JFS: Food Microbiology and Safety

Antimicrobial Properties of Raisins

in Beef Jerky Preservation
C.K. BOWER, K.F. SCHILKE, AND M.A. DAESCHEL

ABSTRACT: Fruits and vegetables may contain components that exert antimicrobial effects. In this study, beef jerky
formulated with 15% raisins produced conditions inhibitory to pathogenic bacteria by decreasing pH to 5.4 and aw
to 0.64. Storage of vacuum-packaged raisin-beef-jerky (10-wk; 30 °C) resulted in a further decrease to pH 4.5 and aw
to 0.62. The antioxidant potential was increased by over 600%. The product received favorable sensory ratings for
appearance, texture, and flavor, comparable to the non-raisin control. Raisins in ready-to-eat meats such as jerky
produce a lower fat, higher fiber product with antimicrobial capability and increased antioxidant potential, thereby
providing a potentially safer, healthier alternative to traditional meat snacks.
Keywords: antimicrobial, bacteria, jerky, pathogens, raisins

Introduction vor that is characteristic of cured meat products (Ingram 1973).

T HE ADDITION OF ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS TO FOODS IS REGULATED

by FDA. Approval of new antimicrobial preservatives is a
lengthy and expensive undertaking that is in no way guaranteed.
However, approval is needed only in circumstances where a puri-
fied substance of known identity is being petitioned. Many foods
are known to have antimicrobial activities and are allowed to be
used as food ingredients as long as those active components re-
main in their natural and original configuration and are not sub-
jected to any form of purification. Examples include spices such as
cinnamon, clove, and garlic, as well as fermented products such as
whey, wine, and sauerkraut.
Natural foods such as raisins may contain several characteristics
that together exert a substantive antimicrobial effect. Raisins have
a high concentration of phenolic compounds, with accompanying
high levels of antioxidant activity (Karadeniz and others 2000; Kar-
akaya and others 2001). Several physical factors such as low water
activity, acid pH, and high osmolarity also contribute to the overall
antimicrobial activity of raisins (Ziemke 1980). Conveniently, the
Food Microbiology and Safety
Nitrites are also added to control anaerobic bacteria, most notably
Clostridium botulinum (Woods and others 1989). However, nitrites
are unreliable for inhibiting all bacteria, and since they do not af-
fect the growth of fungi (Lück and Jager 1997), sodium chloride
must be added to the curing mix. A search for nitrite alternatives in
foods has been fueled by the concern that carcinogenic by-prod-
ucts are produced from nitrites (Chow and Hong 2002). Food prod-
ucts that wish to adhere to the new USDA National Organic Pro-
gram guidelines (USDA 2002) are prohibited from containing
nitrites. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the taste,
texture, antioxidant potential, and antimicrobial properties of rai-
sin-jerky products prepared by incorporating raisin purée into
ground beef.
Materials and Methods
Raisin extracts and raisin purée
California Thompson seedless raisins were provided by the

taste and texture of raisins appear to be sensorially compatible with
many foods, including meat products such as jerky.
Producers of ready-to-eat meat and poultry products must fol-
low stringent food safety guidelines to avoid foodborne illnesses.
Jerky products must be carefully prepared, cooked, and stored to
ensure that the product is free from potential meat pathogens (Har-
rison and Harrison 1996; Harrison and others 2001). Pathogenic
bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella subsp. are
able to survive the heat and drying treatments associated with
beef jerky processing (Holley 1985). In 2000, a commercially pro-
duced smoked beef jerky was voluntarily recalled in Connecticut
when it was found to be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes
(FSIS 2000). In 1995, an Escherichia coli infection in Oregon was
traced back to the production of home-dried deer jerky (CDC 1997).
This jerky still tested positive for E. coli 1 year later. Jerky has also
been implicated in outbreaks of salmonellosis (MMWR 1985;
MMWR 1995), and both Salmonella subsp. and L. monocytogenes
were found in beef jerky samples collected from production facili-
ties between 1990 and 1999 (Levine and others 2001).
Sodium nitrite is a highly reactive compound used in meats as a
curing agent to stabilize the color, prevent rancidity and impart fla-
California Raisin Marketing Board (Fresno, Calif., U.S.A.). Extracts
for testing antimicrobial activity were made from 100g of raisins
using 5 different ratios (v/v) of foodgrade ethanol and water (100%,
95%, 50%, 25%, and 10% ethanol). Samples were centrifuged, and
the ethanol from the supernatants was removed by low-tempera-
ture (40 °C) vacuum distillation. Extracts prepared from California
Thompson seedless raisins were evaluated for their antimicrobial
activity against foodborne bacterial pathogens, yeasts, and molds.
The antimicrobial properties were estimated by individually seed-
ing agar plates with each microorganism to be tested, and then
adding 100 µL of serially diluted raisin extracts to wells bored into
the agar. Screening of activity was also conducted using reciprocal
dilution tube assays to determine the lower limit of antimicrobial
activity (Daeschel 1992). Raisin purée was produced by mechani-
cally macerating raisins with water (10% w/w) in a food processor
until smooth.
Bacterial and fungal strains
Bacteria used in this study to challenge raisin extracts and raisin-
jerky formulations were S. aureus (FFL #B-32), E. coli O157:H7 (ATCC
#43895), L. monocytogenes Scott A (FFL #B-68), Salmonella cholerae-

1484 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 68, Nr. 4, 2003 © 2003 Institute of Food Technologists
Further reproduction prohibited without permission
Antimicrobial properties of raisins . . .
suis (ATCC #14028), and Clostridium perfringens (ATCC #12917).
Aerobic bacteria were grown on MacConkey-Sorbitol agar and Tryp-
tic Soy agar. Anaerobic bacteria were grown on freshly prepared
Brain Heart Infusion agar (BHI) using the anaerobic GasPak® sys-
tem, (Becton Dickinson, Cockeysville, Md., U.S.A.). Fungal strains
included 2 species of yeast (Saccharomyces fermenti, Hansenula
polymorpha), and 5 species of mold (Geotrichum candidum, Cla-
dosporium subsp., Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium
expansum). Yeasts were grown on Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol
agar for 3 d at 30 °C. Geotrichum, Cladosporium, and Rhizopus were
grown for 2 to 5 d at 25 °C on 18% glycerol agar. Aspergillus and Pen-
icillium were grown on Malt Extract agar.
Water activity and pH measurements
The water activity and pH of jerky samples from the shelf-life
study were determined in duplicate throughout a 10-wk period.
Samples of each jerky formulation (approximately 2 g each) were
minced into pieces approximately 1 mm2 in size. The water activity
of each sample was determined in duplicate with a chilled-mirror
dewpoint water activity meter (Aqualab model 3TE, Pullman, Wash.,
U.S.A.). Each minced sample was then stirred into 10 mL of deion-
ized water for measurement of pH (Orion Research, Inc. pH model
501, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.).
Preparation of jerky
Puréed raisins were combined with lean ground beef (10% fat) to
produce final raisin concentrations of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 50% (w/w).
Pepperoni-spice mix (PepperStix, Eldon Products, Kooskia, Id.,
U.S.A.) and sodium chloride were added, according to the manu-
facturer’s directions, to each variety of jerky to standardize the fla-
voring and salt concentration. Two raisin-free jerky controls were
prepared, one control with sodium nitrite (0.016%) and one without.
Ingredients from each jerky formulation were mixed well, and
transferred to a Jerky Master (Hi Mountain Jerky, Inc., Riverton,
Wyo., U.S.A.) for extrusion. Jerky strips were heated in a convection
oven to a temperature of 200 °F for 90 min, and then allowed to cool
for 30 min before being cut into pieces (approximately 2 g each) and
bagged.
Antioxidant activity
The antioxidant potential of a food can be measured by the Ferric
Reducing Antioxidant Potential (FRAP) assay. In this redox reaction,
a ferric (FeIII) complex, added to each sample, is reduced to a blue-
colored ferrous form (FeII) when antioxidant compounds are not
present to stop the reaction (Benzie and Strain 1996). The degree of
FeIII to FeII conversion is determined by the change in absorbance,
and can be directly correlated to the concentration of FeIII-reduc-
ing antioxidants present in the sample. This reaction is linear over
a wide range, and is reported as µMol equivalents of Trolox (the wa-
ter soluble analog of Vitamin E). For this study, antioxidant com-
pounds were extracted as described by Ou and others (2002) from
minced jerky samples (1.5 g) into solutions of 50:50 acetone:water
(20 mls; 1 h) using a Wrist-Action® Shaker (Burrell Scientific, Pitts-
burgh, Pa., U.S.A.). Samples were then centrifuged (5 min; 1750 × g),
and the supernatants tested for antioxidant activity using an auto-
mated microplate reader.
Microbial evaluation of raisin-jerky
Jerky formulations (0%, 15%, 25%, and 50% raisins) were individ-
ually challenged with each of 3 pathogenic bacteria (S. aureus, E.
coli O157:H7, and L. monocytogenes) at a concentration of 104 CFU/
ml by inoculating 0.1 ml/g onto the surface of freshly prepared
jerky. Inoculated samples were allowed to incubate at room temper-
JFS is available in searchable form at www.ift.org
ature (25 °C). After 48 hrs, jerky samples were placed into Stomach-
er® bags with 50 mL of water and pummeled at 260 rpm for 2 min
(Seward Stomacher® 400 Circulator, London, U.K.). The resulting
samples were then plated for bacterial growth on appropriate me-
dia.
Sensory evaluation of raisin-jerky
Freshly prepared jerky samples were evaluated for overall desir-
ability of appearance, texture, chewiness, and taste by 55 sensory
panelists in a single-blind study. The blinding codes were assigned
according to a Williams block design (Williams 1949). Panelists were
asked to evaluate the flavor, texture, and chewiness of each jerky
sample on 5-point hedonic scales. The 5-point scale was chosen
because of the relatively large number of samples and attributes
being compared. The panelists were also asked to rank samples in
order of visual attractiveness. Demographics data (the panelist’s
age, gender, and frequency of consumption of jerky products) and
comments were also gathered for trending. Statistical analysis of the
responses was performed using the Compusense 5.0® software
package (version 4.2, Compusense, Inc., Guelph, Canada).
Shelf-life study of raisin-jerky
Shelf-life studies were conducted by individually vacuum-pack-
aging 20 comparably sized pieces of each jerky formulation (raisin-
jerky, jerky-with-nitrites, and jerky-without-nitrites). Samples were
stored at 30 °C and monitored on a weekly basis for changes in
overall appearance, since the texture of jerky can undergo changes
related to storage temperature (Farouk and Swan 1999). Two sam-
ples of each jerky formulation were removed each week for testing
(pH, aw, aerobic and anaerobic microbial growth) to document any
changes that might occur during storage. Total aerobic counts were
confirmed as zero by placing samples directly into Tryptic Soy Broth
(TSB) for 48 hrs, and then plating onto BHI agar to confirm sterility.
Bacterial challenge studies were carried out to evaluate raisin-
jerky’s ability to inhibit aerobic bacteria during vacuum-packaged
storage. Three pathogens (S. aureus, E. coli O157:H7, and L. mono-
cytogenes) were mixed together in equal quantities, and were intro-
duced onto the surface of each 2-g jerky sample at a concentration
of approximatley 104 CFU/g. Samples were pummeled in a Stoma-
cherâ and then plated onto Tryptic Soy Agar (TSA) and MacConkey-
Sorbitol agar, or else aseptically transferred to TSB to confirm steril-
ity. Enumeration of viable bacteria, together with visual
Food Microbiology and Safety
morphology and Gram stains were used to follow the 3 bacterial
populations during the 10-wk shelf-life study. Similar bacterial
challenge studies were conducted using the anaerobe C. perfrin-
gens. Jerky samples were exposed to a suspension of vegetative C.
perfringens (104 CFU/ml) before vacuum packaging. Every week,
samples were pummeled and then plated onto BHI for anaerobic
incubation using the GasPak® anaerobic system. Samples having
low anaerobic counts were enriched in Fluid Thioglycollate for 48
hrs, followed by plating onto BHI agar to detect viable organisms.
All chemical and microbial analyses were performed in duplicate at
a minimum. Mean values and standard deviations are presented
with the figures and tables.
Results and Discussion
Antimicrobial activity of raisin extracts
Raisin extracts produced no directly observable antimicrobial ef-
fect. However, when a 95% ethanol extract of raisins was concentrat-
ed into 15% of its original volume, activity was observed against 2
bacteria (S. choleraesuis, E. coli O157:H7) and 1 yeast (Saccharomy-
ces fermenti), but was not effective against any of the molds tested.
Vol. 68, Nr. 4, 2003—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 1485
 Antimicrobial properties of raisins . . .
Surface application of raisin extracts onto beef jerky
Commercial beef jerky was used as a food system to evaluate the
antimicrobial activity of raisin extracts when applied directly to the
jerky surface. Raisin extracts were considered to be the most versa-
tile form to use with foods to evaluate potential antimicrobial activ-
ity. It was believed that a concentrated surface application of the
raisin extract would protect the exposed layer of the jerky more ef-
fectively than integrating the extract into the meat where its anti-
microbial and antioxidant effects would be diluted. In theory, ap-
plying the raisin extracts as a dip or as a spray directly onto the jerky
surface would provide the greatest protection against postprocess-
ing surface contamination, which is a major mode of entry for micro-
organisms found in meat products. In practice, however, the raisin
extracts turned out to be viscous and hygroscopic, making them
impossible to apply onto the surface of the jerky as an even coating.
Jerky strips treated with raisin extract became sticky and attracted
moisture to the surface, thereby increasing the water activity and
promoting, rather than inhibiting, microbial growth. Consequently,
it became necessary to incorporate the raisins directly into ground
beef to produce a raisin-jerky product.
Incorporation of raisin purée into ground beef
The pH of the raisin-jerky formulations decreased linearly with
increasing concentrations of raisin purée in both uncooked and
cooked samples (Figure 1a). Raisins contain substantial amounts of
organic acids, which contribute to their low pH (3.5 to 4.0). Food
Food Microbiology and Safety
Figure 1—The pH (a) and water activity (b) decreased when
raisin purée was added to ground beef in raw (䉬) and
cooked (䊐) jerky. Error bars represent the standard devia-
tion associated with each data point.
1486 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 68, Nr. 4, 2003
products that have an acidic pH can create a stressful environment
for microorganisms. Low water activity in foods can also produce a
strong inhibitory effect. When increasing quantities of raisin purée
were incorporated into ground beef, the water activity of the mix-
ture decreased (Figure 1b). However, this reduction in water activ-
ity was only linear (R2 = 0.92) for the uncooked raisin-jerky formu-
lations. When raw beef is cooked, the water content decreases as the
myofibrillar proteins shrink and undergo denaturation. This reduc-
es the water holding capacity, which reaches a minimum at the iso-
electric point of the muscle proteins (approximately pH 5.1) where
there is no charge available to interact with the water (Zayas 1997).
A nonlinear, U-shaped curve will occur when the water holding ca-
pacity is plotted against cooked beef samples that have different
pHs (Labuza 1985). When the water activity of the cooked raisin-
jerky samples was graphed against the pH (Figure 2), a typical U-
shaped curve was produced with endpoints representing 100%
ground beef (pH 5.8; aw 0.91) and 100% raisin purée (pH 4.0; aw
0.58). The lowest point on the curve (pH 4.7; aw 0.42) suggests that
raisins can decrease the isoelectric point of ground beef, thereby
decreasing the water activity of the cooked jerky. Formulations con-
taining approximately 35% raisin purée would be needed to
achieve the minimum water activity.
Microbial evaluation of raisin-jerky
The antimicrobial properties of 2 raisin-jerky concentrations were
tested by challenging with S. aureus. Antibacterial activity was
found to be directly related to the decrease in water activity that
occurred in the presence of the raisin purée (Figure 3). S. aureus is
found on a high percentage of raw meat, however it neither grows
nor produces enterotoxin when the surrounding water activity is
less than 0.83 (Bergdol 1989). This suggests that beef products such
as jerky would not be conducive to growth for S. aureus when at
least 10% raisins are present.
A similar decrease in bacterial survival was observed when E. coli
O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes were used to challenge raisin-jerky
formulations (Figure 4). Despite the low pH and water-activity val-
ues measured earlier, the inoculated jerky samples appeared to
allow substantial bacterial growth. When the initial bacterial sus-
pension was applied onto the surface of the jerky, it raised the water
activity and allowed a higher rate of bacterial survival. The approx-
imate increase in water activity was determined by inoculating
each variety of jerky with sterile water (0.1 ml/g), and allowing the
samples to incubate at 30 °C for 48 h. The elevation in aw of each
jerky variety was 0.05 to 0.07, however even with elevated moisture
Figure 2—Water activity and pH values for different con-
centrations of raisin purée (0 to 50%) added to ground beef
to produce a cooked raisin-jerky product
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Antimicrobial properties of raisins . . .

levels, beef jerky containing raisin purée still compromised bacte- Table 1—Summary of sensory evaluation by 55 panelists
rial survival as shown in Figure 4. of beef jerky samples formulated with nitrite or raisins at
different concentrations
Sensory panel results for raisin jerky Sensory Nitrite 10% 15% 20%
Panelists ranked the 10% raisin jerky as superior to the nitrite- Attribute control Raisins Raisins Raisins
cured control in terms of overall liking, flavor, texture, and appear- Flavor 1 3.4 (1.3)ab 3.6 (1.1) a 3.2 (1.0)ab 3.0 (1.1) b
ance ( Table 1). Written comments indicated that the sweet and Texture 1 3.6 (1.0) a 3.8 (0.9) a 3.6 (1.0) a 2.8 (1.2) b
Chewiness 1 2.9 (0.8) a 3.0 (0.6) a 2.7 (0.8)ab 2.4 (1.0) b
tangy flavor imparted by the raisins was pleasing, and reduced the
Overall Liking1 3.4 (1.2) a 3.7 (1.0) a 3.3 (0.9)ab 2.8 (1.2) b
perceived saltiness of the jerky. The 20% raisin jerky was consistent- Appearance2 3rd 1st (best) 2nd 4th (worst)
ly scored lower than the other samples in all sensory categories, and 1 Mean score on a hedonic scale from 1 (dislike greatly) to 5 (like greatly)
was described as crumbly or too soft in texture, with an “unusual” 2 Panelists were asked to rank a set of 4 samples in order from most to least
visually appealing.
or overly sweet flavor. The jerky formulated with 15% raisins was Standard deviation is given in parentheses. Samples with like letters do not
judged positively for all characteristics except chewiness, and thus differ significantly. For all samples, n = 55 and p < 0.03.
appears to be the limit of consumer acceptability. Approximately
60% of the respondents claimed to eat jerky products at least once
every 3 mo.

Shelf-life studies
Shelf-life studies were conducted to monitor changes in appear-
ance, texture, pH, water activity, and antimicrobial activity of vac-
uum-packaged raisin-jerky (15%) and 2 controls. One control was
prepared using a curing mix containing 6.22% sodium nitrite, and
the other control was formulated without nitrites.
Initially, cooked samples of both nitrite-treated and nitrite-free
controls had pH values above 6.0, while the 15% raisin-jerky had a
pH of 5.4 (Figure 5). Over the course of the 10-wk study, the pH
dropped to 5.5 for the controls and to pH 4.5 for the raisin-jerky.
Both pH and aw of vacuum-packaged meats are known to decrease
with storage time (Papadopoulos and others 1991; Blixt and Borch
2002). In this study, the water activities of each jerky variety also
decreased over time (Table 2). The high residual sugar concentra-
tion in raisins contributes to increased osmotic pressure and de-
creased water activity in any product that incorporates them. Low
aw beef jerky will be microbiologically safer, however these meats
tend to be unacceptably tough and chewy. The addition of raisins
produced a low water activity while retaining a softer, more pliable
texture.
Within a few weeks of storage, the formation of salt crystals was
observed on the surfaces of all 3 vacuum-packaged jerky varieties.
This was likely initiated during the heating and cooling processes
before the jerky was packaged. As moisture evaporated from the
hot jerky, water was drawn from the inner regions of the meat,
bringing salts with it to the surface (Ledward 1981). Concentrations
of salt on the surface would directly affect the ionic strength, and
cause a change in the pH of the jerky, which may have contributed
to the decreased pH observed during 10-wk of storage.
As part of the shelf-life study, uninoculated jerky samples were
tested for microbial growth. None of the samples initially harbored
any viable aerobic or anaerobic bacteria, nor were any bacteria re-
covered during the 10-wk study. To evaluate the microbial safety of
raisin-jerky in the event of post-processing contamination, 15%
raisin-jerky and 2 controls were challenged with 3 pathogenic bac-
teria (E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus) before vac-
uum packaging. The initial water activity for each jerky formulation
was below 0.75 (Table 2). The low water activity and anaerobic en-
vironment within the vacuum packaging resulted in no aerobic
bacteria being recovered after 4 wk (Figure 6). Although it has been
found that E. coli O157:H7 contaminants are less able to survive
when jerky is formulated with a nitrite and salt cure mix (Harrison
and others 1998), the raisin-jerky was equally effective at inhibiting
E. coli O157:H7 (as well as 2 other meat-borne pathogens L. mono-
cytogenes and S. aureus). It has also been observed that E. coli
O157:H7 contaminants are less able to survive in jerky formulated
with a low fat content (Faith and others 1998). This suggests that

Food Microbiology and Safety

Figure 3—S. aureus decreases in viability over 48 hrs when

inoculated onto beef jerky varieties that have been formu-
lated with increasing concentrations of raisins (0, 25, and Figure 4—Bacterial survival and/or growth (48 h) on beef
50%). The line represents viable bacteria and the gray bars jerky containing raisin purée at concentrations of 0%, 25%,
display decreasing water activity. or 50%. Initial inoculum of each pathogen was 104 CFU/g.

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 Antimicrobial properties of raisins . . .

Table 2—initial and final water activity of jerky samples over sodium nitrite is allowed only in certain foods, at a concentration of
10-wk study 156 ␮g NaNO2 per g of food (CFR 2001).
Jerky samples Initial aw Final aw
Nitrite control 0.73 ± 0.01 0.61 ± 0.01
Antioxidant activity of raisin-jerky
Nitrite-free control 0.74 ± 0.01 0.66 ± 0.01 Harmful reactive oxygen species and free radicals, which are by-
15% Raisins 0.64 ± 0.01 0.62 ± 0.01 products of normal aerobic metabolism, are commonly associated
with human cell damage and aging. Antioxidant compounds in
foods can help prevent oxidative damage (Mathews and others
2000). Grapes and raisins are known to contain high levels of anti-
oxidants because of their polyphenol content. (Wang and others
15%-raisin jerky (with 15% less fat than the raisin-free control 1996). In this study, jerky samples formulated with 15% raisins had
jerkys) would prove especially effective at controlling the growth of antioxidant values over 600% higher than the control samples for-
E. coli O157:H7. mulated without raisins (Figure 7). The high antioxidant levels in
Clostridium perfringens spores present in foods may survive the
heating process and eventually germinate in the gastrointestinal
tract and produce enterotoxins (McClane and Rood 2001). To ver-
ify that bacterial spores cannot survive and produce toxins in vac-
uum-packed raisin-jerky, challenge studies were conducted using
an anaerobic sporeformer (C. perfringens). This microorganism was
chosen because its spores can be unintentionally introduced into
food products through the addition of flavorings and spices. The
initial pH of raisin-jerky was 5.4 and the final pH was 4.5 (Figure 5).
Below pH 5.5, C. perfringens growth is inhibited, and below pH 5.0,
cells die within a few days (Wrigley 1994). This suggests that the
addition of raisins to meat products may protect against the growth
of anaerobic sporeformers.
The jerky treated with nitrites had less than 40 CFU/g C. perfrin-
gens at week 5, whereas the control jerky formulated without ni-
trites or raisins still had C. perfringens counts at 103 CFU/g. By the
6th wk, all of the vacuum-packed jerky samples had bacterial counts
less than 40 CFU/g. Gram stains and phase-contrast microscopy
were initially used to determine if spores were forming in viable C.
perfringens cells, however since C. perfringens generally does not
sporulate in foods, no spores were ever detected in the raisin-jerky.
Additionally, since C. perfringens enterotoxin is only produced dur-
ing sporulation (which typically occurs in the intestine after con-
sumption of viable cells) and is generally not present in the con-
taminated food, this study concentrated on the recovery of viable
C. perfringens. Based on this survival study, we anticipate that other
Clostridium subsp., (for example, C. botulinum), would be similarly
inhibited by a raisin-jerky product that is free of nitrites. In the U.S.,
Food Microbiology and Safety

Figure 6—Decrease in viability of E. coli (black), S. aureus

(gray), and L. monocytogenes (white) over 10-wk of
Figure 5—Decrease in pH during 10-wk of vacuum pack- vacuum packaged storage when inoculated onto 3 beef
aged storage for all 3 jerky varieties, Nitrite-treated (䉫), jerky varieties, nitrite-treated jerky (6a), nitrite-free jerky
Nitrite-free (䊏), and 15% raisin (䉱) jerky. (6b), and 15%-raisin jerky (6c).

1488 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 68, Nr. 4, 2003 JFS is available in searchable form at www.ift.org
Antimicrobial properties of raisins . . .
Figure 7—Antioxidant activity of beef jerky formulated with
and without raisins as measured by the FRAP assay
raisins may prevent lipid oxidation, staling and flavor degradation
of meat products that can lead to off-flavors during processing.
Conclusions
T HE ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF RAISINS DO NOT DERIVE FROM
a single component but are the cumulative effect of several
chemical and physical factors, including lowered water activity,
acidic pH, and phenolic compounds. Raisins are compatible with
beef from a sensorial point of view, and may serve as a tool to im-
prove or regulate texture, mouth feel, and appearance in these
products, while decreasing both fat and cholesterol. In addition,
high antioxidant levels may decrease off-flavors associated with
lipid oxidation. Benefits from the incorporation of raisins into jerky
may not be limited to beef, since other meat products are currently
being processed into jerky (Miller and others 1988; Sutton and oth-
ers 1993; Carr and others 1997). Raisins may also prove valuable in
vegetarian products such as meatless burgers and sausage. It may
even be possible to substitute raisins for nitrites in processed meat
products such as jerky. Traditionally, high sodium foods such as beef
jerky are restricted for patients placed on low salt diets (Elliott and
Crockett 1977), however the substitution of raisins for a high-salt
nitrite curing mix may make beef jerky accessible to these people
again.
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MS 20020669 Submitted 11/22/02, Revised 12/13/02, Accepted 1/3/03, Received
1/7/03
We wish to thank the California Raisin Marketing Board for their funding and donation of
raisins used in this research, Olga Martin for technical help with the phenolic acid, Ned
Morris for performing the FRAP assays, Mahfuzur Sarker for providing us with a strain of
Clostridium perfringens, and the OSU Sensory Lab for use of laboratory resources and
valuable advice.
Authors are with Dept. of Food Science and Technology, 100 Wiegand Hall,
Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR 97331. Direct inquiries to author Daeschel
(E-mail: Mark.Daeschel@orst.edu).
Vol. 68, Nr. 4, 2003—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 1489