ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 104-M31
Rheology of Extruded Cement-Based Materials
by Katherine G. Kuder and Surendra P. Shah
Current research efforts seek to develop extruded high-performance
fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (HPFRCC) for use in
residential housing applications. Part of this effort focuses on
reducing the high material cost that is associated with extrusion
processing by replacing costly cellulose ethers with less expensive
clay binders. The minimum amount of two different types of cellulose
ethers that was needed to achieve extrudability was determined
and then the possibility of reducing the ethers with two clay binders
was explored. The results show that cellulose ether content can be
reduced by using alternate clay binders. In addition, two different
extrusion-based rheological characterization methods were used to
describe the fresh state properties of the extruded materials: the
Benbow-Bridgwater model and capillary rheology. Capillary rheology
was shown to be effective at describing extrudability, providing an
indication of the fresh state parameters necessary for extrusion.
Keywords: capillary; clay; rheology.
INTRODUCTION
To be extrudable, the fresh state properties of a cement-
based material must be controlled so that it: 1) is soft enough
to flow through the die; 2) is stiff enough to maintain its
shape upon exit of the die (shape stable); 3) does not undergo
phase migration (liquid and solid phases separating); 4)
requires a reasonably low extrusion pressure (control
manufacturing costs); and 5) has minimal surface defects
(for example, edge fracture and surface tearing).
To date, these properties have been partly achieved by
using cellulose ethers, which are extremely effective at
controlling the fresh state properties of extruded cementitious
materials. The cost of the material, however, is high. In this
work, the possibility of reducing the cellulose ether content
with alternate clay binders is examined, with the aim of
formulating a more cost-effective mixture design. These clay
binders are approximately one-hundredth the cost of the
cellulose ethers and previous research has shown that clay
has the potential to enhance the fresh state properties of stiff
cementitious materials.1,2 Initial work included defining a
minimum amount of cellulose ether that is needed for extrusion
and then determining if clay can be used as a full or partial
replacement. The rheological parameters of the mixtures
were evaluated using two rheological models that are suitable
for the characterization of stiff paste systems: the Benbow-
Bridgwater model and capillary extrusion. The usefulness of
the two models was determined and the desirable rheological
traits of the mixtures identified.
BACKGROUND
Extrusion is an advanced processing technique that can be
used to produce high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious
composites (HPFRCC). These materials exhibit a strain-
hardening response under tensile loading with a tensile
strength and strain capacity that is superior to conventional
fiber-reinforced materials. Researchers have demonstrated
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007
TECHNICAL PAPER
that this high performance can be achieved in a variety of
ways, including using micromechanical modeling to select
the material properties of the fibers and the matrix,3 tailored
fiber geometries,4 and advanced processing techniques.5-9
In extrusion, a stiff cementitious dough is forced through
a die of a desired cross section using either an auger or a ram.
During this process, the material is subjected to high
compressive and shear forces, which densify the matrix,
improve the fiber-matrix bond, and align fibers in the direction
of extrusion.7,10-13 As a result, the mechanical performance
and durability of the composites are superior to similar cast
materials.8,11
Current research efforts have focused on developing
extruded materials for residential applications, such as
siding, roofing tile, backerboard, and paneling systems.14-16
Laboratory research has demonstrated that the extrusion
technique has the potential to produce HPFRCC with varying
cross sections, environmentally friendly compositions, and a
high durability.7,8,13,17,18 The high durability of extruded
cement-based compositions is an especially attractive feature
because they are not susceptible to the durability problems
that are often a concern with currently-used residential building
materials, including fire resistance, resistance to water intrusion
(resulting in freezing-and-thawing damage, mold, and wood
rot), vulnerability to termite infestation, radiation, and rust.19-24
Issues that limit the commercialization of extrusion
technology include constructability and processing.14 In
parallel work, the constructability of extruded composites
has been improved by making the composites nailable.14,15
The processing characteristics of extruded materials are
investigated herein with the aim of reducing the material cost
associated with extrusion.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Extruded composites offer a number of advantages over
the materials currently used in residential construction,
including environmentally-friendly compositions, design
versatility, high strength and toughness, and high durability.
The material cost associated with extrusion, however, is high
due to the amount of expensive processing aids (cellulose
ethers) needed. In this work, a more cost-effective mixture
design is sought by investigating the use of less expensive
clay binders. With the cost of the materials needed for extrusion
reduced, it is anticipated that industry will be more likely to
adopt extrusion technology for residential applications.
ACI Materials Journal, V. 104, No. 3, May-June 2007.
MS No. M-2006-191 received May 9, 2006, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright © 2007, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including
the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion including authors’ closure, if any, will be published in the March-
April 2008 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is received by December 1, 2007.
283
Katherine G. Kuder is an Assistant Professor at Seattle University, Seattle, Wash. Table 1—Fly ash composition
She received her MS and PhD from Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Her Analyte Weight, %
research interests include fiber reinforcement, rheology, durability, impact testing,
extrusion processing, and the use of cement-based materials in residential applications. SiO2 49.1
Al2O3 23.88
Surendra P. Shah, FACI, is the Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil Engineering at
Northwestern University and Director of the Center for Advanced Cement-Based Fe2O3 12.87
Materials. He is a member of ACI Committees 215, Fatigue of Concrete; 440, Fiber
Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement; 446, Fracture Mechanics; 544, Fiber Reinforced CaO 5.68
Concrete; 548, Polymers in Concrete; 549, Thin Reinforced Cementitious Products MgO 0.71
and Ferrocement; and E803, Faculty Network Coordinating Committee. His research
interests include high-performance cement-based materials, fiber-reinforced composites, SO3 0.92
nondestructive testing, closed-loop testing, constitutive laws, and the fracture
mechanics of cement-based systems.
Na2O 1.33
Loss on ignition 2.37
Total 94.49

Table 2—Cellulose ether properties25,26

Chemical Specific gravity, Viscosity,
Trade name designation g/cm3 (lb/in.3) pa*s (psf*s)
Hydroxypropyl 2.3 to 3.8
Methocel 4fm* methylcellulose
1.3 (0.05)
(0.05 to 0.08)
Methylhydroxyethyl 0.32 to 0.40 10.4 to 12.4
Walocel M-20678† cellulose (0.012 to 0.014) (0.22 to 0.26)
*
Viscosity determined for 1% solution, 20 °C, rheometer.
†Viscosity determined for 1% solution, 20 °C, by rotation.

Table 3—Clay properties27,28

Trade name Mineral composition Mean particle size, μm (μin.)
Fig. 1—Base mixture design (by volume). Kaolinite (45%), mica
Concresol ~0.5 (20)
(35%), and free silica (20%)
Metamax HRM Calcined kaolinite 1.2 (47.2)

to note, however, that the amount of water absorbed could

differ based on clay type, and this material characteristic was
not thoroughly examined herein. The amount of the cellulose
ethers and clays incorporated was based on the extrudability
testing and is given as percentages of the weight of the total
binder (cement + fly ash + silica fume). For convenience, a
shorthand was used to express the mixture designs, with the
binders of the mixture described by weight percentages. For
example, W0.25C0.25, contains 0.25% Walocel and
0.25% Concresol.

Fig. 2—Schematic of ram extruder.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Materials
Previous researchers developed the base mixture design
that was used, in which 70% of the cement, by volume, is
replaced with Class F fly ash. Incorporation of fly ash was
found to aid in processing without compromising mechanical
performance.7 Figure 1 presents the mixture design. The
Class F fly ash had a mean particle size of 10 μm. A chemical
analysis of the fly ash is given in Table 1. Type I cement was
used. The water-binder ratio was kept constant at 0.28.
Two different cellulose ethers, Methocel (MC) and
Walocel (W), and two different clay types, Concresol (C)
and Metamax (M), were studied. Tables 2 and 3 present the
material properties of the cellulose ethers and clays examined,
respectively. When clay was added, water weighing 60% of
the clay weight was added to account for the water absorptive
properties of the clay. This amount was approximated based
on experimental observation of the two clays. It is important
Material preparation
Extruded composites were mixed in a mixer (planetary
mixer). First, the wet ingredients (water and high-range
water-reducing admixture) were mixed together by hand.
The dry ingredients (cement, fly ash, silica fume, and
binders) were then mixed by hand. Next, the dry and wet
ingredients were combined and mixed by hand. The material
was then mixed in the mixer on the lowest speed (61 rotations/
minute) for approximately 5 minutes. Finally, the speed was
changed to the medium speed (113 rotations/minute) and the
material mixed for approximately 10 to 15 minutes until a
homogeneous, cohesive dough was achieved.
Ram extruder
Previous researchers developed the rheometer that was
used in this study.29 The design is based on extruders developed
for ceramic materials.30-32 A schematic of the extruder is
given in Fig. 2. The barrel has a diameter of 38.1 mm (1.5 in.)
and a length of 125 mm (4.9 in.), allowing approximately
120 mL (7.3 in.3) of material to be extruded at a time. The die
used depended on the testing, as described in the Extrudability
testing and Rheometric analysis sections.

284 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007

 The rheometer was mounted in a closed-loop material test
system (MTS) testing machine with a 24 kN (5 kip) load cell.
The stiff cementitious dough was forced through the die at a
constant displacement rate and the load and piston displacement
were recorded.

EXTRUDABILITY TESTING
Initial work involved determining mixtures that were
extrudable. First, the minimum amount of the cellulose
ethers needed for extrusion was evaluated. Then, the
possibility of replacing the cellulose ethers with clay was
systematically examined.
No standardized test method exists to determine whether
or not a composition is extrudable. In this work, extrudability
was evaluated by extruding open cross sections with the ram
extruder. Open cross sections were used because these
sections require the most shape stability. Cellular sections
could be used in housing applications in interior paneling
systems where insulative properties are needed, whereby
insulation could be placed in between the cells.
An open, symmetrical, two-celled die with a rectangular
cross section was attached to the ram extruder. The dimensions
of the section are given in Fig. 3. Specimens were extruded
at a rate of 1 mm/second (0.04 in./second) and their shape
observed after exiting the die. If the material exhibited any
of the following: poor shape stability, phase migration, an
excessively high extrusion pressure, or surface defects (usually
edge tearing), the material was considered not extrudable.
It is important to note that extrudability is related to extrusion
velocity as well as to the shape being extruded. Therefore,
the minimum amounts of binders defined herein are dependent
on the velocity and die used.
Rheometric analysis
Experimental data collection—Three circular dies were
used, each with a diameter of 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) and with
lengths of 12.7, 25.4, and 50.8 mm (0.5, 1, and 2 in.), providing
length/diameter ratios (L/D) of 1, 2, and 4, respectively. For
each mixture that was tested, 18 experimental runs were
made. Three die lengths and six piston velocities, 0.2, 0.5, 1,
2, 3, and 5 mm/second (0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.12, and
0.20 in./second), which correspond to extrudate velocities of
1.8, 4.5, 9, 18, 27, and 45 mm/second (0.07, 0.18, 0.35, 0.71,
1.06, and 1.77 in./second), respectively, were used. Preliminary
work showed that repeatable results were obtained from
extruding the same mixture in two different runs. Therefore,
in the interest of time, subsequent testing only involved one
extrusion run per variable tested.
Analytical methods—Researchers have successfully used
extrusion-based rheological models to describe the fresh
state characteristics of stiff cement-based materials.28,33,34
The properties that are needed for extrudability, however,
have not been defined. In this work, the Benbow-Bridgwater
model and capillary rheology are used to describe the effects
of the binders on flow behavior. In addition, the fresh state
parameters necessary for extrudability are sought.
Benbow-Bridgwater model
Benbow and Bridgwater developed a model to describe
the rheology of pastes, which considers the pressure difference
that is generated to force a paste through a die.32,35 The model
assumes that the material undergoes plastic deformation in
the die entry and that it moves as a plug in the die land, with
a small amount of the material being sheared along the die
Fig. 3—Schematic of open symmetric cross section used
for testing.
Fig. 4—Example extrusion pressure versus length/diameter
for different piston velocities.
wall. Figure 2 presents a schematic representation of the
pressure drops in ram extrusion. The total extrusion pressure
Ptot is equal to the sum of the pressure drop in the die entry
P1 and the pressure drop in the die land P2, as given in Eq. (1).
Thus, there are two parts of the system of flow: flow through
the extruder barrel and flow through the die land.
4L
Ptot = P 1 + P 2 = 2 ln ( D 0 ⁄ D ) ( σ 0 + αV ) + ------ ( τ 0 + βV ) (1)
D
where P equals the extrusion pressure (kPa) or (psi); V
equals the extrudate velocity (mm/second) or (in./second);
D0 equals the diameter of extruder barrel (mm) or (in.); D
equals the diameter of die land (mm) or (in.); L equals the
length of die land (mm) or (in.); σ0 equals the initial bulk
yield stress (kPa) or (psi); α equals the factor to characterize
velocity effect in barrel (kPa*s/mm) or (psi*s/in.); τ0 equals
the initial wall yield stress (kPa) or (psi*s/in.); and β equals
the factor to characterize velocity effect in die land (kPa*s/mm)
or (psi*s/in.).
The bulk yield strength of the material σ is equal to σ0 + αV,
and indicates the material resistance to flow. The wall shear
stress τ is given by τ0 + βV, and is the resistance of the material
to flow at the interface between the material and the die land.
σ0, τ0, α, and β are material parameters that are assumed to
be independent of the die geometry and extrusion rate.
The Benbow-Bridgwater parameters were obtained by
plotting extrusion pressure versus L/D ratio for each extrusion
velocity, as is shown in Fig. 4. A simple graphical analysis of
the data provides the Benbow-Bridgwater parameters. Linear
regression was performed for the six different velocities. A plot
of the intercepts of these lines as a function of the extrudate
velocity provided the yield strength parameters, σ0 and α.
Similarly, by plotting the slopes versus the extrudate velocities,

ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007 285


Fig. 5—Velocity and stress profiles assumed in capillary
analysis.
Fig. 6—Example of apparent shear stress versus apparent
shear rate (Walocel 0.5).
the wall shear strength parameters, τ0 and β, were obtained.
For the materials tested, a linear relationship was found
between the extrusion pressure and L/D ratio (as shown in
Fig. 4), indicating that the Benbow-Bridgwater model could
be applied.
Capillary rheology
Capillary rheology can be used to determine fundamental
flow properties. The velocity and shear stress profiles assumed
are shown in Fig. 5. Capillary analysis assumes that flow is
laminar (Reynolds number < 2000), is fully developed, and that
there is no slip at the wall. The apparent shear stress τapp and
shear rate γ· app are given in Eq. (2) and (3), respectively.
PD
τ rx = τ app = -------- (2)
4L
8V
γ· app = ------- (3)
D shear stress versus apparent shear rate curve that is obtained
286
Fig. 7—Example of shear stress versus apparent shear rate
after Bagley end correction (Walocel 0.5).
where P equals the extrusion pressure (kPa) or (psi); V equals
the mean extrudate velocity in the capillary (mm/second or
in./second); L equals the capillary length (mm/second or
in./second); and D equals the capillary diameter (mm/second
or in./second).
With the extrusion of paste systems, however, the flow
regime is more complicated, with pressure gradients
throughout the capillary that are not constant due to end
effects.36 As the paste flows from the barrel to the die or
capillary, the velocity profile is in a transitional state until it
becomes fully developed. The distance that is required for
the flow to become fully developed is known as the entrance
length, and is generally accounted for by using Bagley’s end
correction.36 Bagley proposed that the pressure drop at the
capillary entrance could be modeled by an imaginary extension
of the capillary length and suggested that the following
relationship be used to determine the true wall shear stress in
the capillary τw
PD
τ w = -------------------------- (4)
4 ( L + ND )
where N is the end correction factor for the imaginary extension
of the capillary length.
By using Eq. (3) and (4), shear stress versus apparent shear
rate curves can be obtained. Researchers have also found,
however, that corrections may be needed to account for the
wall slip that occurs in the capillary with highly stiff,
concentrated pastes.33,37-39 Recent work by Zhou and Li
indicated that the Jastrzebski correction should be used when
studying the rheology of fiber-reinforced cement pastes to
account for wall slip.33 Because only one capillary diameter
was used in this investigation, wall slip corrections cannot be
made and flow curves are given as wall shear stress versus
apparent shear rate.
Figure 6 presents an example curve obtained using Eq. (2)
and (3). The apparent shear stress depends upon the die
length, with the stress increasing as the diameter decreases.
Thus, the Bagley end correction is needed. The Bagley end
correction was determined by linear regression analysis of
the extrusion pressure versus L/D ratio for each velocity,
such as is shown in Fig. 4. Extrapolation of the measured
pressure to an L/D ratio of zero gave the end correction N,
which corresponds to the assumed pressure drop across the
L/D = 0 orifice. Equation (4) was then employed to determine
the true wall shear stress. Figure 7 presents an example of the
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007
 Fig. 9—Extrusion pressure as function of cellulose ether
Fig. 8—Example of differential viscosity versus apparent
content (for L/D = 4, v [piston velocity] = 1 mm/second
shear rate (Walocel 0.5).
[0.04 in./second]).
after the Bagley end correction, which shows that the shear
stress no longer depends on the die length.
The shear stress versus apparent shear rate curves were
analyzed to describe the flow behavior of the different
cement systems investigated. A power-law model was used
to fit the experimental curves. The two data points at the
lowest two apparent shear rates were used to determine the Fig. 10—Effect of clay addition on extrudability (herein
yield stress τ0, which was approximated by linear extrapolation shown for Walocel-Concresol combinations).
to an apparent shear rate of 0. The differential viscosity was
determined as a function of the apparent shear stress by
differentiating the power-law approximation. Figure 8 presents
an example differential viscosity curve and indicates the
equilibrium viscosity ηequilibrium.

RESULTS
Extrudability
In all extruded specimens, the cross-sectional shape was
maintained. Phase migration, noted by water squeezing out
of the die, or a water rich layer migrating up the extruder
piston, was occasionally observed. Surface defects,
however, were often seen. Any composition in which phase
migration, surface defects, or a high extrusion pressure was
observed was considered to be not extrudable.

Minimum cellulose ether

W and MC were added in incremental amounts until an
extrudable composition was achieved. Mixtures were
considered to be not extrudable if they exhibited poor
cohesion, if the liquid and solid phases migrated during
extrusion, or if they showed signs of edge fracturing. It was
found that the W0.25 and MC0.5 had poor surface quality
and cohesion, while W0.5, W1, MC1, and MC2 exhibited
good surface quality.
The extrusion pressures for these mixtures (given for L/D = 4,
piston velocity = 1 mm/second [0.0394 in./second]) are
presented in Fig. 9. For W, the extrusion pressure increases
as the amount of the cellulose ether is increased, with W1
having an extrusion pressure that is significantly higher than
the other mixtures. Therefore, W1 was defined as not
extrudable. Conversely, as MC is increased, the extrusion
pressure decreases. All extrusion pressures for MC were in
similar ranges, so these materials were defined as extrudable.
Clay addition to improve extrudability
Clay was added to two mixtures that were defined as not
extrudable: W0.25 and MC0.5. The two clays were added at
Fig. 11—Extrusion pressure as function of clay addition of
Walocel 0.25 and 0.5 Methocel (for L /D = 4, v = 1 mm/second
[0.04 in./second]).
0.15, 0.3, and 3% by weight. Figure 10 presents an example
of the effect of clay addition on extrudability. At 0.3% addition
of either clay, a good surface quality was achieved. With
either less (0.15%) or more (3%) clay, however, the surface
quality was poor. When the cellulose ether content was
reduced further, the material could not be extruded, indicating
that for the base mixture used in this work, a minimum
amount of cellulose ether was needed (0.25 and 0.5% for the
W and MC, respectively).
Figure 11 presents extrusion pressure (for L/D = 4, piston
velocity = 1 mm/second [0.04 in./second]) as a function of
clay addition, for 0.25W and 0.5MC. The extrusion pressure
decreases once clay is added; however, the decrease is not
systematic. All of the materials appeared to have reasonable
extrusion pressures.
Table 4 summarizes the MC and W mixtures, respectively,
that were extruded, indicating the mixtures that were defined

ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007 287

Table 4—Methocel and Walocel mixtures Table 6—Benbow parameters for Walocel
that were extruded formulations*
Material Extrudable Benbow parameters
MC0.5 — σ 0, α, τ0, β, σ, τ,
MC1 X kPa kPa*s/mm kPa kPa*s/mm kPa kPa
MC2 X Material (psi) (lb*s/in.3) (psi) (lb*s/in.3) (psi) (psi)
MC0.5/C0.15 — W0.25 292.45 3.31 42.82 0.2 358.66 46.79
(42.41) (12.19) (6.21) (0.73) (52.16) (6.78)
MC0.5/C0.3 X
443.59 4.26 26.7 0.75 528.72 41.66
MC0.5/C3 — W0.5
(64.32) (15.68) (3.87) (2.76) (76.86) (6.04)
MC0.5/M0.15 — 265.65 7.4 103.07 0.4 413.59 111
W1
MC0.5/M0.3 X (38.52) (27.24) (14.94) (1.46) (60.31) (16.1)
MC0.5/M3 — 573.91 2.5 13.27 0.17 623.96 16.71
W0.25/C0.15 (83.22)
(9.22) (1.92) (0.63) (90.59) (2.42)
W0.25 —
457.02 0.81 8.17 0.25 473.15 13.2
W0.5 X W0.25/C0.3 (66.27) (2.97) (1.19) (0.93) (68.64) (1.91)
W1 — 428.66 1.8 17.76 0.23 464.63 22.3
W0.25/C3
W0.25/C0.15 — (62.16) (6.63) (2.58) (0.84) (67.46) (3.23)

W0.25/M0.15 478.22
W0.25/C0.3 X 2.35 7.44 0.14 525.28 10.34
(69.34) (8.67) (1.08) (0.53) (76.27) (1.5)
W0.25/C3 —
397.96 2.94 12.49 0.21 456.74 16.75
W0.25/M0.15 — W0.25/M0.3 (57.7) (10.83) (1.81) (0.78) (66.36) (2.43)
W0.25/M0.3 X 407.14 2.06 23.82 0.22 448.27 28.21
W0.25/M3
W0.25/M3 — (59.04) (7.57) (3.45) (0.81) (65.09) (4.09)
*σ
and τ are based on v = 20 mm/second (0.08 in./second).

Table 5—Benbow parameters for Methocel

formulations*
Benbow parameters
α, β,
σ0, kPa kPa*s/mm τ0, kPa kPa*s/mm σ, kPa τ, kPa
Material (psi) (lb*s/in. ) (psi) (lb*s/in.3) (psi)
3
(psi)
314.16 0.43 31.59 0.34 322.69 38.3
MC0.5
(45.55) (1.57) (4.58) (1.24) (46.81) (5.55)
397.97 2.82 25.56 0.38 454.41 33.2
MC1
(57.71) (10.39) (3.71) (1.41) (66.02) (4.81)
353.4 3.2 40.09 0.67 417.38 53.52
MC2
(51.24) (11.78) (5.81) (2.47) (60.67) (7.76)

MC0.5/C0.15 307.96
3.25 20.95 0.4 373.01 28.98
(44.65) (11.98) (3.04) (1.48) (54.24) (4.2)
437.08 0.66 28.57 0.63 450.21 41.08
MC0.5/C0.3 (63.38) (2.42) (4.14) (2.3) (65.31) (5.96)
394.09 1.2 12.68 0.28 418.14 18.21
MC0.5/C3
(57.14) (4.43) (1.84) (1.02) (60.69) (2.64) Fig. 12—Yield stress values for extrudable and not extrudable
mixtures.
MC0.5/M0.15 341.7
0.72 10.98 0.17 356.11 14.29
(49.55) (2.65) (1.59) (0.61) (51.67) (2.07)
470.41
MC0.5/M0.3 (68.21)
0.89 7.25 0.44 488.3 15.95 deformation is high.35 In other words, σ0 is high, τ0 is low,
(3.29) (1.05) (1.6) (70.85) (2.31) and β is low. Generally, these trends are seen with σ0 and τ0
MC0.5/M3
404.97 2.17 23.39 0.26 448.38 28.66 (σ0 increases, τ0 decreases) as enough binder is added that
(58.72) (7.99) (3.39) (0.97) (65.12) (4.16)
the material transitions from not extrudable to extrudable
*
σ and τ are based on v = 20 mm/second (0.08 in./second). (either by increasing the amount of cellulose ether, or by
adding the appropriate amount of clay). Once more binder is
as extrudable. It is interesting to note that half the amount of added, however, the effects are not systematic. Additionally,
W is needed, when compared with the MC, demonstrating the effects of binder addition on β are not clear. Thus, the
the importance of choosing the most efficient cellulose ether Benbow-Bridgwater analysis does not appear to provide
to control cost. From an extrudability standpoint, the two clear insight into the rheological parameters that are needed
clays appear to have similar effects. to achieve extrudability for the mixture formulations studied
in this work.
RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Benbow-Bridgwater model Capillary analysis
The results from the Benbow-Bridgwater analysis are Figures 12 and 13 present the yield stress and equilibrium
given in Tables 5 and 6 for the MC and W mixtures, respectively. viscosity values, respectively, for all of the mixtures tested.
To give an indication of the velocity dependence, the bulk No discernable trend to describe extrudability exists when
yield strength σ and wall yield stress τ are shown for an either of these rheological parameters is examined alone. As
extrudate velocity of 20 mm/second (0.79 in./second). Fig. 14 demonstrates, however, a clear trend is seen when the
Typically, it is expected that extrudability improves if the two parameters are examined together. In Fig. 14, equilibrium
wall shear stress is low and the resistance to internal viscosity is plotted versus yield stress for all of the mixtures

288 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007


Fig. 13—Equilibrium viscosity for extrudable and not
extrudable mixtures.
Fig. 14—Equilibrium viscosity versus yield stress for
extrudable and not extrudable mixtures.
investigated. The extrudable mixtures all appear to fall in a
similar region, where the yield stress is low and the equilibrium
viscosity is high. This result suggests that both the yield
stress and the equilibrium viscosity are important parameters
to control to achieve extrudability. Furthermore, Fig. 14
suggests that extrudable mixtures have a low yield stress and
a high equilibrium viscosity, which seems reasonable. With
a low yield stress, flow can be easily initiated. The high
equilibrium viscosity could indicate a better cohesion at
higher shear rates, giving the materials better surface properties
at the exit of the die. Equilibrium viscosity could also be an
indication of thixotropy. A high degree of thixotropy is
desirable for extrudability. The material should shear easily
as it flows through the die at high shear rates, but then rebuild
quickly to maintain its shape upon exiting the die. Future
work should include investigating the effects of these
processing aids on thixotropy.
It is interesting to note the relationship between these
results and previous research. Benbow and Bridgewater also
suggested that a low yield stress was needed for extrudability.35
In addition, the zone of extrudability (Fig. 14), with low
yield stress values and high viscosities, is similar to the zone
of rheological parameters required for self-consolidating
concrete,40 which requires a low yield stress and a high
viscosity. The similarities with these rheological parameters
suggest that both the yield stress and viscosity (related to
cohesion) are important factors to describe flow behavior.
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2007
CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this work was to determine if expensive
cellulose ethers could be replaced with less expensive clay
binders and to determine an appropriate method for
describing extrudability. Based on the research presented,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
• The amount of cellulose ether required for extrusion
depends on the ether type;
• Cellulose ethers can be partially replaced with clay
binders. In this work, the two clay binders examined had
similar effects. Future work, however, should include
investigating the effects of other clay types on extrudability
as well as developing a more fundamental understanding
of the role of clay in improving extrudability;
• While the Benbow-Bridgwater model does appear to be
sensitive to changes in material formulation, it does not
provide significant insight into the fresh state properties
necessary for extrudability; and
• Capillary rheology is sensitive to changes in material
formulation and can be used to describe extrudability.
Extrudable mixtures fall within a region in which the
yield stress is low and the equilibrium viscosity is high.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by NSF PATH Grant No. CMS-0122045. Silica
fume was supplied by W.R. Grace. The Methocel and Walocel were provided
by Dow and Bayer, respectively.
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