What is the 'Central Dogma'?

The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA

are converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in
1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of DNA.

 The central dogma of molecular biology explains the flow of genetic

information, from DNA ?to RNA?, to make a functional product, a protein?.
 The central dogma suggests that DNA contains the information
needed to make all of our proteins, and that RNA is a messenger that
carries this information to the ribosomes?.
 The ribosomes serve as factories in the cell where the information
is ‘translated’ from a code into the functional product.
 The process by which the DNA instructions are converted into the
functional product is called gene expression?.
 Gene expression has two key stages - transcription? and translation?.
 In transcription, the information in the DNA of every cell is
converted into small, portable RNA messages.
 During translation, these messages travel from where the DNA is in
the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where they are ‘read’ to make specific
proteins.
 The central dogma states that the pattern of information that
occurs most frequently in our cells is:
o From existing DNA to make new DNA (DNA
replication )
?

o From DNA to make new RNA (transcription)

o From RNA to make new proteins (translation).
 An illustration showing the flow of information between DNA, RNA and protein.
Image credit: Genome Research Limited

 Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to

make new DNA, this occurs in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV?. It is
the process by which the genetic information from RNA is assembled
into new DNA.

Does the ‘Central Dogma’ always apply?

 With modern research it is becoming clear that some aspects of the
central dogma are not entirely accurate.
 Current research is focusing on investigating the function of non-
coding RNA?.
 Although this does not follow the central dogma it still has a
functional role in the cell.

The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA and RNA Encodes Protein

The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to
protein.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Recall the central dogma of biology

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The genetic code is degenerate because 64 codons encode only 22 amino acids.
 The genetic code is universal because it is the same among all organisms.
 Replication is the process of copying a molecule of DNA.
 Transcription is the process of converting a specific sequence of DNA into RNA.
 Translation is the process where a ribosome decodes mRNA into a protein.

Key Terms

 codon: a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides, which encode for a specific amino acid
during protein synthesis or translation
 ribosome: protein/mRNA complexes found in all cells that are involved in the production
of proteins by translating messenger RNA
 degenerate: the redundancy of the genetic code (more than one codon codes for each
amino acid)

The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Universal

The genetic code is degenerate as there are 64 possible nucleotide triplets (4 3), which is
far more than the number of amino acids. These nucleotide triplets are called codons;
they instruct the addition of a specific amino acid to a polypeptide chain. Sixty-one of
the codons encode twenty different amino acids. Most of these amino acids can be
encoded by more than one codon. Three of the 64 codons terminate protein synthesis
and release the polypeptide from the translation machinery. These triplets are called
stop codons. The stop codon UGA is sometimes used to encode a 21st amino acid
called selenocysteine (Sec), but only if the mRNA additionally contains a specific
sequence of nucleotides called a selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS). The stop
codon UAG is sometimes used by a few species of microorganisms to encode a 22nd
amino acid called pyrrolysine (Pyl). The codon AUG, also has a special function. In
addition to specifying the amino acid methionine, it also serves as the start codon to
initiate translation. The reading frame for translation is set by the AUG start codon.

The genetic code is universal. With a few exceptions, virtually all species use the same
genetic code for protein synthesis. The universal nature of the genetic code is powerful
evidence that all of life on Earth shares a common origin.
Codons and the universal genetic code.: The genetic code for translating each nucleotide triplet (codon) in
mRNA into an amino acid or a translation termination signal.
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA, RNA Encodes Protein
The central dogma: Instructions on DNA are transcribed onto messenger RNA. Ribosomes are able to read the
genetic information inscribed on a strand of messenger RNA and use this information to string amino acids
together into a protein.

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information in cells
from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein. It states that genes specify the
sequence of mRNA molecules, which in turn specify the sequence of proteins. Because
the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, the cell keeps the DNA
protected and copies it in the form of RNA. An enzyme adds one nucleotide to the
mRNA strand for every nucleotide it reads in the DNA strand. The translation of this
information to a protein is more complex because three mRNA nucleotides correspond
to one amino acid in the polypeptide sequence.

Transcription: DNA to RNA

Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of

DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a
complementary language that enzymes can convert back and forth from DNA to RNA.
During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a
complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. Unlike DNA replication, transcription results in
an RNA complement that substitutes the RNA uracil (U) in all instances where the DNA
thymine (T) would have occurred. Transcription is the first step in gene expression. The
stretch of DNA transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a transcript. Some transcripts
are used as structural or regulatory RNAs, and others encode one or more proteins. If
the transcribed gene encodes a protein, the result of transcription is messenger RNA
(mRNA), which will then be used to create that protein in the process of translation.

Translation: RNA to Protein

Translation is the process by which mRNA is decoded and translated to produce a

polypeptide sequence, otherwise known as a protein. This method of synthesizing
proteins is directed by the mRNA and accomplished with the help of a ribosome, a large
complex of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and proteins. In translation, a cell decodes the
mRNA’s genetic message and assembles the brand-new polypeptide chain. Transfer
RNA, or tRNA, translates the sequence of codons on the mRNA strand. The main
function of tRNA is to transfer a free amino acid from the cytoplasm to a ribosome,
where it is attached to the growing polypeptide chain. tRNAs continue to add amino
acids to the growing end of the polypeptide chain until they reach a stop codon on the
mRNA. The ribosome then releases the completed protein into the cell.