description, because mass can enter, leave, accumulate,
or deplete with respect to the control. Finally, we must decide how to approach the
description of the control. Two forms of approach are available: the integral form
(I.F), or the differential form (D.F.). The former is used for large volumes or quantities
of mass, the latter for differential or elemental sizes.
Referring again to Fig. 6.1, we note that whatever choices we have made within
the three methods of modeling, we will eventually have to consider the (I.F.) general
property balance Eq. (4.13), or the (D.F.) general property balance Eq. (4.16). In
Chap. I we applied the conservation principles of physics to these equations. Applying
the conservation of mass, we derived a mass balance equation that predicts the behavior
of a parcel of mass or mass through a continuous volume of space. Applying the
conservation of linear and angular momentum, we produced a similar result for the
behavior of the fluid flow linear and angular momentum. Applying the conservation
of energy, we found an energy balance for either an elemental volume or a macroscopic
one. The results of applying conservation laws to fluid flow are summarized as follows.

l. The (D.F.) equation for the conservation of mass is

ap
- + V'pV o (6.1)
at

341
 Properties of fluids

":onservation law:

onservation of
momentum

Navicr-Stokes
(Eg.6.4)
I Momentum
(Eg. 6.5-68)
I

Mathematical Physics
modeling )f fluids

Figure 6.1 Schematic of introduction to the theory offluid mechanics.

 6.1 Summary / 343
2. The (I.F.) equation for the conservation of mass is

i (
at Jv
pdV + t pV'dA = 0 (6.2)

The one-dimensional incompressible form is

Q = VA (6.3)

3. The (D.F.) equation for the conservation of linear momentum is

-
av + (V·V)V = - -
I
Vp + g
I
+ VV2V + - vV(V·V) (6.4)
~ p 3

For incompressible flow, V'V = 0, and the last term vanishes.

4. The (I.F.) equation for the conservation of linear momentum is

iarJv( pV dV + f
A
pV (V ·dA) = I-F (6.5)

For incompressible steady one-dimensional flow, the equation reduces to

I-F = pQ.lV (6.6)

5. The (I.F.) equation for the conservation of angular momentum is

iarJv( pr X V dA + fA
pr x V(V'dA) = I-r x F (6.7)

For incompressible steady one-dimensional flow, the equation reduces to

(6.8)

6. The (D.F.) equation for the conservation of energy is

(adtw)
-
mech
= -
a (pe) +
at
V'[(e + p/p)pV
(6.9)
. .
-kVT + 2J.l.V·S] - 2J.l.(S·V),V
344 / Chapter 6 Recapitulation

7. The (I.F.) equation for the conservation of energy is

JI P(_i + 2v +
2 2
. + iWe
iQe
. = ata Jv( p (_i + 2V + gz
)
dV + gz
)
V . dA (6.10)
A

For incompressible, steady, one-dimensional flow, Eq. (6.10) can be expressed as

p y2 ) (p- y2 )
CWe)mech + - + (
~
"2
g
+z .-
I ~
+ "2
g
+z
e
= hf (6.11)

The foregoing set of equations represents the governing equations of motion for
fluid flow. We shall next summarize some special forms of the governing equations.

6.2 Special Forms of the Governing Equations

Special forms of some of the governing equations of motion are of value when we
deal with certain types of fluid flow. For example, whenever the flow is

1. Steady:

a
-( 0
) = (6.12)
at
2. Inviscid:

v( ) = 0 (6.13)

3. Two-dimensional:

a
-( ) = 0 (6.14)
az
where x and y are the principle direction of flow.
4. One-dimensional:

a a(
-( ) = - ) = 0 (6.15)
ay az
where x is the principle direction of flow.
5. Incompressible:

V'V = 0 (6.16)
 6.2 SpecUJI Forms of the Governing Equations / 345
6. Irrotational:

Vxv (6.17)
°
7. Definition of a real average:

)A = L( )dA (6.18)

Substitution of these results in any of the governing equations helps reduce the
complexity of the equations. Special forms of the equations can now be constructed.
Certain (D.F.) equations of linear momentum are presented in Table 6.1. So important
are these forms in fluid dynamics that we will devote entire chapters to them. For
example, Laplace's equation is the governing equation for potential theory (the topic
of Chap. 12). The differential equation for the accelerating flat plate is important as
it introduces us to the concept of the boundary layer (the topic of Chap. 14). Poiseuille's
equation is important in describing laminar flow in a pipe (the subject of Chap. 10).
A solution of Euler's equation yields one of the most widely used equations in fluid
dynamics, namely, Bernoulli's equation.
All the equations shown in Table 6.1 have exact solutions. Though the list is far
from complete, it does illustrate that, for certain fluid flows, the Navier-Stokes equa-
tions call be reduced to a form where we can obtain closed form analytic solutions.
This will be pursued in Chap. 9.
Figure 6.2 shows how we might take one of the two forms of approach (the D.F.)
and apply it to a general class of incompressible fluid flows. We start by identifying
the two governing equations: the continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes equation.
The types of flows we can treat depend upon the relative significance of the
various acceleration terms in the Navier-Stokes equation. Referring to Fig. 6.2, we
can identify the following terms:

I. @ The local acceleration, which is important only if the fluid properties change
at a point in the flow field.
2. ® The convective acceleration, which would be zero if the flow is uniform
because there is no change in the velocities in space.
3. @ The pressure acceleration, which would vanish because, for a fluid with a
free-surface, the pressure cannot change (except hydrostatically).
4. @ The body force per unit mass. This deceleration would vanish for two-
dimensional planar flow.
5. 0 The viscous deceleration, which vanishes for an inviscid fluid.

All incompressible flows using the (D.F.) in describing the fluid motion must
satisfy this Navier-Stokes equation. We have already studied some special cases:

• Hydrostatics: @ = ® = 0 = 0, in Chap. 3.
• Inviscid flows: 0= 0, in Chaps. 4 and 5.
w Table 6.1 Equations of Fluid Flow That Have Exact Solutions
~
Q\
Origin References
Assumptions (Equation) Mathematical Expression Coord. System Name (equation)

av av lap
p = constant (i) -
at
+ v-
as
= ---
p as
Intrinsic
(4.110)

_~pax
au au au p
v = 0 (4.109) (ii) - + u- + v- = a }
at ax ay
Rectangular Euler's equation
aV av av _~ ap
(iii) - + u- + v- =

'l
at ax ay pay

a v~

_~
aV
r r -- aV
all = 0 (iv) -+ V-
at r ar r p ar
Polar
a aVe aVe VrVe
az o (v) at + vra; + -r- =0

(vi)
a2<j>
-+ -+-= 0
a2<j> a2<j> Rectangular
p = constant 2 2
ax ay 2 az
Vxv=o (4.24) Laplace's equation (12.2)
a2<j> I a<j> I a2<j> -a2<j>
- 2+ - - + -2 - + =0 Cylindrical
(Potential flow) (vii)
ar r all r all 2 az2

p = const.

~=o (4.109) (viii)

d 2u _ .!.
dp
Rectangular Poiseuille's equation (9.6)
at dy? - I.l. dx

g =0
V = w = 0
 Table 6.1 (Con't.)

Origin References
Assumptions (Equation) Mathematical Expression Coord. System Name (equation)

p = canst.

~=O (4.109) (ix) v2 _

a -
!.. dp Axisymmetric
at p dr

g = 0

u, = w - 0 (x) d2va + ~ ( ~) = 0 Polar

Inviscid circular
dr 2 dr r vortex flow
v = 0

p = canst.
d 2w I dw I dp Hagen-Poiseuille
~=O (4.109) (xi) -+--=-- Cylindrical Prob.4.69
at dr? r dr I.l. dz equation
g = 0

a
- = 0
az

u, = Va = 0

p = canst.

a 2v,
-=0 (4.109) (xii) v dv, = _!dp + v(a + .!.av,
at ' dr p dr ar2 r dr
Cylindrical Hamel's equation
2v,
i- = 0 I a v,)
az + ? ae 2 - ?
~
oI::l.. g = 0
~ ap 21.l. Bu,
Va = w = 0 (xiii) 0= - - + - -
ae r 2 ae
~

Table 6.1 (Con't.)

Origin References
Assumptions (Equation) Mathematical Expression Coord. System Name (equation)

p = canst.

g = 0

(4.109) (xiv)
au
-= v-
a2u Rectangular
Accelerating
(9.24)
p = canst.
at ay2 flat plate
v = w = 0

p = canst.
Bu,
-
aV r 1 ap
g = 0 (4.109) (xv)
at + V r -ar = ---
p ar
Va = w= 0 Polar Bubble dynamics
+ v (a v r + ~
2
aV r _ 2V2r )
Axisymmetric
ar 2
r ar r
 From Fig. 6.1 From Fig.-6.1
Navier-Stokes equation
D.F. of
continuity equation -av + (V • V)V + -I V P - g - I' V 2V =0
V ·v=o at p
0+ 0 + 0 +0+ 0 =0

L--------T---I- ------,

0=0
t +
0=0=0
~
0=0=0 0=0 0=0=0=0
t
w=o v= w =0 '=0 Euler's equation Hydrostatics
au
2
au
2
Potential flow
ax2 « a/
Prandtl boundary
layer equation

~
0=0 Couette flow
Blasius solution Poiseuille flow V c/J
2
=0 J[0 + 0 + 0 + 0] d(streamline) ...- Equation of a
Bernoulli's equation streamline
Etc.

+ +
Boundary layer thickness
Kutta-Zhukouski
Drag on flat plate law
Etc.

Figure 6.2 Continuation of schematic of introduction to the theory offluid mechanics.

~

~
350 / Chapter 6 Recapitulation

In the chapter to follow, we shall study

• Poiseuille flows: @ = @ = 0, in Chaps. 9 and 10.

• Potential flows: @ = 0= 0, in Chaps. 12 and 13.
• Boundary layer flows: @ = 0, in Chap. 14.

In particular, we shall examine a variety of applications. For example, we shall

study the principle of flight (Kutta-Zhukouski law) which arises out of potential flow
theory, or the friction drag on a ship's hull, which arises out of the Blasius solution
of the boundary layer flow theory. We shall learn about pipe flow and free channel
flow. Not all branches of fluid dynamics can be treated in this text, but many shall
be.

6.3 Problem-Solving Technique

How do we solve fluid dynamics problems? There is no mutually agreed upon single
way to set up solutions. The choice of problem-solving technique may depend on
nothing more than the familiarity and confidence of the user. For ease and clarity,
especially for beginners, we suggest the following problem-solving methodology:

Step 1.
Identify the characteristics of the fluid and flow field.

1. List the data given and the results required.

2. Check to see if the fluid is
(a) incompressible or compressible
(b) inviscid or real
(c) steady or unsteady
(d) one-, two-, or three-dimensional flow
(e) rotational or irrotational

Step 2.
Select the method of approach.

1. Examine the problem to see if quantities are to be solved at a point in the flow
(D.F.), or at some boundary, or on some volume of a large control (I.F.).
2. Draw and label any necessary diagrams needed for the solution. Examine what
forces or stresses are acting on the control and what transfer of energies through
the control may exist.
3. Determine if the description takes place with respect to a fixed reference frame
or a moving reference frame. The former utilizes absolute velocities and accel-
erations; the latter utilizes relative velocities and accelerations.
(a) Select the appropriate coordinate system that best describes the motion.
(b) Let one of the coordinates be oriented in the direction of the flow.
 6.3 Problem-Solving Technique / 351
Step 3.
Write the appropriate form of the governing equations of flow (see the summary of
equations in Sec. 6.1).

1. Apply the results of Step 1 to reduce the equations to their simplest form,
2. Examine all conditions given at a point or boundary.
(a) Identify all kinematic conditions.
(b) Identify all stress conditions.
(c) Identify all "inner" conditions.
(d) Identify all initial conditions.

Step 4.
Solve the problem.

1. Think about the problem in terms of its physical significance. Each term of the
reduced governing equation and its boundary conditions have a physical inter-
pretation. The dimensions of each term must be identical and correct.
2. Check to see if there are sufficient equations to solve for the unknowns. If not,
then additional equations will have to be sought, e.g., the equation of state and
stress-strain relationships.
3. Select a method for solving the reduced governing equations. The following two
sections offer a few aids in selecting an appropriate method.

6.4 Examples of Problem-Solving Technique

We are now at a position to apply our problem-solving technique to a flow problem.
We have all the necessary tools to commence building a solution: the governing
equations of fluid flow; the various methods of analysis, description, and approach to
treat a problem; ways to fit the equations to the given problem and simplify their
expressions; the mathematical symbols and operators necessary to describe the behavior
of the flow and the methods to solve them; and the step-by-step procedure to bring
all this together. Two problems will be analyzed in detail. The first will involve the
(D.F.) approach, and the second will involve the (LF.) approach.

Example 6.1. The (D.F.) Approach

Consider a steady two-dimensional incompressible viscous flow with no body
forces, where the pressure gradient ap/ax is zero and the y-component of velocity
v is equal in magnitude to the kinematic viscosity v and is a constant. At the
location y equals zero, the shear stress pry is unity. (a) Find an expression for
the shear stress pry and vorticity component 'Z about the z-axis that is valid
everywhere in the flow field. (b) Find the distribution of velocity given u equals
zero at y equals zero.
352 / Chapter 6 Recapitulation

Example 6.1 (Can't.)

Solution:
Step 1.
Identify the characteristics of the fluid and flow field:

• The flow is steady:

at o
• The flow is two-dimensional:

az o
• The flow is incompressible:
p const.
• The flow is real:
v¥-O
• There are no body forces:
g 0
• The pressure gradient is zero:

ap
ax o
• The velocity component v is given:
v = v = dynamic viscosity
• A boundary condition is given:

pxy !y=o
• Find Pxy (x, y, z, t) and L (x, y, z, t)

Step 2.
Select the method of approach:

• (D.F.)
• No external forces, no energy transfers
• Fixed reference frame (Cartesian)
 6.4 Examples of Problem-Solving Technique / 353
Example 6.1 (Con't.)

~--........ u(x, y, z, t)

pxy = 1.0, u = 0

Figure E6.1

Step 3.
Write the appropriate form of the governing equations of flow:

• Continuity equation:

J 0
au + ?1. = 0 (i)
ax /y
I
• Navier-Stokes equations:

au au
u- + v -
ax ay
-~j:
p x
2u
v (a-2+a-
ax
2u)

ayZ
(ii)

o 0 0 0

uj vj + = ---
pay
1 ap
+ V
(%%J
2 + 2 (iii)

since we were given ap/ax = 0 and v = v.

Equation (i) becomes
au
= 0 (iv)
ax
which means that since the velocity component u is not a function of x, Z, and
t, it is at most a function only of y.
In a similar fashion, from Eq. (iii),

ap = 0 (v)
ay
Thus, the pressure everywhere in the flow field is constant.
354 / Chapter 6 Recapitulation

Example 6.1 (Con't.)

The Navier-Stokes equation, Eq. (ii), reveals that

(vi)

Step 4.
Solve the problem.
We can solve this problem analytically. Integrating Eq. (vi) once yields

(vii)

where c\ is an arbitrary constant of integration. To evaluate it, we use the

boundary condition that

pxy du
= f.l dy
Iy=O = (viii)

From Eqs. (vii) and (viii), we obtain

I
(ix)
f.l

(a) The shear stress distribution is from Eqs. (vii) and (ix),

(x)

The vorticity component ~z is now easily obtained as

du
~z = (xi)
dy

or

~z = (xii)

The quantities Pxy and f.l~z are shown plotted in Fig. 6.3 for values of negative
y.
(b) If we impose the condition that the velocity u is zero at y equals zero,
we obtain
 6.4 Examples of Problem-Solving Technique / 355
Example 6.1 (Con't.]

Velocity profile
1.0
",."" -- -------
0.8
/
/ ""
pxy /
I
0.6
I
-1L'z
I
0.4
I Shear stress profile
-ILU I { Vorticity profile
0.2
I
I
OL.-_--''--_----L_ _-..L._ _-J..-_ _....L-_---J
o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
y
Figure 6.3 Example of the (D.F.) problem.

1
u = - (e Y - 1) (xiii)
fl.
as the velocity profile. The distribution is shown plotted in Fig. 6.3 above.
This completes the solution.

Example 6.2. The (LF.) Approach

Water enters a 60° horizontal reducing elbow with a velocity of 15 ftls at a
pressure of 12 psi. Calculate the x- and y-components of the reaction force acting
on the elbow. The entering diameter is 12 in., and the exit diameter is 8 in.
Neglect viscous effects.

Solution:
Step 1.
Identify the characteristics of the fluid and flow field:
• The flow is steady:

o
356 I Chapter 6 Recapitulation

Example 6.2 (Con'r.)

• The flow is one-dimensional:

• The flow is incompressible:

p const.
• The flow is ideal:
v =0
• There are no body forces:
W 0

• Given data:
Vj 15 ft/s

Pi 12 psi

Di 12 in.

De 8 in.

e 60°

Step 2:
Select the method of approach:
• (I.F.)
• External forces are pressure forces; no energy transfers
• Fixed reference frame (Cartesian)

p = 12 psi
~
~

V= 15 fPs--iii .;
~

t
~
~

t
12 in.

8 in:

Figure E6.2
 6.4 Examples of Problem-Solving Technique I 357
Example 6.2 (Con't.)

Step 3.
Write the appropriate form of the governing equations of flow:
• Continuity equation:
Q
-
= (VA); = (VA)e
-
(i)
• Linear momentum:
(ii)

(iii)
• Energy:

(p (p 2
V2
-+-+z ) = -+-+z
V ) (iv)
'Y 2g i 'Y 2g e

Step 4.
Solve the problem:
From continuity equation (i),
11" - 11"
15 X - X 122 = V X - X 82
4 2 4

or

-
V2 = -9 X 15 = 33.75 fps (v)
4
From Bernoulli equation (iv),

PI
- + Vl - +V?
- = P2 -
'Y 2g 'Y 2g

P2
- =PI- +Vl- - V?
-
'Y 'Y 2g 2g
or

P2 12 X 144 + _1_(152 _ 33.75 2)

'Y 62.4 64.4
P2 = 5.85 psi (vi)
From the momentum equation (ii),
z.Fx = - R, + PIAl - P2A2 cos 60°

= pQ(V2 cos
- -
e - VI)
pQV 2 = 1.94 X 11.8 X 33.75 = 773
358 / Chapter 6 Recapitulation

Example 6.2 (Con't.)

pQV, = 1.94 x 11.8 x 15 = 343

P2A2 = 5.85(~)82 = 294

p,A, = 12 (~) 122 = 1357

Therefore
R, = -773(.5) + 343 - 294(.5) + 1357
or
R, = 11671bf (vii)
From the momentum Eq. (iii),

I.Fy = - R; + P2A2 sin 60° = pQ(V2 sin 60° - 0)

therefore,
R; = 294(.866) + 773(.866) = 254.5 + 670
or
s, = 924.5 Ibf (viii)
This completes the solution.