UNIVERSITATEA „DANUBIUS“ DIN GALAŢI

DEPARTAMENTUL DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT LA
DISTANŢĂ SI FRECVENTA REDUSA
FACULTATEA DE ȘTIINȚE ECONOMICE

CURS BUSINESS ENGLISH

Lect. univ. dr. Oana Andreea Nae

CUPRINS

I. CHAPTER ONE
THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

1. PRESENT TIME
2. PAST TIME
3. FUTURE TIME
4. COMMENTED TEST ITEMS
5. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

II. CHAPTER TWO

THE SUBJUNCTIVE
1. THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
2. THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
3. PAST PERFECT SUBJUNDIVE
4. THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE
5. COMMENTED TEST ITEMS
6. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

III. CHAPTER THREE

MODAL VERBS
1. GENERAL
RESENTATION

Bibliografie

Business English
INTRODUCERE
Modulul intitulat Limba Engleza 1I se studiază în anul I.şi vizează dobândirea
de competenţe în domeniuL limbii engleze.
După ce vei studia şi învăţa modulul vei dobândi următoarele competenţe
generale:
Utilizarea adecvată a limbii engleze in context economic.

Identificarea și definirea termenilor tehnici din sfera si insusirea corecta a lor.

Explicarea și interpretarea acestor termeni economici, utilizarea lor si integrarea in limbajul specific.

Competenţele pe care le vei dobândi sunt următoarele:

 Utilizarea termenilor specifici domeniului economic, in limba engleza

 Incadrarea corecta in texte

 Identificarea si exemplificarea

 Utilizarea corecta a limbii engleze economice

 Capacitatea de a traduce texte economice tehnice

Business English
 1. CHAPTER ONE
THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

Business English
 GENERAL PRESENTATION
What does tense mean ?
What does time mean ?
Time is a notion common to all human beings and is independent of
language. It is understood by most people as divided into PAST TIME, PRESENT
TIME, FUTURE TIME.
Tense can be defined as the linguistic expression of time relations as they are
realised by verb forms. Tense systems are specific to language and vary from
language to another, both in the number of tenses they distinguish and in the ways
in which these tenses reflect temporal relations. In English, for instance it would be
amistake to imagine that the Past reference refers exclusively to events that
happened in the past, that there is a Present form of the verb to refer only to events
in present, or that a Future tense refers exclusively to events in the future.

Consider, for instance, the following examples:

I thought you were in the office.
Will you sign here, please? .
I was wondering whether you could help me with this spreadsheet *?
*spreadsheet - desfășurător
In these examples, the verbs underlined are formally considered to be
in the Past and Future; however, at closer inspection, they all refer to the
moment of speaking.
In a similar way, the Present tense in the following examples does not refer to
what is commonly considered as present, that is the moment of speaking identified as
NOW:
The conference begins on the 11th of September.
Sales drop after the winter holidays. So, the manager pulls out an envelope from the
drawer and says nothing, just pushes it towards me.
It is worth nothing than languages such as English and Romanian have very different
tenses, which overlap in only few points. That is why students should always keep in mind
that looking for a translation of the verb from one language into the other language will
confuse rather than help them. Instead, they should think of the time reference and
situation and fiind a correspondent in the other language.
Lucrez în această firmă de mai bine de zece ani. (the verb in Romanian is the Prezent)
I’ve been working for this company for more than ten years. (the equivalent of the Prezent
Tense is Present Perfect Continuous)
Vii mâine la ședință? (The Romanian Tense is Prezent)
Are you coming to the meeting tomorrow? (the equivalent of the Prezent is Present Tense
Continuous)
FORM

Business English
The set of forms belonging to a particular tense is usually obtained by the addition of
inflections to the base form of the verb, or by the inclusion of auxiliaries or modals in the verb
group.

WORK – 0
WORK – ED
WORK – ING

1. STATES AND EVENTS

Verbs may refer to:
A state – no defined beginning and end, no changes
The interviewer remained silent.
The Chief Executive has/owns a Porcsche.
The main workshop measures 12 by 20 m.
Other verbs belonging to the same category are: REMAIN, CONTAIN, KNOW, etc.
An event – a single occurrence, with a definite beginning and ending
The manager promptly answered the questions of the Board.
Other verbs belonging to the same category are: BECOME, GET, COME, LEAVE, etc.
Change of category – state use of the verb
- event use of the verb
Your new office building looks fine.
Why are you looking at me like that?

2. Present Time
a. PRESENT STATES (THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE)
Do you like your job?
I’m late.
We have no vacancies at the moment, but you may still apply.

b. INDEFINITE STRETCH OF TIME – GENERAL TRUTHS

(THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE)
Water boils at 100 C.
At the Equator, the sun evaporates greater quantities of water.
Business English
Use it in definitions, rules, laws.
Marketing goes beyond merely selling what the firm produces, but identifies the
consumers’ needs.
With a server, information is easily updated.
c. . PRESENT EVENTS (THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE)
Used for formal declarations, sport commentaries, demonstrations
I declare the meeting closed.
Now I remove the cylinder and press the lid shut.
Used in business letters:
I apologies for the delay in replying your letter.
We enclose our audited balance sheet for the fiscal year closed.
Other verbs are ADMIT, APPOLOGIES, REFUSE, ACCEPT, ADVISE, DENY,
GUARANTEE, INFORM, PREDICT, PROMISE, RECOMMEND, SUGGEST,
SUPPOSE, WARN.
The vers SAY deserves to be treated separately – it introduces quotations:
In his report he says the marketing research has been completed.
d. PRESENT HABITS (THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE) – repeated events
Jackson works for the British Telecom.
I travel to London quite often.
Use it in presenting the business area of a company or the purpose of the company
mentioned in the Memorandum of Association:
We produce a wide range of electronic components.
Use it when you present the mission of the company:
Nissan Motor Manufacturing
As a company we aim to build profitably the highest quality car sold in Europe. We seek to
delegate and involve staff in discussion and decision making.
We firmly believe in common terms and conditions of employment.
e. PRESENT ACTIVITY/SITUATION – NOW (THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE =
CONTINUOUS) or AROUND NOW:
Mr. Jone, isn’t it in, he’s showing a visitor round. Could you call later?

Look! It’s raining!

The business slowdown is causing serious concern in government circles.

Business English
f. TEMPORARY ACTIVITY/SITUATIONS (THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE =
CONTINUOUS)
I’m training the new employees of the Sales Division.

Compare

I’m working in the office on the 2nd floor. (temporarily, while my office is being
redecorated)
I work in the office on the 2nd floor.
(that’s my permanent regular location)
They live in a rented flat.
They are living with their parents in law.

Use it in describing the company’s present development or projects.

At present we are developing a project for self-sustainable local industries in our area.

g. A PROCESS/CHANGE (THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE = CONTINUOUS)

It’s getting colder every day.
Use it when you describe trends and evolution:
It is still far from sure that the economy is recovering from its mild recession.
We are reviewing production and methods and introducing improved technology to cut
costs.
World energy demand is increasing at a rate of about 3% per year.
h. A REPEATED ACTIVITY = HABIT+ANNOYANCE. CRITICISM, DISAPROVAL
(THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE = CONTINUOUS)
This man is always getting into trouble.
She’s forever asking me to take over for her when she’s not in the mood for work.
Notice the regular use of ALWAYS, FOREVER, CONTINUALLY.
i. POLITE (TENTATIVE) REQUESTS, OTHER POLITE FORMS (THE PAST
SIMPLE)
Did you want to speak to me?

Business English
I wondered whether you could help me?

PAST TIME
The Past Tense – a past event/state related to a definite moment in the past, which we may
call THEN.
The Present Perfect – a past event/state related to present time
Compare:
Swift was with our company for ten years,
Swift has been with our company for ten years.
When did you arrive in Britain?
How long have you been in Britain?
a. PAST EVENT/STATE at a definite moment in the past (THE PAST TENSE
SIMPLE)
The moment may be referred to – explicitly – last/year/month/week/century/yesterday/a few
minutes ago/in 1990/when I was a child/in the beginning/etc.
The order was sent yesterday.
Our company was founded in 1993.
- Implicitly – in the context
Rome wasn’t built in a day.
Use it when you want to speak about the history of the company of your own professional
history (CV).
Between 1993 and 2000 we were one of the leading exporters to Germany from this
country.
b. PAST EVENTS WITH RESULTS IN THE PRESENT TIME (THE PRESENT
PERFECT SIMPLE)
I’ve found the letter you’re looking for. It’s here.
The meeting has been cancelled.
Prices have fallen sharply over the past few months.
c. INDEFINITE EVENT/STATE/HABIT OVER AN OPEN = UNFINISHED
PERIOD OF TIME (THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE) (today, this month/year/week,
so far, until now, ever/never, yet) (negative sentences)
She has attended lectures regularly.
Have you ever been to our subsidiary in Beijing?
Compare

Business English
She attended lectures regularly shile she was a student. (she’s a graduate now)
I visted our subsidiary in Beijing in early June. (now it’s October)
Note. In such cases, Americans may prefer The Past Simple.
Have you seen the report?
Did you see the report.
FOR-SINCE
I bought this computer two years ago.
I’ve had this computer since 2000. (the moment the event/state began)
I’ve had this computer for two years. (the period over which the events/state is extended)
Use it to speak about your own or your company’s evolution:
Mr. D.G. Crayford has been with the company for 30 years and has been Managing
Director since 1995.
d. ACTIVITY IN THE RECENT PAST WITH PRESENT RESULTS (PRESENT
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS)
Your eyes are red – have you been crying?
e. AN ACTIVITY STILL CONTINUING IN THE PRESENT (PRESENT PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS)
How long have you been waiting here?
Unemployment has been rising steadily since.
Note. 1. Repeated activities are expressed by Present Tense Simple, but when we use
Present Perfect Continuous, the emphasis is on duration, e. how long the activity has been
going on.
Compare
I see Tom most weekends.
I’ve been seeing quite a lot of Tom since he moved into the office next to mine.
Note 2. The Present Perfect Simple focuses on result, while Present Perfect Continuous
focuses on duration.
Compare
I’ve been talking to costumers since morning and I can hardly move my jaws now.
(emphasis on continuity)
I’ve talked to a number of costumers and they have complained about our telemarketing
service. (emphasis on result – the number of customers)
f. A DISCONTINUED HABIT IN THE PAST (USED TO+INFINITIVE)
I used to work hours when I was younger. (now I’m not so young and I don’t work extra
hours any more)
Business English
Note 1. USED TO cannot be used to refer to a singular event in the past.

Compare
I used to visit every subsidiary every month when I was an inspector.
I visited our subsidiary in Milan last month.
Note 2. USED TO is used to talk only about past events, not about present events.
There is no such form as USE TO! To talk about present habits, use The Present Simple
Continuous or such phrases as I am in the habit of + verb ING.

Compare
We used to hire a chartered accountant to keep our books before we had this specialized
programme.
He uses to check each file twice.
He is in the habit of checking each file twice.
Or
He usually checks…
Note 3. The phrase TO BE/GET USED TO is followed by verb+ING and can take any tense
logically acceptable. However, it should not be mistaken for USED TO+Infinitive.
He is not used to working under stress.
After a while, I got used to being called by my new family name at work.
g. PRESENT SIMPLE WITH A PAST MEANING (HISTORIC PRESENT) is used in
history books or in spoken English – when narrating an event, telling an anecdote, etc.
Queen Elizabeth decides to ignore thed Spanish warning and protect the corsairs.
Now, when I see this, I turn to him and say: “Are you sure we’re speaking about the same
person?”
h. AN ACTIVITY IN PROGRESS AT A CERTAIN MOMENT IN THE PAST
(uncompleted) – The Past Progressive/Continuous
I was working in a car factory at that time, during the sumeer of 2000.
While I was dealing with the next customer, the boss came in and asked me to take over for
my colleague Mike, who’d got sick.
Use it to give background information and to describe your activity at a certain moment:
However, in 2001 it was evident that we were losing ground despite increased advertising
and promotion.
i. TWO ACTIVITIES IN PROGRESS GOING ON IN PARALLEL AT A MOMENT
IN THE PAST
While the secretary was trying to find the file, the customer was growing more and more
impatient.

Business English
Note. The same thing can be expressed by using Past Simple, but the emphasis is not on
progression, but on the completed quality of the event.
Stanley ran a laundry business when I lived in London.
Stanley was running a laundry business when I was living in London.
j. A PAST EVENT BEFORE ANOTHER PAST MOMENT/EVENT (PAST
PERFECT SIMPLE)
By 1997 national debt had doubled and the British economy was again at risk of repeating
the pattern of inflation followed by recession.
By the time the meeting ended, everybody else had left the offices.
Note. Past Perfect is extensively used in Reported Speech to replace the Past Simple and
The Present Perfect.
She said she’d never seen such an effective display of merchandise.
k. A PAST EVENT IN PROGRESS UP TO A CERTAIN MOMENT IN THE PAST
(PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS)
I’d been working hard. So I felt I deserved a holiday.
We’d been travelling for about 10 hours when the pilot announced an emergency landing.
Future time

a. A NEUTRAL PREDICTION (WILL/SHALL FUTURE)

In the future, companies will search the world for the best intellectual capital.
The first wave of job losses resulting from the mergers in German banking will probably be
in the City of London.

b. INTENTIONS (GOING TO+verb)

We’re going to launch the new model at the International Trade Fair.
Note. Note that Future Simple may express reserve or doubt, while GOING TO expresses a
degree of certainty.
Compare
Maybe I’ll join you.
But not
Maybe I’m going to join you.
They’ll probably agree this is one possible way out of the crisis.
Use it when you make predictions about the future:
Business English
If we concentrate on the garment area of the market supplying all age groups, we estimate
an increase in investment of our annual budget of 4.8 per cent. This will increase our
present turnover in this area by 7 per cent.
c. AN EVENT WHICH IS IMMINENT TO HAPPEN IN THE NEAR FUTURE due
to causes in the present (GOING TO+verb)
I think I’m going to faint.
We’re going to lose this deal, our competitors have dropped their prices again.
d. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES EXPRESSING CONDITION, Time (Present Time)
I’ll get her to phone you when/as soon as she comes back.
If this doesn’t work, I’ll have to change my plan.
I’ll give you all the details when the deal is settled.
e. FUTURE ACTIVITIES ORGANISED ACCORDING TO AN OFFICIAL PLAN
OR TIMETABLE (PRESENT SIMPLE)
The first semester finishes at the end of January.
Mr. Jackson retires at the end of this year.
It says in the programme that the conference begins at 10.00.
f. FUTURE EVENTS RESULTING FROM A PERSONAL PLAN/ARRANGEMENT
(PRESENT PROGRESSIVE)
Are you seeing Tony this week?
Samantha’s leaving by the 6 o’clock train.
g. AN ACTION IN PROGRESS AT A CERTAIN MOMENT IN THE FUTURE
(FUTURE PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS)
Don’t call at ten – I’ll be meeting with the executives then.
Where will you be working in two years’ time?
h. A FUTURE EVENT THAT WILL TAKE PLACE IN THE NATURAL COURSE
OF EVENTS (FUTURE PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS)
Will you be coming by car?
We’ll be taking part in an international conference on recyclable materials on January
30th.
i. A FUTURE ACTION BEFORE ANOTHER FUTURE ACTION/A MOMENT IN
THE FUTURE (FUTURE PERFECT)
I hope that by the end of the year our team will have finished the research.
By the time we decide whether to sell or not, the price of stock will have dropped again.
Next year this time I’ll have been working in this company for ten years.

Business English
j. A FUTURE EVENT SEEN FROM A PAST PERSPECTIVE (FUTURE IN THE
PAST = WOULD + VERB)
They promised they would place a large order if we offered them a substantial discount.
Note. The past equivalent of BE GOING TO refers to an event that was intended, but never
took place.

Compare
They were going to offer them a discount when they cancelled the order. (They didn’t get to
actually offer the discount)
I’m going to tell the boss about restructuring the information system.
The same for BE ABOUT TO + VERB
She was about to leave when the message arrived.

LET’S SOLVE AND COMMENT THE TEST ITEMS

1. Don’t be so impatient, … the report right now and it won’t long before it’s ready.

a. I writing

b. I’m writing

c. I write

d. I written

The correct answer is b. I’m writing as the time reference – right now – indicates a Present Tense
Progressive.

The answer a. I writing is not acceptable as the Present Tense Progressive indicated by right now is
incorrectly formed without the auxiliary BE – am writing, in this case.

The answer c. I write is not acceptable as the Present Tense Simple indicates a habitual activity (the
verb write refers to an activity and not to a state) and the context excludes such a solution.

The answer d. I written is not acceptable as the form I + Past Participle (written) is ungrammatical.

2. In order to attract foreign investors, the Romanian Government … the company tax-
structure.

a. Simplify

b. Simplifies

c. Simplifys

d. Is simplifying

The correct answer is d. is simplifying as the verb indicates a process in progress, not yet completed.
– the Present Progressive

Business English
The answer a. simplify is not acceptable as the form simplify is either an Infinitive, but in this case the
sentence would miss the predicate, or a Present Simple in the, in which case there is no concord
between the subject (The Government 3rd singular) and the predicate (simplify – any person plural.)

The answer b. simplifies – a Present Simple form – is not acceptable as the context indicates a
change, a process expressed by the Present Progressive.

The answer c. simplfys is not acceptable as a verb ending in –y proceded by a consonant (simplify,
verify, multiply, rely etc.) forms the 3rd person singular in – ies and not in –ys, as the verb ending in
vowel preceded by –y (play, stay, pay, delay etc.)

3. Can you call later, say at 1? … a meeting at 11 o’clock.

a. I have

b. I’ll have

c. I’m having

The correct answer is c. I’m having as the Present Progressive refers to a planned future activity’ the
arrangement/plan is indicated by the time reference 11 o’clock.

The anwer b. I’ll have is not acceptable as the Future Simple refers to a neutral prediction about a
future activity and not to an activity whose performance is almost certain on account of the fact that
it has been already planned.

The answer a. I have is not acceptable as the verb HAVE in the Present Simple (I have) refers to a
state – the context eliminates such a possibility; the verb HAVE in the Progressive (I’m having) has a
different meaning, referring to an activity; consider other examples: different meaning, referring to
an activity; consider other examples:

I’m having a bath, will you answer the phone, please?

Jeff’s having his French lesson.

We’re having lunch. Will you have a bite with us?

We’re having problems with the computer again!

4. We usually … around 40% of our annual total at Christmas time.

a. Selling

b. Are selling

c. Sell

The correct answer is c. sell as the context indicates the Present Simple (a habitual activity repeating
every year at Christmas).

The answer a. selling is not acceptable as the Present Participle (an – ing form) cannot form the
predicate by itself – that is, without an auxiliary verb.

The answer b. are selling is not acceptable as the context does indicate an activity in progress or a
process; therefore, the Present Progressive is ruled out.
Business English
5. I … the figures very carefully last week.

a. Check

b. Checked

c. Have checked

d. Have been checking

The correct answer is b. checked as the activity is presented as completed and the time when is was
performed is mentioned – last week.

a. Check is not an option as the time reference is in the past and a Present Simple form is not a
logical one.

b. Have checked is not an option as the Present Perfect implies an activity extending to the
present, which is ruled out by the time reference last week; also note that the Present Perfect is
formed of the auxiliary have in the Present, which again rules out the past meaning.

c. Have been checking is not an option for the same reason.

6. When I called her, the H.R. officer … the applicants for the position of PR

a. Interviewed

b. Interviewing

c. Was interviewing

d. Was going to interview

The correct anwer is c. was interviewing as it expresses an activity in progress at a certain moment in
the past; note that this moment is not mentioned explicitly by means of a time adverbial – ex.
Yesterday, an hour later, in 2002, etc. – but by means of a sentence when I called her; however, this
can be replaced by THEN; another way of explaining the events is that was interviewing describes the
background event, a longer activity while I called is a shorter activity that happens in the middle of
the longer one or interrupts it.

a. Interviewed is not an option because the action in the given sentence is seen in progress –
the interviewer is in the middle of the activity – and not as one compact activity, completed already –
as expressed by a Past Simple form.

b. Interviewing is not an option because in this context this –ing form cannot function by itself,
without the auxiliary verb BE;

d.was going to interview is not an option because was giving to + verb refers to an unfulfilled activity
in the past, that is, that never happened.

Business English
7. As soon as the share price began to soar, the competition … to buy.

a. Started

b. Was starting

c. Was started

d. Has started

The correct answer is a. started as the neither of the two events is seen in progress, but
they are seen as two separate, complete events in sequence, that is one of them follows the
other after a very short time.

b. was starting is not an option as the event is not seen in progress and the verb begin refers
to a momentary activity which is not normally used in the Progressive.

c. was started is not an option as the form BE+ Past Participle ( -ED form) is a Passive form which is
not logical in the context.

d. has started is not an option as a verb in the Present is out of questions in a sentence with a
past time reference.

8. Before they finished the new office building, we … park our cars three blocks away and walk to
work.

a. got used

b. used

c. were used

d. used to

The correct answer is d. used to which refers to habitual activity in the past which is no longer going
on - a discontinued habit in the past; the situation changed because of the building erected and the
habit was discontinued for this reason.

a. got used is not an option as the form GET USED is necessarily followed by the preposition TO
and also by a verbal form in the Gerund ( eg. I got used to waking up very early.)

b.used is not an option as the correct form to express a discontinued habit in the past is USED TO +
verb, not USED +verb.

c. were used park is a altogether ungrammatical.

9. I … several firms when I was in Katowice.

a. Have visited

Business English
b. Visited

c. Was visiting

d. Had visited

The correct answer is b. visited as the context indicates a completed activity in the past; the past
moment is indirectly indicted by the subordinate clause of time, whose verb is in the Past Tense.

a. have visited is not an option as a verb in the Present Perfect refers to an activity that is not
seen as completed, which is in a certain way connected to the present - by its effect, by the fact
that it extends to the present, etc.

c. was visiting is not an option as the activity is not seen in progress, it refers to an activity which has
a beginning and an end.

d. had visited is not an option as Past Perfect refers to a past activity before a past moment or
another past activity; neither of the two can be found in the given context.

10. I … in insurance industry since leaving university.

a. Worked

b. Have worked

c. Have working

d. Work

The correct answer is b.have worked as the activity extends over a certain period of time
which includes the present: the period of time is expressed by the subordinate time clause
introduced by SINCE.

a. worked is not an option as the past tense cannot be used to refer to an event extending to the
present.

c. have working is not an option as the form aux. HAVE + Present Participle ( -ING) is
grammatically incorrect/ non-existent.

11. Foreign life insurers … their business in Japan by about 15% annualy over the past few years.

a. have been expanding

b. had expanded

c. expanded
Business English
d. have to expand

The correct answer is a. have heen expanding as the activity extends from an
unidentified moment in the past to the present and is seen in progress with emphasis on
duration and continuity.

b. had expended is not an option as Past Perfect refers to a past activity before a past moment
or another past activity and the period of time referred to in the text is past to present (SINCE).

c. expanded is not an option as the Past Tense cannot be used to speak about an activity
extending to the present

d. have to expand is a form of the modal periphrasis of must - HAVE TO - which expresses
obligation; the context does not allow for such all an interpretation.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Select the correct answer from among the four suggested ones; only one answer is correct.

Each correct answer scores 0.25 point. The total score is 10.

Total worktimc: 1 hour.

1. I have to be back at 3.30, so ... before lunch.

a. to leave

b. I.m leaving

c. I'll leave

d. I leave

2. I felt awful after lunch. I ... too much.

a. have eaten

b. had eaten

c. eated

d. was eating

3. Why on earth ... I was supposed to prepare the opening speech?

a. didn't you tell me

b. didn't you told me

c. weren't you telling me

Business English
d. were told

4. It's been a long time since... your brother Paul last.

a. I saw

b. see

c. had seen

d. have been seeing

5. With interest rates falling, money ... to other regions.

a. flowing

b. are flow

c. will be going to flow

d. is flowing

6. The business slowdown ... serious concern in government circles.

a. will have been causing

b. is causing

c. cause.

d. used to cause

7. The country now ... on its way to recovery.

a. seems

b. is seeming

c. seeming

d. seem

8. Unemployment ... up all year.

a. has move

b. has been moving

Business English
c. movement

d. moved

9. The government ... now a wage-freeze.

a. contemplates

b. has been contemplating

c. is contemplating

d. to contemplate

10. … the minutes of the meeting?

a. Have to read

b. Have you reading

c. Have you read

d. Have you to read

11. Why ... for the job jf you had the required diploma degree?

a. you didn't apply

b. applied you not

c. to not apply

d. didn't you apply

12. So far our bonus scheme ... to stimulate the personnel.

a. had failed

b. is failing

c. failure

d. has failed

13. The new collective agreement … effective beginning with the

first quarter.

Business English
a. will be

I. is being

c. will have been

d. being

14. Redundancies ... in a statement released yesterday.

a. been announced

b. be announcement

c. were announced

d. have been announced

15. We ... the trainees; today it's not even possibl to take on a

single one, even without paying him.

a. useful pay

b. were paying

c. had been paying

d. used to pay

16. 1 can't see why he wants to resign: I thought he ... a good salary.

a. was earning

h is earning

c. have earned

d. earnest

17. The increase in unemployment figures ... to be disturbing.

a. had begun

b is beginning

c. is to begin

d. to begin

Business English
l8. This incentive bonus scheme … only since January.

a. has been applied

b. has applied

e. been applied

d. to be applied

19. The position ... frequent travels abroad.

a. involvement

b. involve

e. involves

d. is involving.

20. For some time now, the firm ... its own pension fund.

a. operationed

b. operated

c. has been operated

d. has been operating

21. According to that study, new medicines ... millions of heart diseases in the course of the
next 25 years.

a. prevent

b. would prevent

c. preventing

d. are going to prevent

22. More and more consumers ... green products.

a. are choosing

b. chooses

c. have been choosed

Business English
d. chosen

23. The tanker* ... around on a ree** off the coast and all attempts

to move it away proved unsuccessful.

a. runs

b. has run

c. had been running

d. is running

* tanker = a vehicle equipped with tanks for transporting fuel

**reef = a group of rocks or sand near the surface of the water.

24. I wonder how long they ... to stave off* bankruptcy**.

a. manage

b. have managing

c. will manage

d. are going to manage

* to stave off = to drive away (ex. to stave off trouble)

** bankruptcy = ruined, insolvent

25. When I got to the office, the boss ... for me for an hour and was fuming (= very angry).

a. had been waiting

b. waited

c. wait

d. was waiting

26. Last year I ... part in the official opening of our subsidiary in Portugal.

a. took

b. was taking

c. used to take

d. used to taking

Business English
27. The secretary is on maternity leave and I ... her work.

a. handle

b. will handle

c. had been

d. am handling

28. What do you think ... in five years' time ?

a. you'll do

b. you'll be doing

c. do you

d. are to do

29. What ... on Wednesday evening? I've got tickets for the match.

a. do you do

b. are you to do

c. are you doing

d. you do

30. When I phoned Helen last night, she ... the report.

a. was typing

b. would type

c. typed

d. typing

31. The invoice* still ... by the end of the week.

a. didn't arrive

b. wasn't arrived

c. hadn't arrived

Business English
d . arrival

* invoice - a list of goods shipped specifying the price and the terms of sale

32. A: “You are not listening!”

B: “But I .... that for half an hour now.'

a. have done

b. did

c. have been doing

d. am doing

33. Now that she is a second year student, she ... in finances.

a. specialist

b. is specializing

c. has specialized

d. had specialized

34. I have been living in Liverpool ....

a. three years ago

b. since three years

c. for three years

d. three years before

35. The negotiators ... for two hours when finally they reached a satisfactory agreement.

a. talked

b. had talked

c. have talked

d. had been talking

36. In our office, we ... each invoice in triplicate.

a. draw up

Business English
h. are drawing up

e. are going to draw up

d. will be drawing up\

37. Ask the chief accountant whether he ... the transfer of funds.

a. had received

b. has been receiving

c. has received

d. receives

38. He has a lot of experience on bookkeeping and ... a course on corporate accounting.

a. currently attends

h. is currently attending

c. currently has been attending

d. to attend at current

39. Since our company entered the market, we ... the number one position in corporate
hospitality.

a. have reached

b. bad reached

c. reached

d. reach

40. Everyone ... for the meeting to begin when he called to cancel it.

a. waited

b. waiting

c. was waiting

d. have been waiting

Obiective specifice:

Business English
 La sfârşitul capitolului, vei avea capacitatea:

Sa utilizezi corect timpurile verbale in limba engleza.

Timp mediu estimat pentru studiu individual: 4 ore

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

2. CHAPTER TWO

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

GENERAL PRESENTATION

It is easier to understand the meaning carried by a

Subjunctive form when contrasting it to the Indicative:
The Indivative vs. the Subjunctive
Real vs. hypothetical
I'm glad tha the Minister has agreed.
I wish that the Minister had agreed. (but he hasn't agreed yet)

present /possible YET not accomplished

future past unreal unaccomplished

FORM
NO SPECIFIC FORM
There arc basically two types of Subjunctive forms:
- the Synthetic Subjunctive
- the Analytic Subjunctive

The idea of unaccomplished possibility or of unreality can be expressed

by:
- The Short/Bare Infinitive
- The Past Tense
- The Past Perfect
- A modal verb (mainly SHOULD) + verb
1. The Present Subjunctive refers to PRESENT or FUTURE events that are
POSSIBLE, NOT CONTRARY TO REALITY.

CONCESSION Though she be an expert, she still has no right to disregard other
people’s work.

CONDITION If snow be white. why, then her breasts are dun' (sonnet CXXX by
W. Shakespeare)
REQUEST The manager requires that each applicant present a demo tape along
with the application form. (not PRESENTS!)

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

SUGGESTION They suggested that steps be taken to repair the damage.

They suggested that steps SHOULD be taken to repair the damage.
(Analytical Subjunctive)

SWEARING, TOASTS, EXCLAMATIONS

Drat the fellow!
Taxes be hanged
Long live the Queen/ God save the Queen/ Heaven forbid!

SET PHRASES - IF NEED BE, SO BE IT, BE THAT AS IT MAY, FAR BE IT

FROM ME TO + Vb., COME WHAT MAY, SUFFICE IT TO SAY THAT ...
If we have to pay damages, then so be it!
Far be it from to day that he is not competent, but ...

2. The Past Subjunctive action/state in the PRESENT or FUTURE which are

POSSIBLE, which are NOT CONTRARY TO REALITY.
Form - identical with the Past Tense Indicative
REMEMBER! Although it is identical in form with the Past tense, it is NOT the Past
of the Indicative as it doesn't refer to a real activity that actually took part sometime in
the past.

Compare
When I was the boss, I didn't allow the staff to delay the shipments. (I sometime was the
boss and now I'm not anymore).
If I was the boss, I'd give all the staff a huge bonus. (but 1'm not the boss)
- the verb BE only WERE (not WAS - this is used mainly in
informal style)
If I were/was you, I wouldn/t breathe a word about it.
If the quotation were/was fine, we would place a large order.

WISHES about the present or future:

I wish I were young again!

She wishes she were back in the 70ies.

WISHES about some state of things that is unlikely to change or is irritating can be
expressed by WISH + WOULD verb:
We all wish taxes wouldn't be so high.
1 wish you wouldn't speak so loud, I am not deaf, you know!

NECESSITY IT'S (HIGH) TIME

IT'S ABOUT TME
It's time we left. /It’s time for us to leave.
It's high time you did something useful.
It's about time he got himself a decent job.

PREFERENCE WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER/ WOULD PREFER

I'd rather we stayed a little longer.
I'd sooner we didn't leave right now.

Other subjects are possible:

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

Her sons (SUBJECT 1) would rather their mother (SUBJECT 2) lived with them, in
Norfolk.

REGRET
after IF ON LY If only I had enough time! (But I haven't)
... things would be different.

COMPARISON after AS IF, AS THOUGH

She talks to us as if we were all idiots!
He behaved as if somebody were/was listening to us.

SUPPOSITION after SUPPOSE, SUPPOSING

Supposing you were promoted, how would you treat your former colleagues at work?

CONDITION after IF (CONDITIONAL CLAUSES TYPE)

If he knew the answer, he'd let you know.

3. Past Pefect Subjundive refers to unaccomplished events in the past CONTRARY

TO REALlTY(which didn't actually happen)

WISH ABOUT THE PAST - we cannot change the past!

l wish I had been wiser and listened to your advice!
(but I wasnțt ans now I regret it)

CONDITION that didn't fulfil

He wouldn 't have gone bankrupt if he had sought for advice.

COMPARISON - unreal, after AS IF/AS THOUGH

They were chatting as if they had known each other for ages.

REGRET - about a past event after If ONLY

If only she had stayed alive to see her son adoctor!

4. The Analytical Subjunctive

Analytical· from 'analysis' - separation of things into the parts or elements of which it is
composed
MODAL+ VERB - INFINITIVE
PERFFECT lNFINIT1VE = HAVE +PAST PARTICIPLE 3rd
WOULD, SHOULD, MAY, + DO they are simultaneous
MIGHT, CAN, COULD +HAVE DONE, HAVE BEEN, HAVE TAKEN etc,
They express anteriority

It expresses:
CONCESSION MAY

Whatever you may say/you say I’ll trust her.

However hard she may try. Sally will never he as good as her sister.

SHOULD

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

Whatever he should do, he is not likely to succeed.

Used mainly with HOWEVER & WHATEVER, NO MATTER HOW / WHO / WHEN etc.
The verb can be left out altogether:

Whatever his problems, he has no right to behave like that.

A law, however good, is useless if it’s not put into practice.

PURPOSE after SO THAT, IN ORDER THAT + MAY / MIGHT

I gave him a good recommendation, so that he might get a decent job.

PURPOSE after FOR FEAR, IN CASE + SHOULD, MIGHT

He spoke in a whisper for fear he should be overheaded.

He hurried for fear he might keep us waiting.

Note. FOR FEAR expresses negative purpose and is translated as 'ca sa nu' and not as 'de
teama sa'

FEELINGS HOPE, BE AFRAlD + MAY – present reference

+ MIGHT - past reference

Ben was afraid the bank might refuse him the load.

Compare
Ben is afraid the bank may refuse him the load.

ORDER, COMMAND, REQUEST,

INSIST, SUGGEST, PROPOSE, SHOULD+VERB
OFFER, ARRANGE, AGREE

The members demanded that the meeting - should he held without any delay/ be held
without delay.

! Use this form to make a statement in official documents - reports, for instance;
you may also find it in laws, rules, regulations (formal style).

Our finance department suggests that this increase in capital investment should come
from share issues rather than loans.
If we are prepared to force or back into this market, I would suggest that we should
improve distribution and order processing, so orders can be met quickly.
However, he suggests that we also pay a further $800 for structural damage to your
premises.

IT IS NECESSARY, STRANGE, UNUSUAL, IMPORTANT, NATURAL,

LIKELY/UNLIKELY, POSSIBLE/IMPOSSIBLE, REMARKABLE, SURPRISING

SHOULD + verb

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

IT IS A PlTY/WONDER/SHAME SHOULD + verb

SURPRISE
It is absolutely necessary that the chairperson should inform the committee of the decision
made.

These structures are also known as THAT clauses:

I's a pity that you should have to leave so soon.
I’m surprised that there should be any objection.
It's unthinkable that he should resign.
What worries me is that men should be able to threaten ordinary peaceful citizens with
bombs and bullets.

WISHES, TOASTS May all your dreams come true!

CURSES May he never live to see freedom again!

COMMENTED TEST ITEMS

1. We all wish these meetings ... shorter.

a. was
b. were
c. been
d. be

The correct answer is b. were as it refers to an unreal activity introduced by the verb
WISH. It refers to the present, so it is expressed by a Past Subjunctive form.
a. was is not an option as the grammatical, acceptable is the Subjunctive were.
This form is acceptable in colloquial (especially spoken English), but not in writing.
c. been is not an option as the verb wish cannot be followed by a past Participle
form. Expressing preference or mild request can be expressed by I'd like ... to
Infinitive (I'd like these meetings to be shorter)
d. be is not an option as wish cannot be followed by a Bare infinitive.

2. I wish I ... to bring my notes.

a. haven't forgotten
b. not forgot
c. hadn't forgotten
d. didn't forget
The correct answer is c. hadn't forgotten as a wish referring to the past is expressed by
a Past Perfect Subjunctive.
a. have forgotten is not acceptable as a present tense of the Indicative is not possible
after the verb WISH.
b. not forgot is not acceptable as the negative Infinitive cannot occur after the verb wish.
d. didn't forget is not acceptable as the Past Subjunctive has a present/future time
reference, while the context indicates a past meaning - I regret something that
happened/didn't happen in the past
- in this case, I forgot the notes and now I'm sorry about it.

3. Suppose you ... that your stock is worth a million pounds.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

a. find out
b. found out
c. had found out
d. have found out
The correct answer is b. found out as supposition is expressed by Past Subjunctive
wiith a present/ future reference.
a. find out is not an option as supposition cannot be expressed in this context by a form
of the Indicative (the Present Simple).
c. had found out is not an option as Past Perfect Subjunctive has a past time reference
and the context excludes this choice.
d. have found out is not an option as supposition cannot be expressed by a form
of the Indicative (the Present Perfect Simple).

4. It's high time we ... the old equipment in the printing shop.

a. replaced
b. replace
c. had replaced
d. had replace

The correct answer is a. replaced as the remark refers to the present or future which is
expressed by a Past Subjunctive.
b. replace is not an option as the Indicative (Present Simple) cannot express an unreal
activity (replacing the equipment is an unreal/not yet accomplished activity since it
hasn't been performed)
c. had replaced is not an option as the remark does not refer to the past - the necessity
expressed by IT'S TlME has a present/future time reference, while had replaced is not
suitable whether it is a Past Perfect Subjunctive or Indicative.
d. had replace is not an option as there is no such form as aux. HAD + Infinitive.

5. If only we ... sold our stock on before the market started to rally!

a. haven't sold
b. hadn't sold
c. didn't sell
d. don't sell
The correct answer is b. hadn't sold as a hypothetical action with a past time
reference, is expressed by a Past Participle Subjunctive form.
a. haven't sold is not an option as hypothetical activities cannot be expressed by a
form of the indicative, the mood expressing real activities.
c. didn't sell is not an option as the Past Tense Subjunctive refers to a hypothetical
activity with a present/future time reference so it cannot express regret about an activity with
a past time reference.
d. don't sell is not an option for the reason presented under a.

6. We were recommended that we ... the aging equipment, as it would help us

increase the cash flows.

a. replaced
b. to replace
c. should replace

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

The correct answer is c. should replace as recommendation is expressed by a form of

the Analytical Subjunctive (also known as putative should).
a. replaced is not an option as recommendation introduced by the verb to recommend
cannot be expressed a Past Indicative since it is not a real action, but it hypothetical one
- which has not yet been accomplished.
b. to replace is not an option as recommendation introduced the verb recommend; cannot
be expressed by a form of the infinitive.

7. Program trading involves systematic sales or portfolios of stocks as if they ... one
stock.

a. to be
b. were
c. be
d. are
The correct answer is b. were as comparison is expressed by Present Subjunctive
(with Present reference); when a Subjunctive form is used instead of a form of the
Indicative, thhis means that the comparison is contrary to reality: in our case, it means
that these portfolios are not actually one stock, although this is how they are treated or
traded.
a. to be is not an option as comparison cannot be expressed by a verb in the Infinitive.
c. be is not an option for the reason presented under a.
d. are is not an option for the reason presented under b.; in such a case, the meaning is
that the comparison is real (i. e. the stocks reallv are one)

8. The expert advised that our company ... public.

a. goes
b. to go
c. should go
d. going

The correct answer is c. should go as in a That-clause the verb expressing a hypothetical

(not yet performed) action occurs in the putative should construction.
a. goes is not an option as advice introduced by the verb to advise; cannot be expressed
by a verb in the Indicative.
b. to go is not an option as a Long Infinitive form cannot occur after such verbs as
advise, suggest, demand. etc. However, a Subjunctive with a Short Infinitive form can
occur after these verbs, with the distinction that this is more frequently used in American
English and is considered to be more formal than the form containing the modal should
(The expert a advised that our company go public). Note that the form is that of the
infinitive - you use go, not goes.
d. to go is not an option as advice, after the verb to advise cannot be expressed by an
Infinitive form if this is part of a sentence. Note, however, that you can use a To
Infinitive: ... advised us to go ...

9. It is absolutely necessary that a quorum ... for any decision to be voted.

a. attend
b. to attend
c. for to attend
d. must attend

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

The correct answer is a. attend as the verbal form in That sentences, occurring after
the structure It is/was + adjective/noun (e.g. it is vital/obligatory/important/a good idea/a
pity etc.) is the Subjunctive; an option would be the structure containing the modal
should (It is necessary that a quorum should attend ... )
b. to attend is not an option as the predicativc verb in a That-clause cannot be a verb in a
non-finite form -i.e the Infinitive.
c. for to attend is not an option as the FOR-TO construction, although acceptable in
the context, is ruled out by the relative THAT;
d. must attend is not an option as although in the context the idea of obligativity is
acceptable, the structure It is necessary ... eliminates this possibility.

10. They'd rather the company ... part of the earnings.

a. reinvest
b. reinvested
c. should reinvest
d. would reinvest
The correct answer is b. reinvested as preference expressed by I'd rather/sooner is ollowed
by Past Subjunctive.
a. reinvest is not an option as the hypothetical action introduced by I’d rather cannot be
expressed by the Infinitive.
d. should reinvest is not an option as modal should (a construction indicated by some
grammars as Analytical Subjunctive) is not used after I'd rather to express a hypothetical
action.
d. would reinvest is not an option as. the modal verb would is not acceptable after I'd
rather.

11. I really wish the boss .... me to take the blame for whatever goes wrong in this
office.

a. doesn't ask
b. not to ask
c. shouldn't ask
d. wouldn't ask

The correct answer is d. wouldn't ask as wish followed by the modal would expresses
dissatisfaction with the present state and a wish for a change in the future, a meaning
indicated by the context; a solution wish + Past Subjunctive (I wish the boss didn't
ask me ... ) is not suitable as it is a neutral statement, while the context indicates
dissatisfaction.
b. not to ask is not an option as wish is not followed by an Infinitive if its subject is
different from that of the verb which follows it.
Compare: I wish to make a complaint.
c.shouldn't ask is not an option as the verb wish cannot be followed by the modal
SHOULD.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Select the correct answer from among the four suggested ones; only
one answer is correct.
Each correct answer scores 0.25 point. The total score is 10. Total work time: 1 hour.

1. I am amazed that there ... any objections to the proposals.

a. been
b. to be
c should be
d. would be

2. The law stipulates that new companies ... tax exemption.

a. should be granted
b. granted
c. to be granted
d. is granted

3. We demanded ... to the investors.

a. that the money to be returned
b. that the money be returned
c. the money for to be returned
d. to be returned the money

4. The local authorities suggested that the project ... public funds.

a. should receive
b. would receive
c. receives
d. to receive

5. The Board ordered that ... to monitor progress.

a to be set up a committee
h. a committee would set up
c. for a committee should be set up
d. a committee should be set up

6.They proposed that Jack ... to their London office.

a. moves
b. move
c. moved
d. moving

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

7. We all wish we ... longer Christmas holiday.

a. had
b. have
c. to have
d. should have
8. The Manager or the Marketing Department now wishes … in the
visual media.
a, they advertised
b. they advertise
c. they had advertised
d. they had to advertise

9. I wish I ... a couple of days off work.

a. spend
b. would spend
c. could spend
d. will spend

10. I really wish they ... their quotation every quarter. lt's so annoying!
a. wouldn't change
b. don't change
c. shouldn't change
d. couldn't change

11. I really wish we … what went wrong with our advertising campaign.
a. know
b. knew
c. knowing
d. to know

12. Don't you wish our competitors ... their prices right when we launched our new
product?
a. hadn't dropped
b. hadn't to drop
c. didn't drop
d. didn't dropped

13. I wish our secretary ... better and letters.

a. can type/to make
b. could typed/to made
c. to type / to make
d. typed / made

14. It is most worrying that the price of oil ... because of the Iraq war.
a. rosen
b. should rise
c. rises
d. to rise

15. It is absolutely necessary that ... his head in critical situations.

a. for a negotiator to keep

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

b. a negotiator keeps
c. a negotiator should keep
d. for a negotiator will keep
16. It was a good idea that everything but the core activities subcontracted to an outside
contractor.
a. was
b. were
c. should be
d. are

17. It is really surprising that sales at the beginning of the year ... sharply .. we always
have a quiet period then.
a. rises
b. rose
c. risen
d. should riseâ

18. It's high time the government ... firm steps in order to eliminate tax evasion.
a. takes
b. take
c. took
d. taken

19. It's about time our market share ... to expand after all the money we've put in
advertising and increased production efficiency.
a. to start
b. start
c. would start
d. started

20. If only our representative ... to bring the marketing portfolio to the negotiations.
a. hadn't forgotten
b. hadn't forget
c. didn't forgot
d. doesn't forget

2l. If only inflation ... it wouldn't be a disincentive to save.

a. hadn’t rose
b. didn't rise
c. doesn't rise
d. not rise

22. The management insist that the staff ... the objectives of the unit before these are
finally established.
a. discussing
b. discussion
c. to discuss
d. should discuss

23. It is important that staff ... in setting their work targets for the coming year.
a. to take part
b. taking part

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

c. take part
d. parted

24. Staff were advised … their own training needs and goals in career training.
a. should identify
b. identify
c. identification
d. that they should identify

25. However good the price ... , the company won't place an order unless quality is also
satisfactory.
a. to be
b. may be
c. been
d. reach

26. During an interview, it is a good idea that the interviewer ... the candidate the
reason for leaving the previous job.
a. should ask
b. should have ask
c. asked
d. question

27. It is highly unlikely that the interviewee ... information about his political or
religious beliefs
a. disclosing
b. should disclose
c. close
d. for to disclose

28. It is quite likely that a proportion of your customers ... that your product image is
old fashioned and dull.
a. to considers
b. considering
c. may consider
d. don't like

29. Whichever approach ... , an effective sales person is someone who knows how to
deal with different kinds of people.
a. to used
b. use
c. may use
d. may be used

30. Although we realize you are very busy we hope you ... find time to accept the
invitation and look forward to seeing you.
a. can
b. should
c. shall
d. #.
31. With our main competitors already considering this market, we suggest we ...
the mail order business by January 2004.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

a. would enter
b. should enter
c. enter
d. shall enter

32. I ... if you could open a current account a/c* for me under my trading name
R&S Fashions Ltd.
a. would appreciate it
b. can appreciate
c. would appreciated
d. am appreciating
"a/c - account current - cont curcnt

33. It's high time you ... this with your staff before it gets any worse.
a. discuss
b. discussing
c. discussed
d. has discussed

34. I have checked our post book and found that a letter was sent to you on June 30th. I am
surprised that you .... our circular letters on time.
a. not receive
b. should not receive
c. don't have received
d. wouldn't received

35. However much we ... the accident, we are not ready to pay for the damage that is not
our responsibility.
a. don't regret
b. will regret
c. to regret
d. may regret

36. If only the competition … prices right in the middle of our advertising campaign!
a. hadn't dropped
b. haven't drop
c. didn't dropped
d. dropped

37. Frankly, I'd rather we ... other arrangements.

a. make
b. are going to make
e. made
d. would make

38. Let us know your fee, so that we ... you a cheque ?

a. send
b. can send
e. to sent
d. sending

39. Jack Morgan sounded as if he ... to guarantee for my loan.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

a. hadn't agreed
b. haven't agreed
c. didn't agreed
d. agreed

40. The bank rejected my request for a loan as if the securities I offered … no good.
a. be
b. being
c. had been
d. were

3. CHARTER THREE

MODAL VERBS

In the process of communication, every speaker faces an important choice when

they formulate a declarative sentence, that is when they make a statement:

-they may fully believe in the truth of the statement, so they make a categorical assertion,
using the Indicative Mood:
It's raining.
-or they are not making a categorical assertion, but are rather modifying their commitment to
some degree by expressing a personal judgment or evaluation of the truth of the situation:
It may be raining.
It can't be raining.
In this case the speaker is presenting the content not as a simple assertion of a fact,
but as a statement coloured by personal attitude or intervention.
In very general terms, modal verbs express a relation - the speaker's relation - to
reality.

That man over there [is] the General Manager. /may be/can't be/could perhaps be the
General Manager.

The most important meanings that can be expressed in such statements are:
CERTAINTY
POSSIBILITY
PROBABILITY
NECESSITY
VOLITION
OBLIGATION
PERMISSION
ABILITY

The concept can also be extended to cover other notions such as DOUBT, WISH,
REGRET and DESIRE and temporal notions such as USUALITY.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

INPUT

1. CERTAINTY. Expressing certainty does not imply 100 % certainly as

in the Indicative form: the speaker perhaps doesn't know all the facts, or he
doesn't want to express his commitment or simply for reasons of politeness.
In the present

MUST The meeting must be over by now.

WILL The meeting will be over by NOW.

Other phrases used to express certainty are:

I'm certain that. ..
lt's certain that ...
There's no doubt/question about. ..
Without doubt/Undoubtedly ...

2. PROBABILITY refers to the speaker's deduction, to what is

reasonable to expect, given the circumstances:
With present reference
SHOULD/OUGHT TO The meeting must be over by now.
MUST The members must be discussing an issue of utmost
importance.
WILL You must be very busy.
Romanian equivalent: Trebuic sa discute o chestiune de maxima importanta.
SAU
Trebuie ca discuta o chestiune de maxima importanta.
SAU
Probabil ca discuta ...

With past references

SHOULD HAVE He should have reached/must have reached the office by now.
MUST HAVE
Romanian equivalent: Trebuie sa fi ajuns la birou.

Other phrases used to express probability or likelihood are:

I’m almost certain that ...
It’s quite likelv that.:
It's highly probable that ...

3. POSSIBILITY is expressed by MAY/MIGHT and, especially in colloquial speech,

by COULD, even when referring to a present state of affairs or to a future event, although
they are historically past forms. Note that they can all be paraphrased by "It’s possible
that…!"
With present/future reference
MAY The value of stocks may/might/could rise again next week.
MIGHT
COULD The price mav/might/could be reallv high.

The meaning may be intensified by (VERY) WELL:

Prices may/might/could very well grow again.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

Wityh past reference

MAY HAVE [WORKED] He might gave left by now.
MIGHT HAVE [BEEN] The Board may have changed their mind.
COULD HAVE [DONE
Note that they can be used in the same context:
The provision might be deleted altogether; it may remain as it stands or it could emerge
considerably strengthened and broadened.
(The Observer, 19 Jail. 1975)
The example above shows that in some cases, we cannot speak about MAY, MIGHT,
COULD being points on a scale of confidence or that in other words, one of them
expresses a stronger or a more remote possibility. However, factors such as the degree of
formality/informality of the situation influence the choice of modals.
MAY more formal; indicates reserve;
COU LD the more neutral form;
MIGHT a more assertive attitude.

4. VOLITION. The concept of VOLITION covers the meanings of

WILLINGNESS and INTENTION.
Will you sign this from me?
I’ll bring it back tomorrow.
WILLlNGNESS can be paraphrased by "X is willing to do this." It may refer to a
present or future event.
WIlL Will you give a donation to the Wildlife Society?
WON'T refusal This computer won't read my disk!
The key won't go into the lock!
I won't sell my shares now, whatever the broker says!

WILL insistence He will stop me everywhere he meets me and tell me about how he
got the Manager of the Year award all over again!

WILL order Will you stop interrupting and listen to me ?

WILL offer Will you have another cup of coffee?
SHALL offer/suggestion Shall I write the report for you?
Shall we go back to the main point now?
INTENTION call be paraphrased by "I intend to ... "
WILL promise I'll ring you sometime next week.
I think I'll just go over the Auditor's report again.

WILL theat I warn you that if you keep keep talking like that, I’ll
hang up!

WILL/SHALL Promise I'll bring you something nice when I come back from
Paris.
5. OBLIGATION and NECESSITY refer to two possible forms:
-on the one hand, an inescapable duty or requirement, (you have no choice)
expressed by MUST, HAVE (GOT) To and, in a lesser degreeby SHALL;
-on the other hand, simply an advisable course of action (you are free to take the advice
or not) expressed by SHOULD and OUGHT TO.
You really ought to be more careful when you handle company documents.

MUST obligation Applications must be in by July 30.

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

MUST command You must try harder.

You must copy this out again.

MUST necessity Lizards must hibernate in winter.

Products must go through a stage of' growth before they reach
the maturity and are adopted by the majority of the customers.

Where HAVE TO and HAVE GOT TO are used, HAVE TO is perceived as more
objective, while HAVE GOT TO as more subjective:
I've got to go now. (the obligation is internal)
1 have to go to see the Dean. (the obligation is external)
MUST is preferred for an urgent action:
We must finish the report as soon as possible.
HAVE TO is preferred for a repeated action:
The register has to be checked every month.
past reference
HAD TO The register had to be checked every month.
NEED is used to ask questions about obligations, along with DO YOU HAVE TO ...?
Need you Leave so soon?
Do you have to leave so soon?

With past reference Why did you have to leave so early?

SHOULD/OUGHT TO advice We really ought to cut down on smoking.

With present reference People should drive more carefully.

SHOULD HAVE [DONE] and OUGHT TO HAVE [DONE] imply that the obligation was
not fulfilled.
SHOULD HAVE [DONE] They should have driven more carefully.

OUGHT TO HAVE [DONE] The Government ought to have made decision earlier.
With past reference

Compare: Candidates must be university graduates.

Candidates must be between 21 and 35.
Candidates should have a knowledge of two foreign languages.
Candidates should have at least three years a experience.

6. ABILITY - or LACK OF ABILITY - is expressed by CAN/CANT,

which refer to the subject's intrinsic possibility of performing a certain
action:

This paint can be applied with a spray.

Can you finnish the project by the specified deadline?
It is important to distinguish between ABILITY and POSSIBILITY.
Compare: I can be there BY 10 o’clock.
I may be there at 10 o'clock.
It can't be 10 o'clock now!

Past reference

Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

COULD general ability Every year we could take a week's holiday on Christmas time.
CAN/COULD with verbs of From the top of the hill we could see for miles.
Perception * with the
Progressive meaning of NOW I can see you're busy; shall I call later?
*Other similar verbs: FEEL, NOTICE, HEAR, etc.
WAS/WERE ABLE TO On Christmas last year, Iwas able to take a week's holiday.

Circumstantial ability Was he able to escape?

Past reference
However, this distinction is not valid in the negative: He wasn't able to escape. He couldn't
escape.
COULDN'T = WASN'T / WEREN'T ABLE TO
7. PERMISSION is spread into several shades of meaning and is expressed by
MAY, MIGHT, COULD.
MAY request for permission May I come in ? Could I come in ?
Now, may I go over the terms of your offer again?

MAY a polite offer May I help with your luggage?

MIGHT indirect request You might oblige us all by revising the main points of our
discussion.

COULD indirect request Could you help me check this report?

8. HYPOTHETlCAL use of modals.

Apart from their other meanings, modal verbs can be used in a hypothetical
sense in both main clauses and subordinate clauses.
Consider the following examples:
I will help you if I can.
I would help you if I could.
She may pass the exam if she tries.
She might pass the exam if she tried

To refer to a past event, the MODAL + Past Participle is used. The event is
understood as being contrary to reality:
I would have helped you if I had been able to.
She might have passed if she had tried harder.
If anyone had seen you, you might have gone into trouble.

9. Modals are also used in some SET PHRASES:

I couldn’t help noticing how fired and distressed our secretary looked.

CAN'T HELP/COULDN'T HELP + V - ING

I can 't bear/stand you doing all the difficult translation work, it's just not fair.

CAN'T HELP / BEAR + V -ING

You may asas well try, if you think if will change anything at all.
Business English
Nae Oana Andreeea

MAY AS WELL + V

Bibliografie minimală

1. Brooks, Michael; David Horner (1998). Business English, Teora, Bucuresti;

2. Ciuciuc, Olga; Tănăsescu, Eugenia (1998). English for Business Purposes. Essential English. Bucureşti:
Teora.
3. Cotton, D.; Robbins S. (1996). Business Class. London: Longman.
4. Dimitriu-Caracota, Maria; Duncan, Frederick Henry - English - Romanian Dictionary of Accounting,
Economic and Financial Terms. Bucureşti: Garamond.
5. Dutescu, Dan; Mareş, Liliana (1988). Manual de conversaţie în limba engleză. Bucureşti: Editura
Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică;
6. Emerson, Paul (2008). Business English. Macmillan.
7. Evans, David (2003). Decisionmaker. Cambridge: Cambridge Universty Press.
8. Gavriliu, Eugenia (1998). English for Economics. Galaţi: Zigotto.
9. Hulban, Horia (1997). English for You. Răzeşu, Iaşi: Fundaţia Academică "Petre Andrei".
Mariana, Nicolae (2008). Corespondenta comerciala in limba engleza. Bucureşti: Editura
Universitara.

Business English