Rocks in the Ground: Their Properties and

Relationships to Seismic Interpretation

By Deborah Sacrey

In the early days of reflective seismology, the geophysicist was responsible for the interpretation
of seismic data, and the creation of maps, which simulated the structural picture of the near-
surface environment. As the years progressed, geologists were involved to help the geophysicist
tie well data to reflectors seen in the seismic cross-sections. It was the process of understanding
that certain rock characteristics caused explainable seismic responses, which led to the idea of
synthetic seismograms.

Now, a third component in understanding the relationships between the physical properties of the
subsurface and seismic data is getting involved: the Engineer. The dynamics of keeping a
producing field alive have switched from the Development Geologist to the Reservoir Engineer,
and so has the need for the engineering community to move toward a greater understanding of
seismic responses to variable rock properties. The change in this relationship to what was once
the domain of the geophysicist or geologist has largely been the result of the development of the
3-dimensional seismic volume.

To begin to understand the relationships between the rocks beneath the surface and the seismic
data one sees on a workstation, it is necessary to understand exactly what seismic data is.

Simplistically, seismic data is merely the recording of “sound” or acoustic waves going through
the earth. The shot point is the source of the sound, with the seismic wave spreading out from
that source, like ripples on a pond when a rock is dropped in it. The reflections that one views on
a workstation are “echoes” from different rock contacts. When one hears the terms “acoustic”,
“amplitude” and “frequency” in conjunction with a conversation on seismic data it is because
the processing of seismic is similar to processing of music. It is digitally recorded, modified
with various filters and amplified much the same as music is handled in a recording studio. The
interpreter then “interprets” the data, as one would “listen” to any recorded music.
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Probably the single most important relationship to understand between rocks and seismic would
be velocity. It is the variations in velocity and density in the subsurface that allow the imaging
of reservoirs, and to a lesser extent over-pressure prediction.
VELOCITY
Several velocity measurements are critical to the interpretation of seismic data and the
incorporation of well information:

1) Average velocity is the distance traveled by a seismic wave divided by the time it took
that wave to travel from point source to destination. Figure 1 is a simple diagram
showing average velocity of a wave traveling through the earth to a point, which
corresponds to the total depth of a well, then back to the surface to be recorded. For
simplicity we will show the source and receiver separated by some horizontal distance.
However, seismic data processing typically simulates coincident source and receiver so
the effect of horizontal separation is removed.

Accurate measurements of rock velocities, which are tied to travel times from the surface
to specific points within a well bore, are generated through the use of check-shot surveys
or vertical seismic profiles. Average velocity is important because it is the velocity
needed to convert from a reflection time observed on the seismic data to a depth
measured in a well. Take, for example, a measurement of travel time for a producing
zone on a seismic section at a time, To (two-way time in seconds). Then the following
formula can be used to compute the depth to the reflection horizon: Depth = VAVERAGE x
(To /2).
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It is the average velocity, which is critical information for converting a time horizon,
created from mapping a reflector in a seismic profile or 3D volume, to a depth map to be
used by geologists and engineers in determining the viability of drilling new wells.
Because the subsurface changes from well to well across an area, so does the average
velocity to a particular horizon change. The average velocities are calculated at each
well, then an average velocity gradient map is created by gridding and interpolating
between wells, in much the same manor as a geologist draws a structure map using the
formation tops in wells as control points. After the average velocity gradient map is
created, it is used to convert a time horizon to a depth map by multiplication: Depth =
(feet/second) x seconds, where the feet/second represents the average velocity map and
the seconds represents the time map. In many cases in the Gulf Coast, time maps are not
accurate because of velocity variations in the subsurface. In this way, many different
reflectors could be mapped and converted to depth to represent specific formations
present in a particular area.

2) Interval Velocity is the average velocity over a specific interval. It is often convenient
and more accurate to break the subsurface into smaller zones or intervals that are more
similar in character. In this way, some of the variability of the subsurface can be taken
into account rather than describing it as a single interval with a single average velocity.
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Thus if the top of a layer of rock is at a depth D1, and the bottom at a depth, D2, and the
corresponding one-way travel times are (for vertical travel) T1 and T2, then the interval
velocity for vertical travel (the average velocity of this interval) is defined to be:
VINTERVAL = (D2 - D1) / (T2 - T1) or ∆D / ∆T or Thickness / One-way Time. Interval
velocity is just an average velocity over a shorter distance. When information from a
well can be used to break up the subsurface into small intervals or layers where the
velocity is know, the travel times through these intervals can be added together to
estimate the average velocity to great depths. Figure 2 illustrates an example of interval
velocity.

As mentioned earlier, one sure way of identifying the depth/time relationship for a geologic
horizon is to have a Check-Shot Survey run in a key well. A check-shot survey uses a seismic
source at the surface and a receiver (geophone) is lowered down a borehole to the depth of a
selected geological marker. The travel time to the reflector is measured and then divided into the
depth to obtain the average velocity to the reflector. Check-shot surveys often measure a series
of travel times down the borehole so that a complete table of travel time and depth from which a
graph can be constructed. These travel time tables, or graphs, can then be used by interpreters to
identify key reflectors in the well and map on a more accurate basis away from the well
(providing the velocities do not vary greatly).
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SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAMS
When density and/or sonic logs are available for wells, it is possible to build a layered model of
the subsurface. Once this layered model is constructed, a model of the seismic response from the
layered model can be constructed. This seismic-response model is called a synthetic seismogram
because the results are not due to a real seismic experiment.

Reflections of sound waves are caused by changes in density and velocity inside the Earth. For
waves reflected from an interface between two types of rock the reflection coefficient can be
written in the following form:

ρ2V2 - ρ1V1
Reflection Coefficient =
ρ2V2 + ρ1V1

Where the product, ρV – the density times the velocity of a formation – is called the acoustic
impedance of a formation. Reflections are caused by changes in acoustic impedance; this means
that changes in density or changes in velocity can cause reflections.

In order to build a synthetic seismogram, density and velocity (sonic) logs are used to build a
picture of the acoustic impedance within a well. Next, the reflection coefficients at the
boundaries are computed at each depth. The travel time to each reflector is found by integrating
the transit times in the sonic log. If a check-shot survey is available, any errors in the integration
are corrected with the check-shot times. The result is a series of reflection coefficients plotted as
a function of time. This plot is called the reflectivity, which is an estimate of the reflection
coefficients from those well logs that will be used to model the seismic response.

Once the reflectivity has been estimated from the well logs, some form of wavelet has to be
assumed. This wavelet can be extracted from either from the seismic data, or a theoretical
wavelet that approximates that wavelet. The final synthetic seismogram is constructed by
placing a wavelet at the time of each reflecting horizons. The size of the wavelet depends on the
size of the reflection coefficient. The polarity (positive or negative) of the reflection depends on
the sign of the reflection coefficient. Figure 3 is a simplified example of how one can create a
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reflection coefficient log and the responses that various lithology types have on sonic and density
curves have on that log.

It is easy to visualize the synthetic seismogram where the geology is simple. The problem arises
when the fine layers contribute to a complicated seismic picture. Matching a synthetic
seismogram with the actual data can involve considerable trial and error (changing both the
assumed earth model and the assumed wavelet).
It is through the use of synthetics, sonic logs and density logs that extensive modeling can be
done and tied to various reservoir properties. In Figure 3, it is obvious that the gas filled sand
indicates a lower velocity than the wet sand, and it has a lower density value than that of the wet
sand. The result of this, a negative acoustic impedance, also creates a negative reflection
coefficient. A negative reflection coefficient results in a trough event in the seismic data, while a
positive RC results in a peak event. Understanding this simple use of velocity and density helps
the interpreter determine which events are more important for mapping. Figure 4 is a simple
diagram showing that the more the velocity contrast encountered while the wave is moving
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through the subsurface, the greater strength of the event (peak or trough). This is referred to as
“amplitude”.

Carried one step further, the relationship of reflection coefficient and acoustic impedance, to
fluids in rocks has, led to the use of “bright spot” technology in the search for hydrocarbons.
High amplitude events (usually negative acoustic impedance – or troughs) were sometimes
associated with gas accumulations, just as the example in Figure 3 shows. While there are other
types of lithology changes, which can exhibit a high amplitude event, most interpreters in the
Gulf Coast are still pursuing bright spots as an opportunity for gas accumulations.

Much has been learned in the past few decades regarding the relationships of various rock
properties and their effects on seismic data. In contemporary practices, prestack AVO gathers
and high frequency processing are being used with advanced petrophysical analysis of well logs
to estimate rock compressibility, various fluid levels – down to the “pore” level! The future of
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reservoir characterization and maintenance will be a multi-disciplined effort of geophysicist,

geologist and engineer!