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Register, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011
Register, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011
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Ari Setiawan
Setia Rini
Faizal Risdianto
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Table of Content
Index ......................................................................................................241
Abstract
This study aims to identify, analyze and describe the structure of the use of
some errors in the writing of English sentences in the text and the aspects
surrounding the Student Semester 3 of English Department STAIN
Surakarta. In this study, the researcher describes the error use of 'be' both
as a linking verb or auxiliary verb. This is a qualitative-descriptive
research. Source data used is a document that is the writing assignment
undertaken by the Students taking Writing course. Writing tasks are in
narrative, descriptive, expositive, and argumentative forms. To analyze the
data, researcher uses intra lingual and extra lingual method. This method is
used to connect the linguistic elements in sentences, especially some of the
elements either as a linking verb or auxiliary verb in English sentences in
the text. Based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be
concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students; error
about the absence (omission) of 'be', error about the addition of 'be', the
error on the application of 'be', errors in placements 'be', and a complex
error in the use of 'be'. These errors occur due to inter lingual transfer, intra
lingual transfer and learning context.
Abstrak
Sumber data yang digunakan adalah dokumen berupa tugas menulis yang
dilakukan oleh Siswa yang mengambil mata kuliah Writing. tugas tersebut
berbentuk narasi, deskriptif, ekspositif, dan argumentatif. Untuk
menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan metode intra lingual dan ekstra
lingual. Metode ini digunakan untuk menghubungkan unsur-unsur
linguistik dalam kalimat, terutama beberapa elemen baik sebagai kata kerja
penghubung atau kata kerja bantu dalam kalimat-kalimat bahasa inggris
pada teks. Berdasarkan analisis kesalahan mengenai penggunaan ‗be‘ dapat
disimpulkan bahwa ada 5 ( lima ) jenis kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh
mahasiswa; kesalahan tentang tidak adanya (penghilangan) ‗be‘, kesalahan
tentang penambahan ‗be‘, kesalahan pada penerapan ‗be‘, kesalahan dalam
penempatan ‗be‘, dan kesalahan yang kompleks dalam penggunaan ‗be‘.
Kesalahan ini terjadi karena adanya transfer interlingual, transfer intra
lingual dan konteks pembelajaran.
Introduction
As a means of communication, language consists of form and
meaning. Forms of language can be divided into elements such as words,
phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and even at a higher level called
discourse or text. In general, language users often use a form of language
to convey information. Therefore, for the meaning of the information
submitted is not false and easily understood, language users need to
understand the aspects of linguistics, particularly grammatical aspect in
formulating phrases, clauses or sentences, and non-linguistic aspects,
especially socio-cultural aspects that surround the language.
Just as in preparing the English sentence, the writer should
understand the broad sense of sentence, which includes a sentence pattern
or elements, sentence structure and functions of sentences. Understanding
these differences thus need to be considered by the writer because
grammatical structures of one language to another language tend to differ.
Callow (in Baker, 1995: 180) states that ―Each language has its
own patterns to convey the interrelationships of persons and events….‖ To
illustrate the differences in grammatical structure, the following is a
comparative examples of English sentences and Indonesian:
Ind : Mahasiswa-mahasiswa STAIN Surakarta rajin dan cerdas.
Eng : The students of STAIN Surakarta are diligent and smart.
Error Analysis
Error analysis is a procedure used by researchers and educators that
includes sampling, identifying errors in the sample, evaluating the
seriousness of the error. Teachers should understand better about the
mistakes made by students. Ellis said in her book The Study of Second
Language Acquisition that Error Analysis is a procedure used by
researchers and teachers which involves collecting samples of learner,
identifying the errors in the sample, describing these errors, classifying
them according to hypothesized causes, and evaluating their seriousness
(1994: 50 – 57).
The sentence, which is free from error must have two criteria
namely acceptability and appropriateness. Acceptance means the sentence
is spoken or written by students must be understood by native speakers as
the owner of that language. Acceptance here is not referring to the rules of
grammar but in the context of suitability. While appropriateness refers to
the ability of constructing sentence that fits the context. Lyons in James
(1998: 67) says that an acceptable utterance is one that has been, or might
be, produced by a native speaker in some appropriate context and is, or
would be, accepted by other native speakers as belonging to the language
in question. To decide on the acceptability of a piece of language we refer
not to rules, but the contexts, trying to contextualize the utterance in
question.
James (1998:83) says that an error can not be corrected by himself until
there is an explanation (input) have been given clearly. In other words, the
error requires further learning before the learner can correct his own
mistakes. ―errors cannot be self-corrected until further relevant (to that
error) input (implicit or explicit) has been provided and converted into
intake by the learner. In other words, errors require further relevant
learning to take place before they can be self-corrected.”
Mistake is also an error but rather caused by fatigue, excitement,
forgetting, fatigue, attention distruction, and so forth. Mistake can be
corrected by the learner. According to Corder in Freeman (1992: 59) ‗a
mistake is a random performance slip, therefore, caused by a fatigue, an
excitement, etc and it can be self-corrected. A mistake is caused by
performance factors, such as limitation, or forgetfulness, tiredness or some
situation of stress or when our attention is divided.’
Writing skills
Writing is one of the four language skills. As a means of
communication, writing is a process to convey information, or ideas on the
reader. However, conveying information or ideas is not an easy activity.
The writer must be able to convey with easily understood language for the
information or ideas that are intended to the reader. Therefore, for his work
can be understood easily by readers, writer must master linguistic aspects,
particularly the aspect of grammatical and non-linguistic aspects.
From the aspect of linguistics, the author should understand all
aspects surrounding the information or ideas that he realizes in the form of
text, such as grammatical aspect and the use of punctuation. Grammatical
errors and the use of punctuation can cause the writing difficult to
understand or even not at all meaningful.
Harmer (2004: 111) states that the linguistic aspects of the work of
writing errors can include spelling error, mistake in word order, grammar
mistake, wrong verb tense, concord mistake, unclear meaning, punctuation
mistake, something unnecessary, and too formal or informal. Of the non-
linguistic aspects, the author should consider the readers. The reader can be
seen from the elements such as age, educational level, profession, gender,
and even family backgrounds. Regardless of such elements, the result of
writing that he made would be less beneficial or even not at all be useful to
readers.
Types of Sentences
According to the form or structure, the sentence can be divided into
single sentences (simple sentence) and compound sentence (complex
sentence). Frank (1972: 223) argues that the sentence is divided into four
types, as in his statement:
Simple sentences are such sentences have only one full predication
in the form of and independent clause, 2) compound sentences are
such sentences have two or more full predications in the form of
independent clauses, 3) complex sentences are such sentences also
have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent
clause (or, main clause) that is similar to the form of the simple
sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clauses (or,
subordinate clauses), 4) compound-complex sentences are contain
two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
While Frank divides sentence into four different types, the second
sentence (compound sentence), third (complex sentence), and fourth
(compound-complex sentence) can be classified into one sentence, that
sentence compound (complex sentence).
Waldhorn and Zeigar (in Mas'ud, 1998: 18) distinguish sentences
into simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and
Research methodology
Related to the goal achieved, namely to identify and analyze, and
describe the precise use of ‗be‘ in the English sentences, this type of
research is qualitative-descriptive. In this study, researcher will describe
the accuracy and error use of ‗be‘ as linking verb and as an auxiliary verb.
Dewa.
3 057 First we made nastar because nastar more easier than cake
4 061 I‘m the first person who ready to explain my material
5 073 Because it so far and the route not flat
6 080 I still fasting
When I sick, I had experience which I like
I absent in my class
7 043 It usefull for the student when they want to continue their
study at university.
8 076 I spoke to the police while crying because I still very
afraid.
9 081 You can go there by following students who crossing here
10 094 I really tired, because I had to walk along the way of my
boarding house
11 008 Now I still happy in here.
12 091 So I confused when I would parking my motorcycle.
13 092 I proud with my mother.
14 107 I far away from my parents.
I proud with them.
15 109 My parents hungry with me
I driver motorcycle and must ready to face examination.
16 111 I very happy.
I very hungry.
17 113 She very beautiful.
She very hungry.
error.
Datum 063: The event started after Dzuhur, beginning with a built
camp in every place the which was provide by the presenter
From the above data analysis, there are three main factors causing
the errors in the use of 'be' by the students in the sentence which they set.
The three main factors are inter lingual transfer, intra lingual transfer, and
context of learning.
Errors caused by inter lingual transfer factor can be seen from the
interference of mother tongue into a foreign language learned. To know
this error, researcher has to translate the grammar studied in the target
language and compare them so that the intended meaning can be known by
students.
Negative transfer between the elements in the foreign language can
lead to intra lingual error. In other words, the students have not mastered
English grammar well. There are four types of errors; overgeneralization,
ignoring rules of grammar, incomplete grammar application, and false
concepts.
Context of learning factor refers to the fact that the learners commit
errors in their context of learning as the result of misdealing clarification
from the teacher, faulty presentation of structure or word in a text book or
even because of pattern that was memorized in drill, not in contextualized.
Conclusion
In general, the text made by students in the form of the English
language is already good. Although this study is only limited on the
analysis of errors in writing, the complete thought as outlined in the text is
clearly understood. The result of error in general is not so conspicuous
both in quantity and quality. Meanwhile, based on error analysis on the use
of 'be' it can be concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by
students that is, error about the absence (disappearance) of 'be', a error
about the addition of 'be', the error on the application of 'be', errors the
placement of 'be', and a complex error in the use of 'be'.
Such errors occur due to several factors; inter lingual transfer
factor, intra lingual transfer factor and factor of learning context. Errors
due to inter lingual transfer factor is still affected by the intervention of
mother tongue in the structure of English. While intra lingual transfer
factor caused by negative transfer in the elements of English. This transfer
includes the four things. They are overgeneralization, ignoring rules of
grammar, the application of improper grammar, and false concepts.
References
Baker, Mona. 1995. In Other Words: a Course on Book Translation.
London: Routledge.
Frank, Marcella. 1972. Modern English: a Practical Reference Guide.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Abstract
Abstrak
Instruksi pengajar adalah item yang menarik untuk dibahas karena hal
tersebut dapat diuraikan ke dalam bentuk perintah, pemesanan, permintaan,
dan saran. Selain itu, intstruksi pengajar memiliki beberapa struktur .
Struktur instruksi pengajar dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga jenis:
imperatif , interogatif , dan deklaratif . Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti
membahas tentang berbagai bentuk instruksi yang dipahami dalam kelas.
Subyek penelitian adalah 10 dosen bahasa Inggris dari Universitas
Introduction
Teacher is the center of attraction in the classroom, since he plays
an important role in the classroom. Based on Brown (2001: 166-168) there
are several kinds of the roles of teacher, namely teacher as controller,
teacher as director, teacher as manager, teacher as facilitator, and teacher
as resource. Furthermore, no matter what is the teacher role in the
classroom, teacher always acts as the central focus of the students‘
attention. Giving model to the students, it is teacher‘s duty to provide
knowledge, good behavior and attitude. It is in line with the opinion of
Holmes (1993: 97) that
―The teacher-pupil relationship is asymmetrical one; the teacher is
the older and more knowledgeable than the pupils. The teacher is
expected to be in control, to preserve an appropriate social distance
from pupils, and to instruct and inform the children: to teach them
the body of facts and skills the society values.‖
speaking? Third, the topic concerns with what is being talked about.
Finally yet importantly, the function of communication suggests why they
are speaking (Holmes, 2001: 10).
There was a research discussing about the structure of teacher‘s
directives. It was Janet Holmes‘s research with the title The Structure of
Teachers‘ Directives (1993). The data were collected from the elementary
school classroom in New Zealand and Britain. She focused her study on
directives, which is restricted in the analysis of utterances intended to elicit
a non-verbal response, to get the students to do but not say something. The
aim was to describe the various forms by which directives are realized in
the classroom. The finding was the directives were divided into three
categories: imperative, interrogative, and declarative.
In this study, I would like to discuss about the various forms by
which directives are realized in the classroom. Teacher produces directives
such as command, order, request, and advice. The purpose of the act is to
get the students to do certain activities.
Research methodology
Subject, instruments, and procedures of data collection
The subjects of the study were 10 English lecturers of
Muhammadiyah University Semarang. I conducted this study in the year of
2010. There were five female and five male lecturers who have various
ages and social background. I did not involve as the subject of study during
the collection of data.
The instrument of the study is DCT questionnaires. It consisted of
10 certain situations, it followed by blank spaces on which the subjects
asked to give responses for teacher‘s directives. The English lecturers have
to imagine that the speakers in the real life interactions, for example:
Situation 1
What would you say to get your students enter the class?
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Based on the situations described, the subjects were asked to
produce directives in the blank spaces provided. The situations were
provided by several directives acts such as command, order, request, and
advice. As a result, there were 147 utterances. ( I enclosed it in the
appendix).
For the procedures, during the data collection, I gave the subject of
study the DCT questionnaires. They had to answer the questionnaires in
English, since they teach English. It took more than one week to get the
data. They answered the questionnaires on the paper sheets.
Data Analysis
I analyzed the data using the opinion of Holmes (1993: 98-107).
She claims that the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into
three kinds: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. It can be elaborated
more details on table 1.
Table 1
Structure of teacher‘s directives
IMPERATIVES Base form of verb Speak up.
Put your hands down.
You + imperative You just see the picture.
You go no with your work.
Present participle form of Looking at me.
verb Sitting up straight please.
Verb-ellipsis Hands up.
Everybody on the mat.
Imperative + modifier Children looking this way
please.
Turn around please Jo.
Let + first person pronoun Let‘s finish there.
Let‘s try.
INTERROGATIVES Modals Would you open the window?
David will you read this page
for me?
Non-modal Interrogative People at the back are you
directives listening?
Who can I see sitting quietly?
Discussion
Data Findings
I found that there 147 utterances. The subject of the study preferred
to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). Second, they chose
imperative with 50 utterances (34%). Next, they constructed interrogative
with 23 utterances (16%). It can be clarified on table 2. The lecturer as the
person who has the superior position produced more casual choice of
words to the students. Even though, I found several utterances that
constructed with formal choice of words. The classroom setting was
provided in the various situations in the questionnaires. The situations
made it possible for the subject of the study to produced directives that
consist of command, order, request, and advice. The topics of situations
talked about the various activities dealing with the teaching and learning
process.
Table 2
The Data of Structure of Teacher‘s Directives
IMPERATIVES Base form of verb 9 50 34%
You + imperative 9
Present participle form 2
of verb
Verb-ellipsis 1
Imperative + modifier 25
Let + first person 4
pronoun
INTERROGATIVES Modals 16 23 16%
Non-modal 7
Interrogative directives
DECLARATIVES Embedded agent 67 74 50%
Hints 7
Situation 6: want the students to answer the question and write the
answer on the board
(11) Ahmad, now you answer the question and write it on the
board.
(12) Fika, please write your answer in the board.
Situation 10: want to ask the student to submit the answer sheet and
force him to leave your class
Analysis
The following are the details information about the structure of
teacher‘s directives that is taken from the data:
Imperatives
The subject of the study liked to use this form, eventhough it took
for about 34% of the data. They constructed this form, since it is relatively
explicit. They would like to make the directives clearly and direct to the
point of what were they going to say with the students. There were several
variants of imperatives according to Holmes. I found they constructed the
various variants in completing the questionnaires. The variants are:
eliminated the verb and directed to the noun. There is an example of this
form:
- Let's up stair for the class.
Interrogatives
It was surprised that the form of interrogatives to convey directives
occurred 16 % from the whole data. It happened this way because the
subject of the study liked to mention the directives in an explicit way. The
form of interrogatives is less powerful to get the students to the action.
There were two types of interrogatives constructed by the subject of the
study:
a. Modals, e.g. Would you open the window?
There were a large number of the interrogatives data that is used the
form of modals. The subject of the study used ―please‖ to make the
directives softer. It tended to get the students‘ willingness to do the
teacher‘s expectation. It can be described by the following examples:
Would you please enter the class?
James, would you please get the eraser on the administration
office?
Brown, would you please answer and write your answer on the
board?
Mas, could you help me to get the eraser in the office, please?
Can somebody help to find an eraser, please?
Declaratives
Declaratives forms were the most frequently occurred in the data of
directives. It was occurred 50% from the whole data. There were two types
of declaratives: embedded agent and hints. The previous type was
expressed explicitly, and on the other hand, the last type was implicitly.
a. Embedded agent
e.g. I want you to draw a picture.
Most of the data of declaratives constructed this form. The subject
of the study preferred to produce this kind of form, since they would like
straight to the point. They liked to be explicit, so that the students would
not have different interpretation. The following examples are taken from a
large number of the data:
So, would you listen to someone's speaking first, then later we'll let
you speak.
Any cheating may get consequences.
You may leave the class now!
Sorry, I can't let you join my class.
I will give you E if you do it.
I would like to start the lesson.
I'd like to explain the lesson and you can talk your problem after I
finish my explanation.
Ricky, would you submit the answer sheet! I don't want any of my
students cheating and you can leave the class now.
I'm sorry. As our agreement, you may join the class next week
b. Hints
The subject of study was rarely used this type, since the form was
expressed implicitly. The disadvantage of this type was the students might
be confused with the teacher‘s expressions. It happened because teacher‘s
expression conveyed an implication meaning. It can be shown by the
following examples:
Excuse me, would you share your discussion with us? (Implied
'stop talking')
Thank you, Dewi. Submit your answer sheet, please! (Implied 'stop
cheating')
Bambang, close your book and plaese submit your paper and leave
the class (Implied 'stop cheating')
Any problem mas? (Implied 'stop talking')
Conclusion
In conclusion, the result shows that most of the subjects of study
prefer to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). Second, they
choose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). Next, they construct
interrogative with 23 utterances (16%). Declaratives provide powerful
directives than the other types. Declaratives gain an explicit expression.
Teachers like to use declaratives, since declaratives are understandable. It
will minimize the misinterpretation from the students.
References
Brown, Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles (Second Edition). New
York: Longman, Inc.
Eggins, Suzzane. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional
Linguistics. London: Pinter Publisher.
Norwanto
English Department of Educational Faculty
State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga
Jl. Tentara Pelajar No.2 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
norwanto@yahoo.com
Abstract
Abstrak
Introduction
There are many definitions of critical thinking. Moore and Parker
(2009: 3) define critical thinking as ―the careful application of reason in the
determination of whether a claim is true‖. Robert Ennis (in Hunter, 2009)
states that critical thinking is ―reasonable, reflective thinking that is aimed
at deciding what to believe or what to do‖. The two definitions emphasize
critical thinking on reason. Meanwhile, Gieve (1998 in Rear, 2010) gives
some requirements for students to think critically. They must be able to
―examine the reasons for their actions, their beliefs, and their knowledge
claims, requiring them to defend themselves and question themselves, their
peers, their teachers, experts, and authoritative texts‖.
In critical thinking, there is universal intellectual standard which
must be applied to thinking as the assessment of thinking. The standard
comprises clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and
fairness (Paul and Elder, 2010). Each part of the standard has some
questions that may help self assessment for thinking. In classes, teacher
may pose these questions in order to help students critically. Paul and
Elder (2010) proposes the questions in the table:
Standard Questions
Clarity Could you elaborate further on that point? Could you
express that point in another way? Could you give me
an illustration? Could you give me an example?
Accuracy Is that really true? How could we check that? How
could we find out if that is true?
Discussion
To bring critical thinking to classes, working definition is important
in order critical thinking to be applied to pedagogical materials in a
practical way (Rear, 2010). Fortunately, Bloom‘s Taxonomy and critical
thinking strategy can be the bridge between critical thinking and classes.
Bloom’s taxonomy
Banjamin Bloom (1956) identifies three domain of educational
activities: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (in Clark, 2004). Each
domain has some major categories. Clark (2004) summarizes the three
domain and its categories.
Cognitive domain has six categories. The first is knowledge or the
lowest ability to recall data or information. The second is Comprehension
which means the learners ability to understand the meaning, translation,
interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. The third is
application, the ability to use a concept in a new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction; Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel
situations in the work place. The next higher level, the fourth, is analysis.
In this category, students or learners are expected to be able to separates
material or concepts into component parts, so that its organizational
structure may be understood; distinguishes between facts and inferences.
The fifth is synthesis, how to builds a structure or pattern from diverse
elements; put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a
new meaning or structure. And the last is evaluation or to make judgments
about the value of ideas or materials.
The next domain is affective which has five categories. The first
requires students to have awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
This category is usually called as receiving phenomena. The second is
responding to phenomena. In this category, students must be active
participation on the part of the learners, attends and reacts to a particular
phenomenon and learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in
responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation). The third is valuing or the worth or value a person attaches to
a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple
II. Prerequisites.
At the beginning of this lesson, students are expected: (1) to have
intermediate level of English; (2) to have completed their field work
as English teachers in junior or senior high school; (3) to have passed
research methodology class and methodology of language teaching.
Phase 2
- Students work individually. This phase will explore individual
experience during their field work. If necessary, they may share their
experiences with their friends but they have to submit the result
individually. The outcome is an outline of a research background.
The students may refer to the previous discussion.
- In writing their outline, The students answer the questions as a
guidance:
- What is the biggest problem or the most urgent problem faced by
students to solve? Could you provide data or information? (the
problems and data should be based on your class during your
field work)
- What is/are the cause(s) of the problem?
- What is the possible solution for the problem? What is your
rationale?
Phase 3
- Students share their outline with their classmates to get feedback
Phase 4
- Teacher provides feedback to students
3. Assignment / Homework
- Write a background of classroom action research based on the outline!
IV. Assessment
CT assessments Description of CT Assessments
Formative
Teacher walks around the class to observe
Observation
and check students‘ understanding while
they are doing class assignments
The first few lines of lesson plan are class identities comprising
instructor‘s name, title of course, students‘ age/ level, title of lesson,
number of students, and length of lesson. It will inform three things:
teacher, students, and course.
The first part is goal of the lesson. Goal and objective refers to the
same thing, outcomes. However, goal refers to general outcome while
objective is more specific. Objective refers to performance students will
acquire in the end of the class.
The next part is prerequisites. These are assumptions teachers are
making about students‘ skills, knowledge, and experience for this lesson.
This is requirements students need to fulfill in order to be able to complete
the lesson.
The third part is instructional objectives. Heinich and his colleagues
(2002 in O'Bannon. 2002) suggest four parts of well written objectives or
usually called as the ABCD's of instructional objectives. The A stands for
Audience. It is ―the learner‖ or ―the student‖ or as specific as ―the third
grade science student‖. The B represents Behavior. It is the verb describing
the competency that the student will be able to perform after the
instruction. It must be measurable, observable, and specific. The C stands
for Condition or the circumstances under which the objectives must be
completed. The last is D or Degree of Accuracy. It is the standard that the
learner must meet to reach acceptable performance.
The fourth part is lesson description. This may include pre-, during,
and post-activities, steps, or techniques that the students are doing.
Assessment
There are two types of assessment: formative and summative
assessment. Garrison and Ehringhaus (2007) explain the differences. The
first assessment is part of instructional process. It informs both students
and teacher about students understanding at a point. Because it can be
incorporated into classroom practice, it can be used to adjust teaching and
learning while they are happening.
Meanwhile formative assessment are conducted during class
practice, summative are given periodically at a particular point in time,
such as after instruction every few weeks, moths, semester, or once a year.
It can be in form of state assessment, semester test, chapter test, etc. It can
be tools to evaluate the effectiveness of programs, schools improvement
goals, alignment of curriculum, or student‘s placement in specific program.
Furthermore, Garrison and Ehringhaus (2007) give some of the
instructional strategies that can be used formatively. The first is
observations. In this assessment, teacher goes beyond walking around the
room to check student‘s work. The teacher may give feedback when he/she
finds student who need clarification. The second is questioning strategies
that should be embedded in lesson/unit planning. It may allows an
opportunity for deeper thinking and inform teacher the degree and depth of
Conclusion
Critical thinking is a process of thinking involving reasoning as the
basic for action. The process follows self assessment as proposed by Paul
and Elder (2010): clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth,
logic, and fairness. These standards comprise questions that can be applied
in classes of instructional to train critical thinking to students.
Critical thinking can be applied in language classes and employ
Bloom‘s Taxonomy and Critical Thinking Strategy as working definition.
In designing lesson plan, there should be: course identity, goal and
objectives of lesson, prerequisites, lesson description, and assessment. In
writing objectives, ABCD model can become the guidance and it should
also includes Bloom‘s Taxonomy and critical thinking strategies. In
addition, lesson description discusses pre, during, and after classes.
References
Carr, Kathryn S. 1990. How Can We Teach Critical Thinking? Retrieved
27 October 2011 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/
critical.htm
Maslihatul Umami
English Department of Educational Faculty
State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga
Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 02 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
umamie@gmail.com
Abstract
Abstrak
Introduction
Children, surrounded by a sea of words, sequentially and
selectively acquires the nouns, verbs, and phrases of their language as well
as the gestures, intonations and dialect of those with whom he interacts.
The rate and breadth of this complex acquisition is proportional to the
scope of their verbal interactions with those charged with their care.
Language is so pervasive in human behavior that the process of
language acquisition is often taken for granted. A comprehensive treatment
of this process is obviously beyond the scope of this paper. There are too
many gaps in our current knowledge to make such an attempt feasible.
In consideration of such limitations, therefore, this paper will focus
upon social conditions that affect language acquisition. More specifically,
it will focus upon the gradual shift in the child‘s use of words, from
labeling specific and often single referents to the use of words for
signifying categories of objects, actions, or attributes. The hypothesis
advanced here is that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one
social context to another, and that it has differential consequences for
cognitive development dependent on the social context in which it occurs.
This hypothesis will be examined and discussed chiefly in terms of the
pertinent literature, with occasional reference to empirical studies.
The need to modify the cognitive growth patterns of young
children-particularly of those children who live in the slum areas of our
major cities-has added new impetus to the search for a clarification of the
those around him. By age two, a child has developed speaking vocabulary,
which may range from 3 to 300 words. In the next two years, the child
shifts from using words exclusively as labels with singles referents to the
use of words, which have multiple referents (rudimentary categories).
This process of acquiring and enlarging the use of labels can be
sketched in general terms. At an elementary stage of language acquisition,
before first birthday, the child perceives a word as being one of a multitude
of attributes of an object (shape, weight, color, and name). By the repeated
association of seeing and touching the object, and hearing the name of the
object, the child acquires a bond between word and referent. Usually, the
source of auditory stimulation is the mother. In addition, children engage
in communicative interaction with siblings, relatives, other children,
teachers and neighbors. The role of more impersonal sources of
communication, e.g., television and radio, has become increasingly
important in children‘s acquisition of words. For example, simple learning
is well understood by advertisers. The highly predictable association
between the picture of the Coca Cola bottle and its name from the TV
sound track is a fact of great utility in label acquisition of words.
Put on a more technical level, in describing language acquisition,
some researchers rely on the conditioning paradigm. However, such a
model presents certain difficulties in that it emphasizes a one-to-one
relationship between stimulus and response. In reality, the word to be
learned is usually embedded in a sentence (the verbal context) and its
referent (the object that is to be paired with the word) is surrounded by a
multitude of extraneous features in the environment. Learning labels
requires selective attention-the inhibition of irrelevant aspects of the
learning environment.
Receptive Labeling
Children from different social classes vary in their knowledge of
words. Some studies of social class differences have recorded systematic
variations in verbal indices of children grouped according to fathers and/or
education. Children from high-in-come, high-status families have been
found to speak in longer sentences, more articulately, and with a more
varied vocabulary than do their lower-class peers (Templin, 1997). Thus,
in order to understand better the implications of such findings, it is
necessary to examine qualitative as well as quantitative differences in
children‘s verbal behavior.
One example of qualitative differences in children‘s verbal
behavior emerged from an item analysis of the responses of young Negro
children to a receptive verbal task, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
(PPVT) (Seidman: 1991). Briefly described, the PPVT consists of a series
Action words
A
―teacher‖
―Key‖
―ball‖
―Coca Cola‖
Specific labels
that white thing with black spots, but it is also that big brown thing that
makes a loud noise, and that other thing with the long floppy ears
(generalization).
Lower-class first-graders
1. ―because doctor nurses these other people‖
2. ―because the man and big Bill (policeman) like each other‖
3. ―because they look the same‖
Middle-class first-grades
1. ―because they all men‖
2. ―all the same, all of them are men‖
3. ―They are both people.‖
Conclusion
Can educational implications for pre-school programs be drawn
from a theoretical statement on language acquisition? Though some of the
ideas presented in this paper may be utilized by the early childhood
educator, primarily, this treatment of verbal behavior is presented as a
model of label acquisition. Ideas developed with in the context of a
simplified and abstract treatment of language may have to undergo
substantial modification in order to be applied in the classroom. However,
some general points related to enrichment can be made, based upon the
above discussion.
Certainly, the crucial importance of actively stimulating language
growth in the classroom is recognized by teachers of the socially
disavantaged. But the felling of urgency they bring to the task of increasing
the verbal repertoire of children sometimes results in a stress on
quantitative growth only. This emphasis on vocabulary expansion is not
surprising in light of the maturational approach to language.
If the communicative and cognitive functions are significantly
related at the beginning of language acquisition, it becomes important to
discover ways for these aspects of language to be maintained interrelatedly
in enrichment programs. A mechanical approach to vocabulary building
will not produce the desired end of developing useful verbal skills. The
teacher should utilized student‘s deeply personal experiences as basic
content while imparting the mechanics of letters. Similary, the teacher in
the enrichment classroom can discover the interests and concerns of her
children by being sensitive to their products. In this case, In an enrichment
program combining instruction and research, the researcher and her
teacher-colleagues worked with the children. Each child was asked to re-
tell a standard story in front of a tape recorder. In studying the
modifications of the story made by each child, much was learned about
sequential language as well as about the themes of particular interest to
young children raised in low-income areas. These children also told a
―made up‖ story, and in these fantasy products, they often related events of
concern. Though some of the children spoke with poor articulation and
others could not think up their ―own‖ story, many children in this group
displayed forcefulness of style and communicative strength in their
descriptions.
As was the researcher purpose, this paper has stressed the
acquisition of highly developed linguistic patterns as being crucial to
young children. Because language is both a highly personal and an
objectively necessary tool, however, the educator must be wary lest
References
Bernstein (1998). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brodbeck & Erwin (1996). Sociolinguistics: an Introduction to Language
and Society. NY Penguin
Brown (1988). The learning Curve: Elevating Childrens Academic and
Competence, A Discovery of Speech Variations. Northvale
NJ:Jason Aronson
Eells (1991), Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period
Hypothesis, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbraum
Gesell & Templin (1991). Interpersonal Dynamics in Second Language
Education: the Visible and Invisible Classroom. Thousand Oaks:
Sage
Hebb & hunt (1992). A Time to Speak: a Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the
Critical Period for Human Speech. Florence KY: Wadswort
Publishing.
Jensen(1999), On Language.New York: New Press
Abstract
Abstrak
Judul tulisan ini adalah analisis implikatur percakapan pada Cerpen Oscar
Wilde "Happy Pangeran". Dalam tulisan ini, penulis membahas implikatur
percakapan di salah satu cerita pendek Oscar Wilde yang berjudul
"Selamat Pangeran". Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengidentifikasi ujaran implikatur yang disampaikan oleh karakter dalam
Oscar Wilde "Happy Pangeran" dan untuk menggambarkan makna tersirat
yang diucapkan oleh karakter dalam cerpen tersebut. Dalam penelitian ini,
penulis menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. Obyek penelitian ini
adalah sepuluh ujaran implikatur percakapan di Oscar Wilde "Happy
Pangeran". Implikatur percakapan tersebut diperoleh melalui aktivitas
membaca dan analisis secara intensif. Penelitian ini menggunakan peneliti
sebagai instrumen untuk menemukan data yang memadai dan mendalam
untuk keperluan analisis data. Prosedur dan langkah-langkah yang
digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah : (1) penyajian data, (2) klasifikasi
data, (3) dan analisis data. Dalam menganalisis data, penulis menggunakan
teori Gricean. Ini adalah teori tentang implikatur percakapan yang
dihasilkan oleh empat maksim. Mereka adalah maksim kuantitas, maksim
kualitas, maksim hubungan, dan maksim cara. Kemudian langkah terakhir
adalah (4) analisis data. Setelah melakukan penelitian, penulis menemukan
sepuluh implikatur percakapan dalam cerita pendek Oscar Wilde "Happy
Pangeran". Dalam cerita pendek tersebut, ada beberapa variasi makna dari
implikatur percakapan yang terkait erat dengan implikatur percakapan;
prinsip kooperatif, kesopanan dan ironis. Dalam cerita pendek Oscar Wilde
"Happy Pangeran", ada enam maksim dalam prinsip kesantunan, dua
maksim dalam prinsip kooperatif dan dua maksim dalam prinsip ironis.
Selain itu, alasan dari implikatur percakapan yang digunakan dalam cerita
pendek Oscar Wilde "Happy Pangeran" adalah untuk membuat kita
memahami dialog dalam percakapan cerita pendek dengan mudah, yang
ditujukan untuk meminimalkan kesalahpahaman antara pembaca dan
kritikus sastra.
Introduction
Language plays important and significant roles in human
communication. They use it by the aim creating common understanding
between the speaker and the hearer. To know what the speaker means, the
hearer should interpret what the speaker‘s utterance is. Dealing with this
interpretation, based on experience, it is a tricky affair. Sometimes there
are possible misunderstandings and sometimes it seems to be the rule
rather than the exception (Jacob L. Mey, 1983: 100). According to Leech,
interpreting an utterance is ultimately ―A matter of guesswork, or (to use a
more dignified term) hypothesis formation ―(1983:30).
Regarding on the above statement, people have to interpret the
speaker‘s saying. In pragmatics, it is called as conversational implicature.
Grice says that conversational implicature can be defined as ―A different
(opposite, additional, etc) pragmatic meaning of an utterance with respect
to the literal meaning expressed by utterance‖ (Jacob L. Mey, 1998: 371).
In a case of conversational implicature the hearer crucially makes
the assumption that the speaker is not violating one of the conversational
maxims, relevance, informativeness, or clarity. This, in fact, has a
contradiction in real daily conversation. It makes it possible for the use of
implicature to give more elaboration on the lingual phenomenon.
According to James R. Hurford, implicature is a concept of utterance
meaning as opposed to sentence meaning. Furthermore, implicature is
related to the method by which speakers work out the indirect illocutions
of utterance (1983: 278). This kind of case can be easily found
conversation taken from literary work of arts like novel or short stories.
Short story is one of the popular genres of fiction which sometimes
contains implicature in the conversation among the characters. In this
paper, the writer will try to elaborate more about conversational
expression of dispraise of self‖, (5) The maxim of agreement which has the
principle of ―Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and
other‖ and ―Maximize the expression of agreement between self and
other‖, (6) The maxim of sympathy which has the principle of ―Minimize
antipathy between self and other‖ and ―Maximize sympathy between self
and other‖.
Research Methodology
This research is a qualitative descriptive research. The objects in this
study are ten utterances of conversational implicature in Oscar Wilde‘s
short story ―Happy Prince‖. Those conversational implicature are obtained
through frequent reading and analysis.
Discussion
The synopsis of “happy prince”
―Happy Prince‖ short story started with the scene when at one cold
night a little swallow flew over the city where a beautiful statue stood. The
swallow‘s friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had not
because he was in love with the most beautiful reed. The other swallows
had told him that his love was ridiculous because the reed had no money
and too many relations, and she was always flirting with the wind.
While he was flying he saw the statue. It was covered by thin leaves
of fine gold; for eyes he had two sapphires and a large red ruby glowed on
his sword. When the prince whom the statue was made after he died he did
not know what tears were - he lived in a palace where sorrow was not
allowed. The court used to call him the Happy Prince, and when he died
the Town Councilors decided to build the statue, which was set up so high
that he could see everything in the city.
The swallow decided to sleep on the statue‘s feet, but just when he
was putting his head under his wings, he felt a drop of water, and then
another. When he looked up he realized that the Happy Prince was crying
because he could see the misery and ugliness of his own city. So the Happy
heart. God approved of the angel's choice, and decreed that both the
swallow and the Prince would live happily in His presence forever.
Interestingly in this short story Wilde personifies the statue of
Happy Prince and The swallow as his creative means of giving social
criticism. Even though this is a fairy tale which at the first time intended
just for Wilde‘s two sons but its educational and humane value go far
beyond the fairy world of children. The story develops children's
compassion and sympathy for the poor and makes adults look back on their
attitude toward the unfortunate people around them. All the good actions of
the Happy Prince are so worthy and touching that he deserves our respect
and admiration.
One of them is the Happy Prince's actions of helping the poor
.Without the ruby from his sword hilt, the seamstress's son may die of
fever. His immediate and valuable action also helps the playwright out
with a sapphire to buy food and firewood and escape from hunger and
coldness. Again, the Happy Prince prevents the poor little match seller
from being beaten by giving her the remaining sapphire. He is not hesitant
to strip himself of all fine gold leaves to help the homeless children.
Although the Happy Prince is a beautiful statue, a splendid work of art, he
accepts his dull and grey appearance to help the needy to have a happy and
sufficient life. His actions deserve being appreciated and praised.
(http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/)
mocking the general convention which became less favored after he was
jailed for homosexuality.
Wilde grew up in a prosperous family and distinguished himself at
Dublin's Trinity College and London's Oxford. He published his first
volume of poems in 1881 and found work in England as a critic and
lecturer, but it was his socializing (and self-promotion) that made him
famous, even before the 1890 publication of ―The Picture of Dorian
Gray‖.
In 1895, at the height of his popularity, his relationship with the
young poet Lord Alfred Douglas was declared inappropriately intimate by
Douglas's father, The Marquees of Queensberry. Wilde sued for libel, but
the tables were turned when it became clear there was enough evidence to
charge Wilde with "clearly seen Indecency" for his homosexual
relationships. He was convicted and spent two years in jail, after which he
went into self-imposed exile in France, bankrupt and in ill health. His other
works include the comedies ―Lady Windermere's Fan‖ (1892), ―A Woman
of No Importance ―(1893) and an ―Ideal Husband‖ (1895), several
collections of children's stories like ―Happy Prince and Other Tales‖
(1896). Surprisingly , at first Oscar Wilde did write these works of art
just for his own children‘s bed times stories but then these become so
popular not only for children but also for adult people.( Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1964:120)
religious morality changed drastically. When Victoria took the throne, the
Anglican Church was very powerful in running schools and universities,
and with high ranking churchmen holding offices in the House of
Lords. The Church's power continued to rule in rural areas throughout the
Victorian Era; however that was not the case in industrialized cities. In the
cities those against the Church were many and the disagreement or
rejection was everywhere.
The opposing secular group was against what the Anglican Church
was using its power for. The Church demanded obedience to God,
submissiveness and resignation with the goal of making people to do the
will of the Church. Ironically, The Church aimed to fulfill the will of the
elite and cared little if at all about the needs and wants of the lower, poor
peasant class then emerged Methodism, Congregationalism, the Society of
Friends (Quakers) and Presbyterianism. The Methodists and Presbyterians
in particular stressed personal salvation through direct individual faith in
Jesus Christ's sacrificial death and resurrection on the behalf of sinners, as
taught in the New Testament Gospels and the writings of the Apostles
Peter, James and Paul. This stress on individualism is seen throughout the
Victorian Era and becomes even more developed in Middle Class life.
The "Crisis of Faith" would hit religion and the citizens' faith like a
brick. The Crisis of Faith was brought about in 1859 with Charles Darwin's
work On the Origin of Species; his theory was (in the basic form) that the
Natural World had become what it was through gradual change over
thousand years. He stated that natural selection and survival of the fittest
were the reasons man had survived so long. His theory of evolution based
on empirical evidence would call into question Christian beliefs and
Victorian values. People whose lives became totally uprooted felt the need
to find a new system on which to base their values and morality. Unable to
completely lose faith, they combined both their religious beliefs with
individual duty -- duty to one's God, fellow man, social class, neighbor, the
poor and the ill.
These ideas had a great influence in the mind of Oscar Wilde as the
author who had a high social awareness on moral-ethic values and social
justice. He had seen the dark sides of industrialization in England urban
society and tried to give deep criticism through his fairy tales like ―Happy
Prince‖. At first, people just see that this short story is just one of
interesting bedtime stories for children but after a reader reads it many
times there is something different. This was aimed not only for children
but also a good moral inspiration and teaching for adult. (Samekto,
1974:75).
Conclusion
In the short story, there are some variation‘s meanings of the
conversational implicature used in in Oscar Wilde‘s short story Happy
Prince, as follows: conversation implicature connected with cooperative
References
Encyclopedia Britannica Vol 14th . 1964. ―Oscar Wilde‖. Chicago. William
Benton Publishers.
Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. London. Oxford University
Press.
Hurford, James R. 1983. Semantics of Coursebook. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principle of Pragmatics. United Stated of America:
Longman Group.
Levinson, Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. New York. Cambridge University
Press.
Martina Stykatova. 2009. (http://is.muni.cz/th/124889/ff_m/M.A.
Diploma_Thesis.txt)
Mey, Jacob L. 1983. An Introduction of Pragmatics. United States of
America: Blackwell.
Mey, Jacob L. 1998. Concise Encylopedia of Pragmatics. New York:
Elseiver.
Palmer, F.R .1981. Semantics. New York. Cambridge University Press.
Potter, James L. 1967. Elements of Literature. The United States. The
Odyssey Press.Inc.
Samekto,S.S, M.A. 1974. Ikhtisar Sejarah Kesusastraan Inggris. Jakarta.
PT.Gramedia.
Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. New York. Oxford University Press.
http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/
Setyoningsih
State Institute for Islamic Studies (STAIN) Kudus
Jl. Conge Ngembalrejo PO BOX 51 Kudus, Central Java, Indonesia
ning_kds@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study aims to identify and analyze the cultural conflicts between the
main characters in the novel Not Without my Daughter (NW). The analysis
was carried out through the following process. The first procedure related
to problems of classification i.e. cross cultural conflicts. The next phase of
data analysis related to the colletion data of cross cultural conflicts in NW.
The last phase is presentation the result of the analysis that had been
conducted in this research. Having analyzed the data, the researcher
concludes that cultural conflicts occured in NW because of stereotype,
prejudice, and ethnocentrism. Cultural conflicts can be prevented if we
increase our awareness of our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to
cross-cultural differences. However, if we develop intercultural sensitivity,
it does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that
we recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others.
Abstrak
identitas - tapi lebih karena budaya kita menyadari pengaruh budaya dalam
diri kita sendiri dan pada orang lain.
Introduction
Learning language is considered as learning its culture since
language is part of our culture (Nasr 1985:1). In Damen‘s opinion
(1987:211-213), as people learn a target language, their learning activity
includes learning the culture of the native speaker. Moreover, he assumes
that culture learning and; language learning are inextricably linked so there
can be no question as to whether culture should be taught or not. Hence,
we may conclude that learning a new culture is an essential part of learning
a new language.
Leveridge (2008) stated that teachers must instruct their students on
the cultural background of language usage. If one teaches language without
teaching about the culture in which it operates, the students are learning
empty or meaningless symbols or they may attach the incorrect meaning to
what is being taught. The students, she added, when using the learnt
language, may use the language inappropriately or within the wrong
cultural context, thus defeating the purpose of learning a language.
Because language is so closely entwined with culture, language
teachers entering a different culture must respect their cultural values. As
Englebert (2004) describes: ―…to teach a foreign language is also to teach
a foreign culture, and it is important to be sensitive to the fact that our
students, our colleges, our administrators, and, if we live abroad, our
neighbours, do not share all of our cultural paradigms.‖
The implications of language being completely entwined in culture,
in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching.
Source of conflict
The sources of conflict play a critical role in determining
appropiate ways to manage conflict. Based on the research conducted by
Joan C Doerr (2004) in her dissertation, participants of her research
referred to six dimensions of conflict and one of them is the
communication process. In line with that, Mayer (2000:16) stated: ‖Culture
affects conflict because it is embedded in individuals‘ communication
styles, history, way of dealing with emotions, values, and structures.
Communication is a complicated process which is affected by different
cultural backgrounds. Communication takes places anytime a person
receives information and assigns meaning to the words or behaviour
(Bergeron, 2000:38). That behaviour may be conscious or unconscious and
it may be intentional or unintentional.
Communication is a complex process, which is used to create
understanding between people (Rutter, 1996:24). As Hesselgrave
(1991:46) remarked:.....effective communication is not easily achieved and
miscommunication is not easy to avoid.‖ The process becomes even more
difficult when the source and the participant originate from different
cultures. The degree of difficulty is due to dissimilarity between the two
original cultures (Myers, et al, 2001:98). The greater the variation between
cultural backgrounds, the more obstacles there are to communication.
Culture
Levine and Baxter (1987) state that culture has been described as
the system of knowledge, beliefs, and behaviour shared by a group of
language should not be separated from learning the pattern and values of
the culture of which it is a part.
In addition, Leveridge (2008) states the relationship between
language and culture is deeply rooted. Language is used to maintain and
convey culture and cultural ties. Different ideas stem from differing
language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these
relationships start at one‘s birth.
The dialectical connection between language and culture has
always been a concern of L2 teachers and educators. Whether culture of
the target language is to be incorporated into L2 teaching has been a
subject of rapid change throughout language teaching history. In the course
of time, the pendulum of ELT practitioners‘ opinion has swung against or
for teaching culture in context of language teaching. For example, during
the first decades of the 20th century researchers discussed the importance
and possibilities of including cultural components into L2 curriculum
(Sysoyev & Donelson, 2002).
Kitao (1991) giving reference to several authors lists some of the
benefits of teaching culture as follows:
First, studying culture gives students a reason to study the target
language as well as rendering the study of L2 meaningful (Stainer,
1971). Second, studying culture makes studying foreign language
real. From the perspective of learners, one of the major problems in
language teaching is to conceive of the native speakers of target
language as real person. Although grammar books gives so called
genuine examples from real life, without background knowledge
those real situations may be considered fictive by the learners.
(Genc & Bada, 2005). In addition providing access into cultural
aspect of language, learning culture would help learners relate the
abstract sounds and forms of a language to real people and places
(Chastain, 1971). Third, studying culture increases studying
students‘ interest. The affect of motivation in the study of L2 has
been proved by experts like Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1965,
1972). In achieving high motivation, culture classes does have a
Cultural Conflict
According Avruch , by definition, conflict occurring between
individuals or social groups that are separated by cultural boundaries can
be considered ―cross-cultural conflict.‖ But individuals, even in the same
society, are potentially members of many different groups, organized in
different ways by different criteria: for example, by kinship into families or
clans; by language, religion, ethnicity, or nationality; by socioeconomic
characteristics into social classes; by geographical region into political
interest groups; and by education, occupation, or institutional memberships
into professions, trade unions, organizations, industries, bureaucracies,
political parties, or militaries. Avruch added that the more complex and
differentiated the society the more numerous are potential groupings. Each
of these groups is a potential ―container‖ for culture, and thus any complex
society is likely to be made up various ―subcultures,‖ that is of individuals
who, by virtue of overlapping and multiple group memberships, are
themselves ―multicultural.‖ This means that conflict across cultural
boundaries may occur simultaneously at many different levels, not just at
the higher levels of social grouping.
Second language learning is characterized by miscommunication,
failure to communicate clearly, however, is not merely a linguistic
problem; linguistic ―conflict‖ has the potential to turn into cross-cultural
conflicts. (McAllister 1995:13). Miscommunication can happen in
intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is
communication between members of different cultures. This definition is
simple, but the process is complex. Intercultural communication involves
differing perceptions, attitudes, and interpretations. We know that even two
people from the same culture can have communication problems. People
can unintentionally hurt each other by something they say or do. Isn't it
Misinterpretation
Misinterpretation happens between people from different cultures.
Communication between members of different cultures can arouse
misunderstanding which causes misinterpretation. This problem happens
because people interpret something according to their own culture and it is
possible for members of different cultures to have different interpretation
on the same thing. He should not assume that if someone says or does, the
listeners always interpret one‘s message according to their cultural
meaning.
Stereotype
The identification of stereotypes is an important key to cross-
cultural communication. Stereotypes are standardized and oversimplified
descriptions applied to groups or people; teenagers are irresponsible, Jews
are greedy. Occasionally they are classified based on limited experience, as
when a person knows one Armenian and decides that all Armenians are
just like the one he or she knows.
Stereotype is sometimes distorted description of group of people
whether negative or positive which prevents us from viewing people as
Prejudice
Prejudice is the negative prejudgement of entire group usually a
racial or ethnic groups they have ever seen-Chinese children learned about
the aggressive, ―big nosed‖ ―round eyes‖ before the diplomatic thaw
between East and West in the 1970s and many Americans knew that
Vietnamese were sneaky, cunning, untrustworthy, and dirty.
Prejudiced attitudes may also grow from direct interaction between
members of different groups. If all the interaction is between one group in
Ethnocentrism
The emotional response which people often have when first faced
with another culture is known as ethnocentrism. Difficulties in intercultural
communication arise when there is little or no awareness of divergent
cultural values and beliefs. In cross-cultural interaction, speakers
sometimes assume that what they believe is right, because they have grown
up thinking their way is the best. This ethnocentric assumption can result
in negative judgments about other cultures. Another manifestation of
ethnocentric attitudes is that people become critical of individuals from
different cultures. (Doerr, 2004)
we cannot see very much about ourselves from that position. In order to
become culturally literate, we have to step back away from the mirror in
order to see things about ourselves. And when we understand ourselves
and our own culture we can understand people from other cultures.
From the definition above, we can see that misinterpretation,
ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudices have negative meaning. The
attitudes can cause the appearance of conflict with other culture. Actually,
we can reduce and eliminate negative stereotypes, ethnocentrism, prejudice
by increasing awareness of our own attitudes to cross-cultural differences
or ethnic and racial diversities as well as establishing personal or direct
relationships with individuals from different religions, races or cultures.
Research Methodology
Novel as one kind of literary text is interesting to be analysed since
novel is a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length in which
characters and actions representative of real life are portrayed in a plot of
more or less complexity (Rees 1973:106). That is why people seem to be
interested in reading novels rather than poetry or play.
Collie and Slater (1987:4) explain, the ‗world‘ of a novel offers a
full and vivid context since it is a created one. A reader can find an
author‘s thoughts, feelings, customs, possessions, belief, fear, and joy, and
how they speak which are reflected through the characters. They added that
this vivid imagined world could quickly give the foreign reader a feel for
the codes and preoccupations that structure a real society. Furthermore,
Koesnosoebroto (1988:20) says that the novel, more than any other genre,
can give form to a set of attitudes regarding society, history and the general
culture of which the novel is a part. In short, it is possible for students to
learn a nation‘s culture through a novel.
Discussion
Characters
Two kinds of characters that are discussed are major and minor
characters. Main characters are the most important characters in a story.
Minor characters are characters of less important than those of the main
(Koesnosoebroto 1988:67)
Main characters
There are two main characters: Betty Mahmoody and Sayyed
Bozorg Mahmoody or Moody. Betty was optimistic in facing difficulty.
She always tried to find chances or way out of her problems. She was also
a brave and desperate woman. When a chance to run away came, she
determined to make a desperate run for freedom. She was honest too.
Unless she liked something, she would say it directly although some
people would get angry to her. Moreover, she was a good and loving
mother.
Minor characters
Five minor characters in the novel are Sara Mahmoody Ghodsi or
Ameh Bozorg, Helen Balassanian, Hamid, Judy, and Amahl. Ameh Bozorg
was Moody‘s sister. She was a large-boned, broad-shouldered woman
quite a bit older than Moody who was forty-seven years old. She had
greenish brown eyes. She married Sayyed Salam Ghodzi or Baba Hajji and
had six sons and three daughters. Helen worked in the Swiss embassy in
Tehran. She was austere but friendly. She was tall and thin. She was about
forties. She was also helpful.
Hamid was a menswear-shop owner. He was tall and dark-haired.
He was an ex-officer in the shah‘s army. He was also trying to find a way
out for himself and his family. He helped Betty by letting her use his
phone.
Judy was a young and blond-haired American woman. Her Iranian-
born husband was a contractor in New York city. She introduced Betty to
Rasheed, someone who knew people who could take people out of Iran
through turkey.
Amahl was a short, thin man. He hoped someday he could get
himself and his family out of Iran, but the circumstances of his life were
extraordinary intricate. By day he was a successful businessman,
Setting
Setting in the story was divided into place and time where and
when the story occurred. The places were in America, Iran and Turkey.
The time in which the story occurred was from 1974 to 1986.
Mood or atmosphere
The atmosphere of NW was the Iranian culture. It concerned with
the way of dressing and the celebration. In dressing Iranian women were
required to keep their arms, legs and foreheads covered. They were
wrapped almost completely in chadors. A chador was a large half-moon-
shaped cloth entwined around the shoulders, foreheads and chin to reveal
only eyes, nose and mouth. They wore montoes, which were large coats
that reach down nearly to ankles and rosaries, long and heavy scarves
when they went outside. However, if there were guests came, they still had
to wear the chadors.
Meanwhile for celebration, there were some mentioned in the story.
The first was the Muslim Sabbath. On that day, Friday, families gathered
in the home of the eldest relative to spend extra time in prayer. The second
celebration was war week. It was an annual celebration of the glories of
Islamic combat, occasioned by the ongoing war with Iraq and, by
extension with America, since Iraq was simply a puppet of the United
States. There was a demonstration of ominous roar of jet aircraft that flew
low. Bright flashes of antiaircraft fire lit up the sky, followed by sharp,
booming airborne explosions. The third one was No-ruz day- the Persian
New Year. It was a two-week holiday during which all the women scrub
their houses clean in preparation door rounds of celebration. Families
whiled away their time at dinner parties, teas, and receptions in the homes
of relatives. It was on 21st march.
Plot
Incentive moment
The story began when Betty Mahmoody went to Iran with moody,
her Iranian-born husband and her daughter, Mahtob to visit her husband‘s
family. He swore that they would stay in Tehran for only two weeks.
However, he lied and said they would stay in Tehran forever. Although she
did not agree the idea, he was adamant.
Complication
Moody asked her to go to see her dad alone, without her daughter
as her dad was sick. She was surprised with his change at first, but then she
knew the mad reasoning behind his sudden decision to let her return to
America. He wanted her to sell everything they owned in America and he
would not allow her coming back before she brought the money. He held
Mahtob as a hostage.
Climax
Moody imprisoned her for three days until she got onto the airplane
so that she could not make a contact with Amahl, someone who could help
her getting out of iran. Finally, she had a chance when an ambulance came
to pick moody up. She decided to do something to get out of moody‘s
house and run her plan. Finally, she succeeded and then made a difficult
journey to turkey.
Resolution
The resolution started when Betty arrived at the border between
Iran and turkey. Although they were still far from free, at least, they were
out of Iran. However, it was not the end of the story. It was just the
beginning of the resolution. The next story was how they journeyed to
Ankara, turkey, where they could fly safely to America.
Theme
Themes that can be formulated from the novel are: (1) A mother
who loves her daughter so much that she dares to face any danger for her
daughter‘s sake and (2) there must be a way out of any problems as long as
you try hard.
Point of view
This story uses the first point of view as the author tells the story in
the first person. She appears as one of the main characters. Therefore, she
occupies the position of ―I‖.
Stereotype
One evening after having dinner in one of Moody‘s cousins‘ house,
Betty was involved in a conversation with them. They talked about how
women were oppressed in Iran which was not true according to Iranian.
―Well, the son said, ―I‘m sure before you came you heard a lot of
things about how women are oppressed in Iran. Now that you have
been here, you understand that those are all lies?‖ (p.434)
Prejudice
Prejudice is a judgment that a particular ethnic group is inherently
inferior to others. In NW, we can also find Betty‘s prejudice toward Iran
country which can be seen in the citation below,
―Surely, I thought, in time Moody would be sickened by the filth
around him. He would realize that his professional future was in
America, not in a backward nation that had yet to learn the basic of
hygiene and social justice (p:444)
indirectly means that she was of the opinion that Iran was inferior to her
country. In short, Betty has negative judgment toward Iran country.
Conclusions
Cultural conflicts occurred because of friction of different cultures
between Betty‘s culture, in this case America, and Iran culture. The
cultural aspects causing conflicts found in NW were misinterpretation,
prejudice, stereotype and ethnocentrism. It is necessary for English
learners to know about the English culture so that they may have a better
cross culturally understanding. Further they will be more tolerant and wiser
in order to reduce cultural conflicts that may occur in intercultural
communication.
Cultural conflicts can be prevented if we increase our awareness of
our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to cross-cultural differences.
However, if we develop intercultural sensitivity, it does not mean that we
need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that we recognize cultural
influences within ourselves and within others. By understanding other
cultures well, we could respect other cultures and reduce cultural conflicts
that might occur in intercultural communication.
References
Arai, M. Wanca-Thibault, M & Shockley-Zalabak, P. 2001.
Communication theory and training approaches for multiculturally
diverse organisations: Have academics and practitioners missed the
connections? Public personnel management, 30 (4): 445-457
Augsburger, D.W. 1992. Conflict Mediation Across Culture: Pathways and
Patterns. Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press.
Avruch, Kevin. Cross-Cultural Conflict (http://www.eolss.net/Sample-
Chapters/C14/E1-40-01-01.pdf)
A G
Akuisisi Bahasa Kedua, 178 Gricean theory, 195, 196, 202
Anak-Anak, 178
Analisis Kesalahan, 130 H
As-Salaam Kindergarten, 188 Happy Prince, 195, 198, 201, 202,
Assessment, 173, 174, 176 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 212
B
Be, 129, 198 I
Berpikir Kritis, 164 illocutionary act, 147, 149
Bloom‘s Taxonomy, 163, 165, 175 Implikatur Percakapan, 196
Budaya, 214 Instruksi, 147, 148
C K
Conversational Implicature, 195, Konflik Lintas Budaya, 214
196, 198, 207 Konteks Sosial, 178
Critical Thinking, 163, 169, 170,
175, 176 L
Critical Thinking Strategies, 163
Cross Cultural Conflicts, 213 Language Classes, 163
Cross-Cultural Conflict, 213, 236 Language Teaching, 163, 237, 238
Culture, 213, 217, 218, 236, 237, Lesson Plan, 163, 170
238, 239
M
Culture Understanding, 213
Maslihatul Umami, 177
D Maxims, 196
directives, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, Muhammadiyah University
153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161 Semarang, 147, 151
E N