Global Journal of Advanced Research

on Classical and Modern Geometries

ISSN: 2284-5569, Vol.8, (2019), Issue 2, pp.105-158

Sums of functional and numerical series

generated by a geometric method.
Jesús Álvarez Lobo

Dept. of Mathematics. Ministry of Education and Science. Principality of Asturias. Spain.

J3A3L3@gmail.com

A BSTRACT. A geometric method, based on infinite chains of circles, is applied to get the sums,
partial o at infinite, of certain types of functional and numerical convergent series in a subset of C.

Since these results have been obtained through a fairly complex geometric procedure, for some
of them it seems unlikely that they could be found by any conventional method. For example,
the sums for the functional series based on the following structure can not be find in closed form
by the powerful Wolfram Alpha, [7], symbolic computational software, either as a partial sum or
as an infinite series:
m ∞
1 1
∑ s2n + s−2n + s + s −1
, ∑ s2n + s−2n + s + s −1
.
n =0 n =0

From a mono-parametric geometric stage (the convex region Ω determined by the intersection of
two circles with unit radii and an finite or infinite chain of circles, {γi }, inscribed in Ω), we will
get univariate series. Then, we will adopt a bi-parametric scenario, somewhat more complex, in
order to obtain bivariate series, which are more versatile, since numerical series are generated
by assigning values to two variables. The radius rn of the generic circle of the chain, γn , is
determined by means of homothecy and inversion. The connection of Geometry with series is
established by a metric relationship between a sum of radii and a distance in the geometric stage.

In an intricate geometrical scene, from a simple metric relationship, outcrops an original method
for summation of series, and this transversal result opens the door to a new field of research in
which Mathematical Analysis could be extended by the co-adjuvant help of Geometry.

Otherwise, the graphic and numerical exploration of the identities obtained, suggest that them
could hold even in singular points caused by division by zero (DBZ), amazing result!, conjecture
that induces to reflect about the nature of Euclidean geometry and it is an example of correct
value assignation to solve the indetermination in some cases of DBZ and a counterexample that
prove the inconsistency of the definition of DBZ as 0x ≡ 0, that has been proposal, for instance,
in [1] and [2], without needing to appeal to more contradictions that arise from such axiom.

1
2010 Mathematics subject Classification: 51-02, 51N20, 51A05, 54C30, 26-02, 26A06.

Keywords: Chains of circles, no-Euclidean geometry, geometric transformations, homothecy, inversive geometry,
Wasan geometry, sangaku, series, sequences sums, division by zero.
105
106

1. P REFACE
In this paper will be applied a geometrical method to the summation of several types of series.

Beginning with the functional series,

∞
1
∑  √ ±2n  √ ∓2n , |z| > 1, z ∈ C (1.1)
n =0 z± z2 −1 2
+ z± z −1 + 2z

then, from (1.1), by variable changes, will be obtained the sums of other interesting series,
σ = σ(z), all them based in the structure,
m
1
σm (z) = ∑ f 2n + f −2n+ f + f −1
, z∈D⊂C (1.2)
n =0

been f = f (z) any function of complex variable defined in the domain D, that is an extension
of the set of values where the variables have geometric sense.

By assigning values to the variables of (1.2), we can also get sums for all the numerical series
(partial sums or infinite sums of convergent sequences) thus generated.

2. G EOMETRIC STAGE , AIM AND STRATEGY.

2.1. Definition. Let´s consider the geometric stage depicted in Figure 1, in which two circles
with unit radii, γ A and γB , intersect at points O and P, where the distance d between A and B
is a parameter, with d ∈ (0, 2).

Let Ω be the convex region defined as, Ω ≡ γ A ∩ γB .

Figure 1
 107

2.2. Definition. Let {γi } be a decreasing sequence or chain of circles, inscribed in Ω, so that
γi is externally tangent to γi+1 and internally tangent to γ A and γB , ∀γi ∈ {γi }, Figure 2.

Later, we´ll prove the convergence of the sequences of their radii, {ri } , r0 > r1 > . . ., and
centres, {Oi }:
{Oi } → O, {ri } → 0
i→∞ i→∞

Figure 2

The main aim of this geometric problem is to find rn as a function of n, with d as a parameter.
This problem, which looks very difficult in Euclidean geometry, becomes affordable through the
astute application of inversive geometry transformations combined with homothecy. The method
is based on the following conceptual algorithm:
108

Figure 3

3. G EOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS .

The following lemmas set inversive geometry properties that will be applied later:

Lemma 3.1. In an inversion relative to an inversion circle γ, with centre at O, the inverse γ0A of
a circumference γ A with centre at A is:

a) A straight line not through O and orthogonal to OA, iff γ A is through O:

/ γ0A ∧ γ0A ⊥ OA
O ∈ γA ⇔ O ∈ (3.1)

b) A circumference homothetic with γ A in a homothecy with homothecy center or pole O and

certain similitude ratio h, iff γ A is not through O:

γ0A = H (O, h) (γ A ) (3.2)

Proof. This lemma is given for reference purposes only, to facilitate its invocation, and, for short,
the proof of this well-known properties of inversive geometry will be skipped . 
 109

Lemma 3.2. In an inversion relative to a circle γ, with radius or power ρ and centre or pole at
the origin O, the inverse of a circumference γ A through O, with radius r, centre at A ( x A , y A ),
intersected with γ at the points P and Q, is a line through P and Q, orthogonal to the line through
the centers O and A of the respective circles, whose equation can be written as,

xA ρ2
γ0 A ≡ y = − x+ (3.3)
yA 2y A

Proof. The equation of the inversion circle is,

γ ≡ x 2 + y2 = ρ2 , (3.4)

and the equation of the circumference to invert,

γ A ≡ ( x − x A )2 + ( y − y A )2 = r 2 ,
and expanding,
γ A ≡ x2 + y2 − 2x A x − 2y A y + x A 2 + y A 2 = r2 .

But, since γ A pass through the origin, applying the Pythagorean theorem,

x A 2 + y A 2 = r2 ,

so, the equation of γ A simplifies to,

γ A ≡ x2 + y2 − 2x A x − 2y A y = 0. (3.5)

Since P, Q ∈ γ ∩ γ A , for belonging to γ, P, Q are invariant points in the inversion respect to γ,

and for belonging to γ A , P, Q are in the line γ0A , inverse of γ A .

But it isn´t necessary to calculate the coordinates of P and Q since, by (3.4), the quadratic terms
in 3.5 can be eliminated, substituting x2 + y2 by ρ2 ; the linear equation obtained hold for both
points.

Since, by Lemma 3.1.a, γ0A is a line, and this line is through the invariant points P, Q, the
equation thus obtained corresponds to the inverse of γ A :

γ0 A ≡ ρ2 − 2x A x − 2y A y = 0,

that in explicit form is (3.3).

Moreover, by (3.1),
γ0A ⊥ OA.

110

Lemma 3.3. Let γ be the auto-inversion circle, with power ρ and pole at the origin O.

Let γ0 be a circumference with radius r and O ∈

/ γ0 , whose equation is written in the form,

γ0 ≡ x2 + y2 + Ax + By + C = 0 (3.6)

Then, the radius r 0 of the circumference γ00 inverse of γ0 is given by the following function of
the constant term of (3.6), the radius r of γ0 and the parameter ρ:

ρ2
r0 = ·r (3.7)
C

Proof. In the stated conditions, by Lemma 3.1.b, the circumferences γ0 and γ00 are homothetic
in a homothecy H (O, h), whose similitude ratio h must be calculated. In Figure 4, we have:

OT ≡ t, ST ≡ r, OS ≡ s, OT 0 ≡ t0 , S0 T 0 ≡ r 0 , OS0 ≡ s0 (3.8)

Figure 4
 111

Applying the Pythagorean theorem to 4OTS :

t2 = s2 − r 2 (3.9)

By inversion relative to the circumference γ,

t t 0 = ρ2 ,
so,
ρ2
t0 = (3.10)
t

By similarity of triangles:

4OT 0 S0 ∝ 4OTS

therefore,

r0 t0
= (3.11)
r t

Removing t0 and t in (3.11) by means of (3.10) and (3.9),

r0 ρ2
= 2 (3.12)
r s − r2

The equation of the circumference γ0 with centre S ( xS , yS ) and radius r can be written as,

γ0 ≡ ( x − xS )2 + (y − yS )2 − r2 = 0 (3.13)
or,

γ0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2xS x − 2yS y + xS 2 + yS 2 − r2 = 0 (3.14)

So, the constant term of (3.14) is,

C ≡ xS 2 + yS 2 − r2 ,
but, xS 2 + yS 2 = s2 ; therefore,

C ≡ s2 − r 2 (3.15)

and (3.12) can be expressed as (3.7) 

112

Let´s define the notation ∆0 to denote the inverse of a geometric element ∆.

Warning: for homogenizing the notations, it is also denoted O0 the centre of the circumference
inverse of a circumference of centre O, although, in this case, O0 is not the inverse of O.

Let´s adopt the orthonormal Cartesian reference system shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5
 113

Let γ be the auto-inversion circle (in red dots and dashes), with pole at O and power ρ ≡ OP:

γ ≡ x 2 + y2 = ρ2 (3.16)

Equation of γ0 , first circumference of the chain. In the triangle 4OO0 A, Figure 5,

!2  2
OP 2 2 2 d
= OO0 = OA − AO0 = 1 − (3.17)
2 2

hence, since OP = ρ,
 ρ 2  2
d
= 1− (3.18)
2 2

and the inversion power with respect to γ is,

ρ2 = 4 − d2 , d ∈ (0, 2) (3.19)

In Figure 5 can be seen that,

d
r0 = AT0 − AO0 = 1 − (3.20)
2

So, the equation of the first circumference of the chain is,

 2
ρ 2
2
 d
γ0 ≡ x + y − = 1− ,
2 2
and expanding,
 ρ 2  2
2 2 d
γ0 ≡ x + y − ρy + − + d − 1 = 0. (3.21)
2 2
By (3.18)-(3.19), (3.21) can be expressed as a function dependent only on the parameter d:
 
2 2
p d
γ0 ≡ x + y − 4 − d2 y+d 1− =0 (3.22)
2

Equations of the lines γ0A and γB0 , inverses of the circumferences γ A and γB .

By Lemma 3.1.a, since γ A and γB pass through the pole O, their inverses with respect to γ
are the lines γ0A and γB0 determined by the pairs of invariant points { P, Q} ≡ γ ∩ γ A and
{ P, R} ≡ γ ∩ γB , respectively, and their equations are given by Lemma 3.2.
114
   
Since the coordinates of A and B, Figure 5, are A − d2 , , B + d2 ,
ρ ρ
2 2 , by Lemma 3.2 and
equation (3.19), we get the equation of γ0A , and by symmetry the equation of γB0 :

d p
γ0A ≡ y = + √ x+ 4 − d2 (3.23)
4 − d2
d p
γB0 ≡ y = − √ x+ 4 − d2 (3.24)
4 − d2

Remark. Since the slopes m PQ , m PR and the point P (0, ρ) define the equations (3.23) and
(3.24), respectively, we can get this equations by this alternative way:

In Figure 5,
ρ/2 ρ
mOA = − d ⇔ mOA = −
/2 d

By Lemma 3.1.a, OA⊥ PQ, so,

d
m PQ = + (3.25)
ρ
and, by symmetry,

d
m PR = − (3.26)
ρ
√
Involving ρ = 4 − d2 , (3.23) and (3.24) can be written in this compact form:

d
γ0A ≡ y = + x + ρ (3.27)
ρ

d
γB0 ≡ y = − x + ρ (3.28)
ρ

The similitude ratio, h.

By Lemma 3.1.b, in an inversion relative to the circle γ, with pole O and power ρ, the inverse
of the circles chain inscribed in Ω is a chain of homothetic circles, in a homothecy with pole P,
Figure 6, and the radius of any circle of this transformed chain can be calculate very easily if we
know the radius of the first circle and the similitude ratio.
 115

Let´s define the following notations for Figure 6:

PO0j ≡ a0j , PTj0 ≡ b0j ; j = 0, 1, . . . (3.29)

Figure 6

By (3.23) and 4 PT00 O00 , we have the following relationships for the slope of γ0A :

d π  b0
mA = √ = tan − ϕ = cot ϕ = 00 .
4 − d2 2 r0
116

Therefore,

d
b00 = √ r00 (3.30)
4 − d2

d
cot ϕ = √ (3.31)
4 − d2

By Lemma (3), (3.22), (3.20) and (3.18), we have:

4 − d2
 
d
r00 =   · 1− ,
d 1 − d2 2

4 − d2
r00 = (3.32)
d

By (3.30) and (3.32), we get the surprising result,

p
b00 = 4 − d2 = ρ (3.33)

with the following geometrical meaning: in Figure 6, the tangency point T00 can be obtained as
intersection of a circumference with centre at the homothecy pole, P, and radius the power of
inversion, ρ.

Applying the Pythagorean theorem to 4 PT00 O00 , Figure 6, by (3.18), with the notations (3.29):

2
4 4 − d2


4 − d2 4 − d2
  
2 2 2 2
a00 b00 + r00 2
+ r00 2 2


= =ρ = 4−d + = 4−d 1+ = ,
d d2 d2
√
2 4 − d2
a00 = (3.34)
d

Theorem (3.1). The similitude ratio, h, for the inverse chain of circles stated by Definition 2.2,
in an inversion with pole at de origin O and power ρ, is given by,

√ !2
2+ 4 − d2
h= (3.35)
d
 117

Proof. In Figure 6, a10 : a00 :: r10 : r00 , but, a10 = a00 + r00 + r10 , therefore,

a00 + r00 + r10 0 r10 a00 + r00

r10 = 0 0

0 0 0

0
r 0 ⇔ a 0 − r 0 r 1 = a 0 + r 0 r 0 ⇔ = (3.36)
a00 r00 a00 − r00

By (3.32) and (3.34),

4− d2
√
r00 4 − d2 4 − d2
= √d = √ ·√ ,
a00 2 4− d2 2 4 − d2 4 − d2
so, d

√
r00 4 − d2
= (3.37)
a00 2

From (3.36) and (3.37),

r00 √
1+ 4− d2
√ √ √ !2
r0 a00 1+ 2+ 4 − d2 2 + 4 − d2 2+ 4 − d2
h = 10 = = √ 2 = √ · √ = 
r0 r00 1− 4− d2 2 − 4 − d2 2 + 4 − d2 d
1− 0 2
a0

Theorem (3.2). The radius of the inverse of the nth - circumference of the chain of circles stated
by Definition 2.2, in an inversion with pole at de origin O and power ρ, is,

√ !2n
4 − d2 2+ 4 − d2
rn0 = (3.38)
d d

Proof. Applying recursively the homothetic relationship,

rn0 = hrn0 −1 , (3.39)

r10 = hr00



r20 = hr10

 ! !
n n −1 n −1 n −1


.. ⇒ ∏ ri0 = ∏ hri0 ⇔ ∏ ri0 rn0 = hn−1 ∏ ri0 hr00 ,
. 


 i =1 i =0 i =1 i =1

rn0 hrn0 −1

=


n −1
and cancelling ∏ ri0 in both sides of the last equality, we have:
i =1

rn0 = hn r00 (3.40)

By (3.35) and (3.32), we can write (3.40) in terms of the parameter d as in (3.38). 
118

Theorem (3.3). The centre´s ordinate of the inverse of the nth - circumference of the chain of
circles stated by Definition 2.2, in an inversion with pole at de origin O and power ρ, is given
by,
  s 2n 
 2
p 2 2 2
y0n = 4 − d2 1 +  + − 1  (3.41)
 
d d d

Proof. In Figure 6,
y0n ≡ OOn0 = OP + POn0 = ρ + a0n ,

so,
y0n = ρ + rn0 csc ϕ (3.42)
But,
q
1 + tan2 ϕ q
csc ϕ = ⇔ csc ϕ = 1 + cot2 ϕ (3.43)
tan ϕ

By (3.31), (3.43) can be written in terms of d:

s
d2 2
csc ϕ = 1 + ⇔ csc ϕ = √ (3.44)
4 − d2 4 − d2

By (3.42), (3.4), (3.38) and (3.31),

 √ !2n 
p 4 − d2 2+ 4 − d2 2 
y0n = 4 − d2 1 + ,
d d 4 − d2

and simplifying we get (3.41) 

Remark. Another way to get (3.41) is from the homothecy relationship in 4 PTn0 On0 , Figure 6:

POn0 = a0n = hn a00 .

So,

y0n = ρ + hn a00 (3.45)

And written (3.45) in terms of d by means of (3.4), (3.35) and (3.34) is (3.41).
 119

Theorem (3.4). The equation of the circumference inverse of the nth - circumference of the
chain of circles stated by Definition 2.2, in an inversion with pole at de origin O and power ρ, is,
 √ !2n 
p 2 2+ 4 − d2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2 4 − d2 1 + y+C = 0 (3.46)
d d

where C is a constant that depend only of the parameter d:

 √ !2n  √ !2n 

 2+ 4 − d2 4 + 2+ 4 − d2 
C ≡ 4 − d2 1+  (3.47)
 d d d 

Proof. For the inverse chain of circles outlined in Figure 6,

2 2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y − y0n − rn0 = 0,
or,
2 2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2y0n y + y0n − rn0 = 0. (3.48)

The constant term in (3.48) is,

2 2
C ≡ y0n − rn0 (3.49)

So, (3.4) can be written as,

2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2y0n y + C = 0 (3.50)

By (3.41) and (3.38), the constant (3.49) can be written in terms of d, and simplifying, we get
the constant (3.47).

Substituting in (3.50) the value of y0n given by (3.41), we obtain (3.46). 

Theorem (3.5). The radius rn of γn , nth - circle of the chain {γi } of Definition 2.2, is given by
the following function of d:

4
−d
rn (d) =  d (3.51)
s  2n  s  −2n
2 2 2 2 2 2
4
+ − 1 +  + − 1 +
d d d d d
120

Proof. Applying the involutive property of inversion, (rn0 )0 ≡ rn ; so, by Lemma 3.3:

ρ2 0
rn = r (3.52)
C n

and by (3.19), (3.47) and (3.38), from (3.52) we obtain rn as function of d:

√ !2n
2

4 − d2 2 + 4 − d2
4−d ·
d d
rn (d) =  √ ! 2n
 √ !2n  (3.53)
2+ 4−d 2 2
4 + 2 + 4 − d
 
(4 − d2 ) 1 + 
 d d d 
 √
2 −2n

Multiplying numerator and denominator of (3.53) by 2+ d4−d , after simplifying, we get
the function (3.51), that gives rn in terms of d: geometric target of the problem. 

Corollary 3.5. The radius rn of γn , ∀n ∈ N, z ≡ 2

d > 1, verifies:

z − z −1
rn (z) = 2 ·  √ 2n  √ −2n (3.54)
z + z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z

Proof. Writing (3.51) in the form,

2 d
d − 2
rn (z) = 2 ·  q 2n  q −2n , (3.55)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2



d + d −1 + d + d −1 + 2· d

with the following variable change in (3.55),

2
≡ z, d ∈ (0, 2) (3.56)
d
it is obtained (3.54). 

Remark. In (3.35), writing h in the form,

 s 2
 2
2 2  p 2
h= + − 1 → h = z + z2 − 1 , z > 1 (3.57)
d d

we have this compact form for (3.54):

z − z −1
rn (z) = 2 · (3.58)
hn + h−n + 2z
 121

Domain of rn (z):

• z ∈ (1, ∞) ⇒ d ∈ (0, 2); so, the chain of circles {γi } inscribed in Ω is well defined.

• z = 1 ⇒ d = 2 = AB; so, γ A and γB are tangent at O0 ; ∴ Ω ≡ γ A ∩ γB = O0 .

This is a limit state, which is reached with continuity, in which the chain of circles {γi }
is degenerated into a single point, O0 , which represents a chain of circles of zero radius.

• z < 1 ⇒ d > 2 ⇔ AB > 2 ⇒ Ω ≡ γ A ∩ γB = ∅; so, {γi } does not exists any more.

Therefore, the set of values of z compatibles with the geometric stage is,

Dom rn = {z ∈ R |z > 1 } = [1, ∞) (3.59)

In Figure 2, intuitively, {ri } → 0 when n → ∞. Let´s probe it analytically.

Theorem (3.6). The sequence {ri } defined by its general term in (3.51) / (3.54) converges to 0:

lim rn (d) = lim rn (z) = 0 (3.60)

n→∞ n→∞

Proof. We have,
(3.54)
0 ≤ lim rn (d) = lim rn (z) ,
n→∞ n→∞
0< d <2 z >1

To shorten the writing, let´s put,

lim rn (z) ≡ λ;
n→∞
z >1
then, by (3.54):
z − z −1
λ = 2 · lim  √ 2n  √ −2n .
n→∞ 2 2
z+ z −1 + z+ z −1 + 2z

 √ −2n
Multiplying numerator and denominator by z + z2 − 1 ,

 √ −2n
z − z −1 z + z 2 − 1
λ = 2 · lim √ −4n √ −2n ,
n→∞
 
2
1+ z+ z −1 2
+ 2z z + z − 1

and by properties of limits,

 √ −2n
lim z − z−1 z + z2 − 1
n→∞
λ = 2·   √ −4n  √ −2n  .
lim 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z z + z2 − 1
n→∞
122

Simplifying,

 √ −2n
lim z − z −1 z+ z2 − 1 z − z −1
n→∞
λ = 2· = 2 lim  √ 2n .
1+0+0 n→∞ 2
z+ z −1
Majoring the last limit,
z − z −1 z
2 lim  √ 2n ≤ 2nlim = 0.
n→∞ → ∞ z2n
z + z2 − 1
Therefore,

0 ≤ lim rn (d) = lim rn (z) 6 0 ⇒ lim rn (d) = 0 

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
0< d <2 z >1

Corollary 3.6. Let r0 and rn be the functions of d given by (3.20) and (3.51), respectively, whose
domain is d ∈ (0, 2); then,
s
∞  2
d
2 ∑ r n − r0 = 1−
2
(3.61)
n=0

Proof. By (3.17), Figure 5:

s
 2
OP d
OO0 = = 1− (3.62)
2 2

But, OO0 is the sum of the diameters of all the circles in the chain {γi } minus r0 , that is,

∞
OO0 = 2 ∑ r n − r0 (3.63)
n=0

Therefore,
s 
 2 
(3.62) d 
OO0 = 1−  s
∞  2

2
 d
⇒ 2 ∑ r n − r0 = 1 −
(3.63) ∞ 2
n=0
OO0 = 2 ∑ rn − r0 




n=0


Remark. The metric relationship (3.61) is the conceptual idea underlying the exposed method.
 123

Extension to C.

For the sake of simplicity, we perform our develops in the field R; however, the results obtained
hold outside the R, in a certain region of the C field. The underlying reason for this fact, which
may be surprising at first sight, is as follows.

Since (3.61) is a geometric relation independent of the reference system, whose only condition
is d( A, B) ≤ 2, necessary for defining the region Ω , (3.61) verifies also with complex numbers.

Figure 7

In Figure 7 can be seen that, for A, B ∈ C, if z A and z B are the affixes of A and B, respectively,
the condition d( A, B) ≤ 2 holds iff the centres A and B are inside a disk δ with unit radius and
center at the midpoint of the segment AB, and this geometric condition verifies iff,
−→
d( A, B) ≤ 2 ⇔  AB ≤ 2 ⇔ d = |z B − z A | ≤ 2. (3.64)
 

Therefore, (3.61) holds for all complex numbers whose module is not greater than 2.
124

4. A PPLICATION TO THE SUMMATION OF SERIES .

4.1. Summation of some type of functional series.

Theorem (4.1): Series type (00). ∀z ∈ C : z > 1, i.e., for all z outside the closed unitary disk:

∞  
1 1 1 1
∑  √ ±2n  √ ∓2n =
4 z+1
+√
2
z −1
(4.1)
n=0 z ± z2 − 1 + z ± z2 − 1 + 2z

∞  
1 1 1 1
∑  √ ±2n  √ ±2n =
4 z+1
+√
2
z −1
(4.2)
n=0 z ± z2 − 1 + z ∓ z2 − 1 + 2z

Proof. By (3.61), (3.54), (3.20) and the change of variable (3.56) extended to C,
r
∞  2
d
2 ∑ r n − r0 = 1− 2
n=0

∞ z − z −1
√
⇔ 2 ∑ 2·  √ 2n  √ −2n − 1 − z −1 = 1 − z −2
n=0
z+ z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z
√
∞ 1 − z −2 + 1 − z −1


1 1
⇔ ∑  √ √ −2n = ·
z − z −1
2n 
n=0 4
z + z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z
√
∞ 1 1 z2 − 1 + ( z − 1)
⇔ ∑  √ 2n  √ −2n = · ;
n=0 4 z2 − 1
z + z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z

∞  
1 1 1 1
∑  √ 2n  √ −2n =
4 z+1
+√
z2 − 1
(4.3)
n=0 z + z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1 + 2z

Since d = |z B − z A | ≤ 2, by (3.56),
2

≡ |z| 

d 
⇒ |z| ∈ (1, +∞) (4.4)


d ∈ (0, 2)


Finally, the following identities complete the demonstration for the sum of the four series (4.1)
and (4.2), since all of them are equivalent:
 125

 p 2n  p −2n
D ≡ z + z2 − 1 + z + z2 − 1

m
 √ 2n
 p 2n 1 z− z2 − 1
D = z+ z2 − 1 + √ 2n ·  √ 2n
z+ z2 −1 z− z2 − 1
m
 2n √
 p 2n z2 − 1 z−
D = z+ z2 − 1 + h √  √ i2n
z + z2 − 1 z − z2 − 1
m
 p 2n  p 2n
D = z + z2 − 1 + z − z2 − 1

m
 √ 2n
 p 2n z− z2 − 1  p 2n
D = z+ z2 − 1 · √ 2n + z − z2 − 1
z− z2 − 1
m (4.5)
h √  √ i2n
z+ z2 − 1 z − z2 − 1  p 2n
D=  √ 2n + z − z2 − 1
z − z2 − 1
m
 p 2n  p −2n
D = z− z2 − 1 + z − z2 − 1

m
√  2n
 p 2n z + z2 − 1  p −2n
D = z − z2 − 1 · √  2n
+ z − z 2−1

z + z2 − 1
m
h √  √ i2n
z− z2 − 1 z + z2 − 1  p −2n
D= + z − z 2−1
 √  2n
z + z2 − 1
m
 p −2n  p −2n
D = z + z2 − 1 + z − z2 − 1 
126

Corollary 4.1: Series type (01). ∀s ∈ C : |s| > 1,

∞ ∞
1 s2n s2
∑ 2n −2n + s + s−1 ∑ (s2n+1 + 1) (s2n−1 + 1) (s + 1) (s2 − 1)
≡ ≡ (4.6)
n=0 s + s n=0

Proof. Applying to (4.3) the variable change,

p
z+ z2 − 1 ≡ s (4.7)
we have,

s2 + 1
z= (4.8)
2s

and 2z can be writing in this form: 2z = s + s−1 . Thus, we get the left side of (4.6).

Otherwise, the right side of (4.3) can be written as,

√ ! √
z2 − 1 1 z + z2 − 1 − 1
 
1 1 1 1 1
+√ = + 2 = · ,
4 z+1 z2 − 1 4 z+1 z −1 4 z2 − 1
and by (4.8), as a function of s, with simple algebraic simplifications,
√
1 z + z2 − 1 − 1 1 s−1 s2 ( s − 1) s2 ( s − 1)
· = · 2
= = ;
4 z2 − 1 4 2 + 1)2 − 4s2 (s2 + 2s + 1) (s2 − 2s + 1)
 
s2 +1
−1 ( s
2s

s2
 
1 1 1
+√ =
4 z+1 2
z −1 ( s + 1) ( s2 − 1)

Finally, by (4.7), z > 1 ⇐⇒ s > 1. 

Corollary 4.2: Series type (02). ∀t ∈ C : Re(t) > 0,

∞
e2nt e2t
∑ 
e(2n+1)t + 1 e(2n−1)t + 1
  ≡ t
(e + 1) (e2t − 1)
(4.9)
n=0

Proof. We obtain directly (4.9) by applying to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ et (4.10)

Let t ≡ a + bi, a, b ∈ R. The set of values for which holds (4.9) can be calculated as follows:
     
|s| > 1 ⇔ e a+bi  > 1 ⇔ e a ebi  > 1 ⇔ e a ebi  > 1 ⇔ e a · 1 > 1 ⇔ a = Re(t) > 0 
     
 127

Corollary 4.3: Series type (03). ∀ k ∈ Z, π

6 + kπ < α < 5π
6 + kπ,

∞
(2 sin α)2n 4sin2 α
∑ h ih i =
(2 sin α + 1) 4sin2 α − 1

(4.11)
n=0 (2 sin α)2n+1 + 1 (2 sin α)2n−1 + 1

Proof.

Let´s apply to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ 2 sin α (4.12)

The left side of (4.11) is obtained straightforward and the right side by applying the identity of
sinus of half angle and simplifying.

The set of values of α that verifies the geometric condition |s| > 1 is the following:

 sin α < − 21 ⇔ − 5π

6 + 2kπ < α < − 6 + 2kπ
π

|2 sin α| = |s| > 1 ⇔

sin α > + 12 ⇔ + π6 + 2kπ < α < + 5π
6 + 2kπ

   
5π π π 5π
∴α∈ − + 2kπ, − + 2kπ ∪ + 2kπ, + 2kπ
6 6 6 6

π 5π
+ kπ < α < + kπ 
6 6

Corollary 4.4: Series type (04). ∀ k ∈ Z, − π3 + kπ < α < π

3 + kπ,

∞
(2 cos α)2n 4cos2 α
∑ h ih i =
(2 cos α + 1) (4cos2 α − 1)
(4.13)
n=0 (2 cos α)2n+1 + 1 (2 cos α)2n−1 + 1

Proof. Let´s apply to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ 2 cos α (4.14)

The left side of (4.14) is obtained straightforward and the right side by applying the identity of
cosine of half angle and simplifying.

The set of values of α that verifies the geometric condition |s| > 1 can be determined as follows:
128

 cos α < − 12 ⇔ 2π 4π

3 + 2kπ < α < 3 + 2kπ
|2 cos α| = |s| > 1 ⇔
cos α > + 12 ⇔ − π3 + 2kπ < α < π3 + 2kπ


 π π   2π 4π

∴ α ∈ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ∪ + 2kπ, + 2kπ .
3 3 3 3

π π
− + kπ < α < + kπ 
3 3

Corollary 4.5: Series type (05). ∀ k ∈ Z, α ∈ − π2 + kπ, − π4 + kπ ∪

π π


4 + kπ, 2 + kπ ,

∞
1 1
∑ 2n 2n
=
(1 + tan α) 1 − cot2 α

(4.15)
n=0 tan α + cot α + tan α + cot α

Proof. Applying to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ tan α (4.16)

∞
1 tan2 α 1
∑ 2n 2n
= 2
(tan α + 1) tan α − 1

=
(1 + tan α) 1 − cot2 α

.
n = 0 tan α + cot α + tan α + cot α

The set of values of α that verifies the geometric condition |s| > 1 can be determined as follows:

 tan α < −1 ⇔ − π2 + kπ < α < − π4 + kπ
|tan α| = |s| > 1 ⇔
tan α > +1 ⇔ + π4 + kπ < α < + π2 + kπ


 π π   π π 
α ∈ − + kπ, − + kπ ∪ + + kπ, + + kπ 
2 4 4 2

√  √ 
Corollary 4.6: Series type (06). ∀n ∈ Z, ln 2 − 1 > α > ln 2+1 ,

∞
1 1
∑ 2n 2n
=   (4.17)
n =0 sinh α + csch α + sinh α + csch α (1 + sinh α) 1 − csch2 α
 129

Proof. Applying to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ sinhα (4.18)
∞
1 sinh2 α
∑ 2n 2n
= (sinh α+1)(sinh2 α−1)
n=0 sinh α+csch α+sinh α+csch α
1
= (1+sinh α)(1−csch2 α)
.

The set of values of α that verifies the geometric condition |s| > 1 can be calculated as follows:

 e − e−α 
 α  eα − e−α < −2 ⇔ e2α + 2eα < 1 ⇔ (eα + 1)2 < 2
|sinhα| = |s| > 1 ⇔  >1⇔
2
e − e−α > +2 ⇔ e2α − 2eα > 1 ⇔ (eα − 1)2 > 2
 α
√  √ 
ln 2 − 1 > α > ln 2+1

Remark. By the definition of hyperbolic sinus, after some algebraic manipulations, (4.17) can
be expressed in the following exponential form:

∞
1 2 e2α + e−2α − 2
∑ 2n = ·
eα − e−α + 2 e2α + e−2α − 6
(4.19)
n =0 sinh α + csch2n α + sinh α + csch α

Corollary 4.7: Series type (07). ∀k ∈ Z, α 6= 0,

∞
1 1
∑ 2n 2n
=   (4.20)
n =0 cosh α + sech α + cosh α + sech α (1 + cosh α) 1 − sech2 α

Proof. Applying to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ cosh α (4.21)

after some simplification, we get (4.20), and |s| > 1 ⇐⇒ |cosh α| > 1 ⇐⇒ α 6= 0.

The set of values of α that verifies the geometric condition |s| > 1 can be calculated as follows:

 α −
e + e α
  eα + e−α < −2 ⇔ e2α + 2eα < −1 ⇔ (eα + 1)2 < 0
|coshα| = |s| > 1 ⇔ 

>1⇔

2
eα + e−α > +2 ⇔ e2α − 2eα > −1 ⇔ (eα − 1)2 > 0

hence, |s| > 1 ⇐⇒ α 6= 0 

130

Corollary 4.8: Series type (08). ∀ k ∈ Z, α > e,

∞
ln2n α ln2 α
∑    =   (4.22)
n =0 ln2n+1 α + 1 ln2n−1 α + 1 (ln α + 1) ln2 α − 1

Proof. Applying to (4.6) the variable change,

s ≡ lnα (4.23)

we get directly (4.22), and |s| > 1 ⇐⇒ |ln α| > 1 ⇐⇒ α > e. 

4.2. Summation of some type of numerical series. Let´s see some examples of sequences
whose sums have been generated by assigning values to the above functional series.

Since these sums have been found through a very complex geometric method, it is likely that
they cannot be achieved in closed form by any other way. For example, Wolfram Alpha cannot
find the sum in closed form for the following serie, and for partial sums, as we will see later,
it presents a very complicated expression that involves q-digamma functions, vs the surprising
simplicity of the exact form obtained by the geometric method of circles chains.

Corollary 4.1: Sequence (01).

∞ √
1
∑ √ =
1+n + 21−n + 3 2
2−1 (4.24)
n=0 2

√
Proof. Dividing both sides of (4.6) by s and applying the sustitution s ≡ 2 , we have:
√
∞ 1 2
∑ √ 1+2n √ 1−2n √ 2 = √    √ 2 
n=0
2 + 2 + 2 +1 2+1 2 −1

√
∞ 1 2
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2n √ √ −2n =√
n=0
2 2 + 2 2 +3 2+1

√
∞ 1 2
⇔ ∑ √ √ =√
n=0 2 · 2n + 2 · 2− n + 3 2+1
∞ 1 1 √
⇔ ∑ √ =√ = 2−1
n = 0 21+n + 21 − n +3 2 2+1

 131

Corollary 4.2: Sequence (02).

∞
√
1 3−1
∑ √ =
1 + n + 31 − n + 4 3 4
(4.25)
n=0 3

√
Proof. Dividing both sides of (4.6) by s and applying the sustitution s ≡ 3 , we have:

√
∞ 1 3
∑ √ 1+2n √ 1−2n √ 2 = √    √ 2 
n=0
3 + 3 + 3 +1 3+1 3 −1

√
∞ 1 3
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2n √ √ −2n = √ 
n=0
3 3 + 3 3 +4 2 3+1

√
∞ 1 3
⇔ ∑ √ √ = √ 
n=0 3 · 3n + 3 · 3− n +4 2 3+1

∞ 1 1
⇔ ∑ √ = √ 
n = 0 31+n + 31−n +4 3 2 3+1
√
∞ 1 3−1
⇔ ∑ √ =
n = 0 31+n + 31−n +4 3 4

Corollary 4.3: Sequence (03).

∞
1 2
∑ 2 1+2n + 21−2n + 5
=
9
(4.26)
n =0

Proof. Dividing both sides of (4.6) by s, with s ≡ 2 , we get straightforward (4.26). 

Corollary 4.4: Sequence (04).

∞ 1
∑ √ ±2n √ ∓2n √
n=0
2±1 + 2±1 +2 2
(4.27)
∞ 1 1
= ∑ √ ±2n √ ±2n √ = 2 2 √
n=0
2±1 + 2∓1 +2 2
132

√
Proof. For z = 2 in (4.1) and (4.2):

∞ 1
∑ √ ±2n √ ∓2n √
n=0
2±1 + 2±1 +2 2
∞ 1
= ∑ √ ±2n √ ±2n √
n=0
2±1 + 2∓1 +2 2
 
1 1
= √ +1
4 2+1
√ √
1 2+2 2−1
= ·√ ·√
4 2+1 2−1
√
1 √  √  2
= 2+2 2−1 =
4 4

1
= √
2 2


√
Remark. The value z = d = 2 corresponds to a very special position of the circles that
define the convex region Ω, where is inscribed the chain of circles: when γ A and γB intersect
orthogonally, in Figure 6, ϕ = 45o ; so, 4OO0 A is isosceles and we have:

√
ρ OP d 2 √
= = = ⇔ ρ = d = 2.
2 2 2 2

Corollary 4.5: Sequence (05).

∞
1 1
∑  √  √ 2n  √  √ −2n =
4
(4.28)
n=1 3 2 − 4 2+1 + 3 2+4 2+1 +4

Proof. Since,

 √  √  ∓2 √
3 2±4 2+1 = 2,

from (4.27),
 133

∞
√1 ∑ √
1
√ √ = 1
√ · √1
2 n = 0 ( 2+1)2n +( 2+1)−2n +2 2 2 2 2

∞
1 1
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2n √ √ −2n √ √ = 4
n=0 2 ( 2+1 ) + 2 ( 2+1 ) +2 2 2

∞
1 1
⇔ ∑ √ √ +2 √ 2n √ √ −2 √ −2n = 4
n = 0 (3 2−4)( 2+1) ( 2+1) +(3 2+4)( 2+1) ( 2+1) +4

∞
1 1
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2n+2 √ √ −2n−2 = 4
n=0 ( 3 2 − 4 )( 2 + 1 ) + (3 2+4)( 2+1) +4

∞
1 1
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2( n +1) √ √ −2( n +1) = 4
n = 0 (3 2−4)( 2+1) +(3 2+4)( 2+1) +4

∞
1
⇔ ∑ √ √ 2n √ √ −2n = 14 .
n = 1 (3 2−4)( 2+1) +(3 2+4)( 2+1) +4


Corollary 4.6: Sequence (06).

∞  
1 2 8
∑ (5 − 3i )2n + (5 − 3i )−2n + (5 − 3i ) + (5 − 3i )−1
=
15
1+ i
15
(4.29)
n=0

Proof. With s ≡ 5 − 3i in (4.6) it is obtained straightforward (4.29). 

Corollary 4.7: Sequence (07). Let Φ be the golden number and Φ its reciprocal.

This is another beautiful and stunning property of the golden number:

∞ ∞
Φ2n 1
∑ ≡ ∑ √ ≡Φ (4.30)
n = 0 (Φ + 1) ( Φ
2n + 1 2n − 1 + 1) n = 0 Φ2n + Φ2n + 5

Proof. For s ≡ Φ in (4.6):

∞
1 Φ2
∑ Φ2n + Φ−2n + Φ + Φ
=
( Φ + 1) ( Φ2 − 1)
. (4.31)
n=0

By definition of golden number, in the left side of (4.31),

√ √
5+1 5−1 √
Φ+Φ ≡ + = 5. (4.32)
2 2
134

The reciprocal of the golden number verifies:

√
2 2 5−1
Φ −1 =√ ⇔ Φ −1 =√ ·√
5+1 5+1 5−1
√ 
2 5−1
⇔ Φ −1 =
4
√
5−1
⇔ Φ −1 =
2
√
5+1−1−1
⇔ Φ −1 =
2
√
5+1
⇔ Φ −1 = − 1.
2
Therefore,

Φ −1 ≡ Φ − 1 (4.33)

By (4.33),

Φ 2 − 1 = ( Φ + 1 ) ( Φ − 1 ) = ( Φ + 1 ) Φ −1 = 1 + Φ −1 = Φ ⇔ Φ 2 − 1 ≡ Φ (4.34)

Simplifying the right side of (4.31) with (4.33) and (4.34):

Φ2 Φ2 Φ Φ ( Φ − 1) ΦΦ−1 1
= = = = = ≡ Φ,
( Φ + 1) ( Φ2 − 1) ( Φ + 1) Φ Φ+1 Φ2 − 1 Φ Φ
or,

Φ2 Φ2 ( Φ − 1) Φ2 ( Φ − 1)
= = = Φ−1 ≡ Φ.
( Φ + 1) ( Φ − 1)
2
( Φ − 1)
2 2 Φ 2

Remark. Multiplying by Φ both sides of (4.30), we obtain the following variant:

∞
1 2
∑ 2n−1
≡ Φ ≡ 1−Φ (4.35)
n=0 Φ2n+1 + Φ +Φ+2
 135

5. E XTENSION OF THE METHOD .

The exposed method is open in the sense that the types of series for which its sum can be found
depends on the region Ω in which the infinite chain of circles is inscribed; so, if this region
is modified, from the geometric stage outcrops new types of series that can be added by this
method.

In this section it is synthetically exposed an extension of the method for bivariate functions, by
simple modification of the Ω region. This is only an example, but it offers a glimpse of the scope
of this geometric method, from which unpredictable identities can arise.

Figure 8 shows a partition of the region Ω (used up to now for inscribing the chain of circles),
by means of a circle γC with centre at C and diameter OR ≡ δ.

Ω has been divided into two subregions, one concave-convex (PQRSP, in yellow) and another
convex (RQOSR, in orange), whose sizes can be modified by moving C along the y-axis.

Figure 8
136

Warning. All the circles that define the region Ω where will be inscribed {γi }, here, γ A , γB , γC ,
go through the inversion pole, O. Thus, the inverse of Ω is a triangle or a non-bounded polygonal
region, in which the complex geometric relationships are reduced to a simple homothecy.

Figure 9 shows also the inverses γ0A , γB0 , γC0 of the circles γ A , γB , γC , respectively, relative to
the auto-inversion circle γ, with centre at the origin O (pole) end unit radius (power). In this
inversion, the region PQRSP (in yellow) transforms into the triangle 4 P0 Q0 S0 .

5.1. Generating bivariate series. Let now Ω be the yellow region in Figure 9, where it is
inscribed a decreasing infinite chain of circles converging to P.

Figure 9

5.1.1. Calculation of r0 . Following the algorithm settled in Figure 3, we have as first step the
calculation of r0 , radius of the first circle of the chain. Finding r0 in the new stage, Figure 9,
is not as straightforward as in the geometric stage seen above; nevertheless, it is an elementary
geometric problem that can be solved in different ways (we could even skip this step and directly
calculate r00 , which here is the inradius of 4 P0 Q0 S0 , Figure 8, whose value can be obtained by
the explicit formula r00 = ∆s , where ∆ is the area of 4 P0 Q0 S0 and s its semi-perimeter, [5]).
 137

Let’s calculate r0 by means of 4O0 MB, Figure 9:

2 2 2 r 2

2  2
= BT − O0 T − d2


OO0 − OM = BO0 − BM ⇔ y0 − 2

2  2
⇔ y0 2 − ry0 + 2r = (1 − r0 )2 − d2
 2
r 2
⇔ ( δ + r0 )2 − r ( δ + r0 ) − (1 − r0 )2 = − d


2 − 2 .

With the variable change,

p
d≡ 4 − r2 (5.1)
and since y0 = δ + r0 ,

δ2 + 2δr0 + r0 2 − rδ − rr0 − 1 + 2r0 − r0 2 + 1 = 0 ⇔ (2δ − r + 2) r0 + δ2 − rδ = 0,

δ (r − δ )
r0 = (5.2)
2 ( δ + 1) − r
The center of γ0 is,

O0 (0, δ + r0 ) (5.3)

So, the equation of γ0 can be written as,

γ0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2 (δ + r0 ) y + δ (δ + 2r0 ) . (5.4)

Since the constant term in (5.4) is C = δ (δ + 2r0 ), by Lemma (2.3),

1 1 1 r−δ
r00 = · r0 =   =   = ,
δ (δ + 2r0 ) δ
δ r0 + 2 δ δ·
2(δ+1)−r
+2 δ [2 (δ + 1) − r + 2r − 2δ]
δ (r − δ )

r−δ
r00 = (5.5)
δ (r + 2)

To compare both methods, let’s calculate now r00 directly as inradius of 4 P0 Q0 S0 . By (5.1) and
Lemma (2.2), the equation of γ0A can be written as,

d 1
γ0A ≡ y = x+ (5.6)
r r

In Figure 9, by the definition of inverse points, OR · OR0 = 1, but OR ≡ δ, therefore, OR0 = 1δ .

Hence, by Lemma (2.1.a),
1
γC0 ≡ y = (5.7)
δ
138

In Figure 8, γ0A intersects with the y-axis at P0 , and with γC0 at S0 .

By (5.6) and (5.7), the coordinates of this points are,

0 r−δ 1
   
0 1
P 0, ,S , .
r dδ δ

Hence, the height P0 R0 = OR0 − OP0 , is,

1 1
P0 R0 = − . (5.8)
δ r
.
The length of the side P0 S0 is,
s
2 2
r−δ
 
1 1
q
P0 S0 = ( x S0 − x P 0 )2 + ( y S0 − y P 0 )2 = −0 + − ,
dδ δ r

and simplifying,
(r + 2) (r − δ )
P0 S0 = . (5.9)
drδ
The length of the side Q0 S0 is,
r−δ
Q0 S0 = 2 · . (5.10)
dδ
So, the area of 4 P0 Q0 S0 is,

r−δ (r − δ )2
 
1 1
A≡ − = , (5.11)
dδ δ r dδ2 r

and the semi-perimeter of 4 P0 Q0 S0 ,

2 (r − δ ) r − δ
s≡ + ,
dδr dδ
which can be factorized as,

(r + 2) (r − δ )
s≡ . (5.12)
dδr
Hence, for the inradius of 4 P0 Q0 S0 , Figure 8, we get,

A (r − δ )2 dδr r−δ
r00 = = As−1 = · ⇔ r00 = (5.13)
s dδ2 r (r + 2) (r − δ ) δ (r + 2)

result consistent, since equation (5.13) coincides with the (5.5).

 139

5.1.2. Similitude ratio, h, for the inverse chain {γi0 } inscribed in 4 P0 Q0 S0 , Figure 10.

Figure 10
r10
Here, {γi0 } is decreasing, < 1; so, h is the reciprocal of the value given by Th. (3.1) in (3.35):
r00  2
d
h= √ ,
2 + 4 − d2
and with the variable change (5.1) we get a rational equation in terms of the chord OP ≡ r:

2−r
h= (5.14)
2+r
140

5.1.3. Equation of the generic circle of the inverse chain {γi0 }. About the inverse generic
circumference, γn0 , we need to know its radius, rn0 , and the constant term, Cn0 , of its implicit
equation in order to apply Lemma 2.3, whereby, by involution of the inversion transformation,
we can find the radius rn of the generic circumference of the chain inscribed in Ω, final objective
of this geometric problem and connection link for the generation of series with their sums.

Since Cn0 depends on the ordinate y0n of γn0 , equation (3.33), we must calculate y0n .

In Figure 10, by (5.8) and (5.3),

P0 On0 rn0 hn r00

= = = hn ⇔ P0 On0 = hn P0 O00
P0 O00 r00 r00

⇔ OOn0 − OP0 = hn P0 R0 − r00

 
1 1 1
⇔ y0n
− =h n − − r0 0
r δ r

r−δ
 
0 n 1 1 1
⇔ yn = h − − + .
δ r δ (r + 2) r

Hence, the center ordinate of γn0 can be expressed as,

2 (r − δ ) 1
y0n = · hn + . (5.15)
δr (2 + r ) r

By the homothecy defined in 4 P0 Q0 S0 for the inverse chain of circles, and by equation (5.13),
the radius of γn0 can be expressed as,
r−δ
rn0 = hn r00 = hn . (5.16)
δ (2 + r )
The equation of γn0 is,

2 2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y − y0n = rn0 . (5.17)

From (5.17) we only need to know its constant term, Cn0 , in order to apply Lemma 2.3.

Expanding (5.17),
2 2
γn0 ≡ x2 + y2 − 2y0n y + y0n − rn0 = 0, (5.18)

so,
2 2
Cn0 ≡ y0n − rn0 , (5.19)

which is the result already obtained in (3.49). Let´s calculate Cn0 as a function of the parameters
r and δ through (5.15). (5.16) and (5.14):
 141

Cn0 ≡ (y0n + rn0 ) (y0n − rn0 )

h ih i
2(r − δ ) n 2(r − δ ) n
⇔ Cn0 ≡ δr (2+r )
h + 1r + hn δ(r2−+δr) δr (2+r )
h + 1r − r −δ
δ (2+r )
hn

r −δ r −δ 2−r n
⇔ Cn0 ≡ · hn + 1 1



δr r δr · 2+r h + r

r −δ r −δ
⇔ Cn0 ≡ · hn + 1
· h n +1 + 1



δr r δr r

r −δ 2 2n+1 r −δ r −δ
⇔ Cn0 ≡ · hn + · h n +1 + 1


δr h + δr2 δr2 r2

r −δ r −δ
⇔ C0 n ≡ · h2n+1 + 1r · hn + 1r · hn+1 + 1


δr δr r2

r −δ
⇔ Cn0 ≡ (r − δ) hn+1 + δ + δh hn + 1
 
δ2 r 2 r2

r −δ 2−r
⇔ C0 n ≡ ( r − δ ) h n +1 + + 1 δ hn + 1


δ2 r 2 2+r r2

r −δ
⇔ Cn0 ≡ (r − δ) hn+1 + 2+4 r · δ hn + r12 ;
 
δ2 r 2

r−δ h i 1
Cn0 ≡ 2 2 (2 + r ) (r − δ) hn+1 + 4δ hn + 2 (5.20)
δ r (2 + r ) r

5.1.4. Radius of the generic circle of the chain {γi }. Applying Lemma 3.3, with inversion
power ρ = 1, and equations (5.14), (5.16) and (5.20),

rn = r −δ
1
[(2+r )(r −δ)hn+1 +4δ]hn + 12
· hn r00
δ2 r 2 (2+r ) r

δ2 r 2 (2+r )
r −δ
⇔ rn = r −δ
δ2 (2+r )
· δ (r +2)
· hn
[(2+r )(r −δ)hn+1 +4δ]hn + r −δ

δr2 (r −δ)hn
⇔ rn = (r −δ)[(2+r )(r −δ)hn+1 +4δ]hn +δ2 (2+r )

δr2 (r −δ)hn
⇔ rn = (r −δ)[(2+r )(r −δ)hn+1 +4δ]hn +δ2 (2+r )

δr2 (r −δ)(2−r )n
⇔ rn = h
r n +1
i
(r −δ) (2+r )(r −δ)( 22−
+r ) +4δ (2−r )n +δ2 (2+r )n+1

δr2 (r −δ)(2−r )n (2+r )n

⇔ rn = ;
(r −δ)2 (2−r )2n+1 +4δ(r −δ)(2+r )n (2−r )n +δ2 (2+r )2n+1

n
δr2 (r − δ) 4 − r2
rn =  h i (5.21)
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n + δ (2 + r ) n ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n +1 + δ (2 + r ) n +1
142

5.1.5. Metric relationship that geometrically connects the series with its sum. In Figure 9, the
sum of the diameters of the infinite circles of the chain {γi } is equal to the length of RP:

∞
2 ∑ rn = RP = OP − OR = r − δ (5.22)
n=0
Defining,

n
4 − r2
f n (r, δ) ≡  h i (5.23)
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n + δ (2 + r ) n ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n +1 + δ (2 + r ) n +1

By (5.21) and (5.22), we have:

∞ m
1
∑ f n (r, δ) = lim
m→∞
∑ f n (r, δ) ≡
2δr2
(5.24)
n=0 n=0

5.2. Differential transform of identity (5.24).

h
2 n δ 2 + r 2n+1 − r − δ 2 − r 2n+1 + 2 r − 2δ 4 − r 2 n

i
∂ fn 2 4 − r ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=−  2 h i2 (5.25)
∂δ
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n + δ (2 + r ) n ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n +1 + δ (2 + r ) n +1

∞
1 ∂ ∞ ∂ 1 ∞
∂ fn ∂ 1
∑ f n (r, δ) ≡
2δr 2
⇔ ∑
∂δ n = 0
f n ( r, δ ) ≡
∂δ 2δr 2
⇔ ∑ ≡
∂δ 2δr2
. (5.26)
n=0 n = 0 ∂δ

From (5.26):
∞
∂ fn 1
∑ ≡− 2 2
2δ r
(5.27)
n = 0 ∂δ
Defining,

n h
n i
un ≡ 4 − r2 δ(2 + r )2n+1 − (r − δ) (2 − r )2n+1 + 2 (r − 2δ) 4 − r2 (5.28)

2 h i2
v n ≡ ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n + δ (2 + r ) n ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n +1 + δ (2 + r ) n +1

(5.29)

un (r, δ)
ϕn (r, δ) ≡ (5.30)
vn (r, δ)
we have:
∞
1
∑ ϕn (r, δ) ≡
(2δr )2
(5.31)
n=0
 143

6. PARTIAL SUMS .

6.0.1. Partial sum for the functional series (4.6). Figure 11 shows the circle γm of the chain
0 respect to γ, with pole at the origin O, outside the image, and power ρ = 1.
and its inverse γm

Figure 11

Theorem (6.1). Let f n (r, δ) be the function defined in (5.23),

n
4 − r2
f n (r, δ) ≡  h i.
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n + δ (2 + r ) n ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) n +1 + δ (2 + r ) n +1
Then, ∀r, δ ∈ C r 6= 0, r 6= δ, ∀m ∈ N:
" #
m
1 r (2 + r ) m +1
∑ f n (r, δ) ≡ 2
2r (r − δ) ( r − δ ) (2 − r ) m +1 + δ (2 + r ) m +1
−1 (6.1)
n=0
144

Proof. In Figure 11, γ0 is tangent to γC at R, as it is shown in Figure 9; so, the sum of the
diameters of the sub-chain {γ0 , · · · , γm } is equal to the length of the RL segment:

m
2 ∑ rn = RL (6.2)
n=0

But, RL = OL − OR = ym + rm − δ, and by definition of inverse points,

1
y0m − rm
0


(ym + rm ) = 1 ⇔ ym + rm = 0 0
. (6.3)
ym − rm
So, by (5.15) and (5.16),
1 1
RL = − δ ⇔ RL = − δ.
y0m − rm
0 2(r − δ )
· hm + 1r − hm δ(r2−+δr)
δr (r +2)
By (5.14),
δr (2 + r )m+1
RL = −δ (6.4)
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) m +1 + δ (2 + r ) m +1

So, by (6.2) and (6.4), (5.24) can be written as,

( )
m
r (2 + r ) m +1
2 ∑ rn (r, δ) ≡ δ
( r − δ ) (2 − r ) m +1 + δ (2 + r ) m +1
−1 . (6.5)
n=0

But, by (5.21) and (5.23), rn (r, δ) = δr2 (r − δ) f n (r, δ); hence, from (6.4) we get (6.1) 

Convergence of the partial sums (6.1). Written (6.1) in the form,

 
m
1 r
∑ f n (r, δ) ≡ 2r2 (r − δ)  2−r m +1

− 1 , (6.6)
n=0 ( r − δ ) 2+r +δ
m
r−δ
 
1 r 1 1
lim ∑ f n (r, δ) = 2 −1 = 2 · = ,
m→∞
n=0 2r (r − δ) 0 + δ 2r (r − δ) δ 2δr2

that is a consistent result with (5.24).

Remark. Another alternative form to (6.1) and (6.5) is the following:

m
1 (2 + r ) m +1 − (2 − r ) m +1
∑ f n (r, δ) ≡ ·
2r2 δ(2 + r )m+1 + (r − δ) (2 − r )m+1
(6.7)
n=0

Reflection. Surprisingly, the identity (6.1) for the partial sum of the functional bivariate series (5.24), derived geometrically, holds
even outside the geometric context in which it was deduced. Geometry is the science that studies form and size, and the aphorism
says that a picture is worth a thousand words. Here, from a geometric image, have emanated infinite identities, that despite being
non-geometric, they seem invisible without the light of geometry, but once discovered, we see that they can be extended far beyond
the geometric scenario in which they were found.
 145

If δ > r, the chain is inscribed in the PSRQP region, Figure 12, and the identities obtained for
the scenario shown in Figure 11 still make sense. In this case, the reverse chain is inscribed in the
triangular region 4 PQ0 S0 . But if r ∈
/ [0, 2], the parameter r = OP no longer has a geometric
meaning, and yet the identities remain valid. Why?.

Figure 12

Examples of partial sums, generated by (6.1) / (6.6) / (6.7), which are identities that are verified even for values of δ and r that fall
outside the geometric scenario in which they were generated. Wolfram Alpha cannot find this sums in closed form:

m
δ r f n (r, δ) ∑ f n (r, δ)
n=0
3 7n 7m +1 − 1
2 2 16·72n+1 −32·7n +1 18(4·7m+1 −1)
(−5)n 5m+1 +(−1)n
-3 3
9[52n+1 −8(−5)n −4] 54[5m+1 +2(−1)n ]
(−5)n (−5)m+1 −1
3 -3
9[ 4·52n+1 −8(−5)n −1 ] 54[2·(−5)m+1 −1]
(−5)n 5m+1 +(−1)m
7 3 −112(−5)n −16
49·52n + 1
18[7·5m+1 +4(−1)m ]
146

6.0.2. Partial sum for the functional series (4.6).

Theorem (6.2). For any complex number outside the unit closed disk, that is, ∀s ∈ C : |s| > 1:

m
1 s s2m+2 − 1
∑ 2n −2n + s + s−1
≡ ·
(s + 1) (s2 − 1) s2m+1 + 1
(6.8)
n=0 s + s

m
s2n s s2m+2 − 1
∑ 2n+1 + 1) ( s2n−1 + 1)
≡ ·
(s + 1) (s2 − 1) s2m+1 + 1
(6.9)
n = 0 (s

Proof. To simplify the development of the demonstration, we will use the organizational chart
of Figure 13, that relate the variables involved, based on variable changes already defined above:

Figure 13

In Figure 14, the sum of the diameters of the sub-chain {γ0 , · · · , γm } minus the radius of the
first circle is equal to the length of the O0 L segment,

m
2 ∑ rn − r0 =O0 L (6.10)
n=0

But,
ρ
O0 L = OL − OO0 = OL − y0 = OL − , (6.11)
2
 147

and by definition of inverse points,

ρ2 ρ2 ρ2
OL · OL0 = ρ2 ⇔ OL = ⇔ OL = ⇔ OL = 0 0
(6.12)
OL0 0 − L0 O0
OOm m ym − rm

Figure 14

In this case, ρ ≡ r (length of the cord OP), so, with the notations defined in (3.29) for Figure 6:
r2 r r2 r
O0 L = 0 0
− ⇔ O0 L = m 0 m 0 − ,
ym − rm 2 r + h a0 − h r0 2
148

 
r r r 2
O0 L = − = − 1 ;
1 + hm ( a00 − r00 ) r −1 2 2 1 + hm ( a00 − r00 ) r −1

r 1 − hm ( a00 − r00 ) r −1
O0 L = · (6.13)
2 1 + hm ( a00 − r00 ) r −1

By (3.34) and (3.32), Figure 5 and Figure 6,

√
2 4 − d2 4 − d2 2−r 2−r
a00 − r00 = − ⇔ a00 − r00 = r · ⇔ a00 − r00 = r · √ ;
d d d 4 − r2
r
0 0 2−r
a0 − r0 = r · (6.14)
2+r

Now, by (4) in Figure 13 and (6.12), we can write O0 L in (6.11) as a function only of r:
q
2−r m −1 2−r
1
2−r m + 2


r 1− 2+r rr 2+r r 1− 2+r
O0 L = · q ⇔ O0 L = ·
1 (6.15)
2 1+ 2−r m −1


rr 2−r 2 1+ 2−r m + 2
2+r 2+r 2+r

Multiplying numerator and denominator of (6.15) by,

 m+ 12
2+r
,
2−r
we have:

1
2+r m + 2
r 2−r −1
O0 L = ·
1 . (6.16)
2 2+r m + 2
+1
2−r

And by (5) and (8) in Figure 13, from (6.16), we can write O0 L as a function only of s:

m+ 21
s2 − 1 s2 −1
O0 L = 2 · ;
s + 1 (s2 )m+ 12 + 1

s2 − 1 s2m+1 − 1
O0 L = · (6.17)
s2 + 1 s2m+1 + 1

By (3.20) and the relationship (7) in Figure 13,

d 2s ( s − 1)2
r0 = 1 − ⇔ r0 = 1 − 2 ⇔ r0 = 2 (6.18)
2 s +1 s +1
 149

From (6.10), with (6.17) and (6.18):

m m
s2 −1 s2m+1 −1 ( s −1)2
2 ∑ rn = O0 L + r0 ⇔ 2 ∑ rn = s2 +1
· s2m+1 +1
+ s2 +1
n=0 n=0

m (s2 −1)(s2m+1 −1)+(s−1)2 (s2m+1 +1)

⇔ 2 ∑ rn = (s2 +1)(s2m+1 +1)
n=0

m (s2 −1)s2m+1 −(s2 −1)+(s−1)2 s2m+1 +(s−1)2

⇔ 2 ∑ rn = (s2 +1)(s2m+1 +1)
n=0

m
2s(s−1)s2m+1 −2(s−1)
⇔ 2 ∑ rn = (s2 +1)(s2m+1 +1)
;
n=0

m
2 (s − 1) s2m+2 − 1
2 ∑ rn = ·
s2 + 1 s2m+1 + 1
(6.19)
n=0

By (9) in Figure 13,

2
−1 s2 + 1 2s s2 + 1 − 4s2
z−z = − 2 = ;
2s s +1 2s (s2 + 1)

2
−1 s2 − 1
z−z = (6.20)
2s (s2 + 1)

By (3.54) and (6) in Figure 13,

2
2 z − z −1 s2 − 1


1
rn = 2n − −
⇔ rn = · 2n −
(6.21)
s +s 2n +s+s 1 2
s ( s + 1) s + s 2n + s + s −1

From (6.19) and (6.21),

m s s2 + 1


1 2s (s − 1) s2m+1 − 1
∑ s2m + s−2m + s + s−1
=
2( s2 − 1)
2
·
s2 + 1
· 2m+1
s +1
;
n=0
hence:

m
1 s s2m+2 − 1
∑ s2m + s−2m + s + s−1
= ·
(s + 1) (s2 − 1) s2m+1 + 1

n=0

Example. Identity for the golden number Φ:

m
Φ2n Φ2m+2 − 1
∑ 2n+1 + 1) (Φ2n−1 + 1) Φ2 (Φ2m+1 + 1)
≡
n = 0 (Φ
150

Convergence of the partial sums (6.8) / (6.9). Written (6.8) in the form,
1
m
1 s s − 2m+1
∑ s2m + s−2m + s + s−1
=
( s + 1) ( s2 − 1)
· s
1
,
n=0 1 + 2m+1
s

∞ m
1 1
∑ s2m + s−2m + s + s −1
= lim ∑
m → ∞ n=0 s2m + s−2m
+ s + s −1
n=0
1
s s − 2m+1
= lim · s
m → ∞ ( s + 1) ( s2 − 1) 1 (6.22)
1 + 2m+1
s

s2
=
( s + 1) ( s2 − 1)

result consistent with (4.6).

Remark. From (6.8), after some algebraic transformations, we obtain this beautiful identity
between summations:

m
n
∑ (−s)
(1 + s ) 1 − s2 m
s2n−1


∑
n=0
≡ (6.23)
2m
n 1 + s m +1 1 + s2n−1 + s2n+1 + s4n
∑ (−s) n=0
n=0

Remark. The geometric scenario presented in section 3 is a particular case of the scenario
defined in section 5, and is inherited from the latter by assigning the following value to the
parameter δ:
 
r r d r d
δ = − r0 = − 1 − = + − 1,
2 2 2 2 2
but,
 r 2  2
d p
+ = 1 ⇔ r 2 + d2 = 4 ⇔ d = 4 − r 2 ;
2 2
so,
√ r
r 4 − r2 r  r 2
δ= + −1 ⇔ δ = + 1− −1 (6.24)
2 2 2 2

Thus, the first circle of the chain is the maximum circle inscribable in Ω, Figure 14, and therefore
the chain is strictly decreasing.
 151

Figure 14

7. C ONCLUSION .

The series generated by the geometric method exposed in this article, based on chains of circles
inscribed in regions bounded by arcs of circles, with genesis in the hybridization of two large
branches of Mathematics, Geometry and Analysis, have very deep connections with complex
and relevant mathematical structures, with ramifications that connect very diverse fields of great
importance in leading Mathematics research.
152

Let’s see an example.

√
For s ≡ 2 in (6.8), we have:

m
√
1 2 2m +1 − 1
∑ 2n + 2− n +
√
2+ √1
≡√ · √
2 + 1 2m 2 + 1
, (7.1)
n=0 2

and dividing by 2 both sides of (7.1),

m
√
1 2 − 2 2 · 2m − 1
∑ 1+n + 21−n + 3√2 ≡ 2 · √2 · 2m + 1 (7.2)
n=0 2

The sum at infinite take this closed form:

∞ m √
1 1
∑ 1+n + 21−n + 3√2 = mlim
→∞
∑ 1 + n + 21 − n + 3 √ 2 = 2−1 (7.3)
n=0 2 n=0 2

But Wolfram Alpha can only give a decimal approximation for the infinite sum, (7.3,) and for
the partial sums, (7.2), it gives this monstrous function, which involves the special function
q-digamma:

m
1
∑ √ = Ψ (m)
21+n + 21−n + 3 2
(7.4)
n=0

with,

(0) (0) (0) (0)

m + 32 − p − ψ2 m + 12 − p + ψ2 − 12 − p − ψ2 1





ψ2 −p
Ψ (m) ≡ √ 2
,
2 ln 2

(0) π
where ψ2 is the q-digamma function, [6], with q = 2 and p ≡ i.
ln 2

This is a demonstration that Geometry allows us to see what is not possible through the most
sophisticated tools of Mathematical Analysis.

Moreover, this discovery seems to reveal the intricate underlying relationships that exist between
the different branches of Mathematics. In the following organization chart, Figure 15, some of
these hidden connections are shown.
 153

Figure 15
154

8. A PPENDIX .
On the forbidden division by zero. Throughout the centuries many mathematicians have tried
to solve the impossibility of dividing by zero, inventing diverse definitions or artifices with the
intention of surpass this impossibility. Recently, the interest for this question has resurged,
impelled for outstanding mathematicians, [1]-[2], which define the division for zero in a so
simple way as,

x
= 0, ∀ x ∈ R (8.1)
0

The definition (8.1) can be refuted by many arguments, but it is enough one counterexample,
since Mathematics is a consistent science, i.e., that never takes to contradictions; a thousand
examples are not enough to prove a mathematical proposition, but one counterexample proves
its invalidity.

Here, in a family of functions whose sum was derived geometrically, we´ll observe its behaviour
in the singular point of division by zero.

Let´s define the family of functions,


−1
 1
f m (s) = f m s = , m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (8.2)
s2m + s−2m + s + s−1

Let´s define the function ϕ(s) according to (4.6), restricted to the positive real numbers s > 1,

∞
s2
ϕ(s) ≡ ∑ f m (s) =
( s + 1) ( s2 − 1)
, s>1 (8.3)
m =0

Since lim ϕ(s) = 0, y = 0 is a horizontally asymptote of ϕ(s).

s→∞
u
If we write, f m (s) = , we have:
v

u≡1 ⇒ u0 = 0

⇒ u00 = 0

v ≡ s2m + s−2m + s + s−1 ⇒ v0 = 2ms2m−1 − 2ms−2m−1 + 1 − s−2

⇒ v00 = 2m (2m − 1) s2m−2 + 2m (2m + 1) s−2m−2 + 2s−3 .

 155

Therefore,

∂
∂s f m ( s ) ≡ f m 0 (s) = 0 ⇔ u0 v − uv0 = 0

⇔ v0 = 0

⇔ 2ms2m−1 − 2ms−2m−1 + 1 − s−2 = 0

⇔ 2ms−2m−1 s4m − 1 + s−2 s2 − 1 = 0

h s4m −1
i
⇔ s2 − 1 2ms−2m−1 · s2 −1
+ s −2 = 0
" #
2m−1
s2 − 1 2ms−2m−1 ∑ s2j + s−2 = 0


⇔
j =0

⇔ s = ±1

Applying the method exposed in [3],

sgn [ f 00 (1)] = sgn(u00 v − uv00 )s=1

= − sgn (v00 )s=1

= − sgn [2m (2m − 1) (1) + 2m (2m + 1) (1) + 2 (1)]

= − sgn [2m (2m − 1) + 2m (2m + 1) + 2]

= − sgn 8m2 + 2
 

= −

So, all the functions of the family (8.2) reach their absolute maximum at s = 1, with f m (1) = 14 .

The function ϕ (s) has a vertical asymptote s = 1, since,

∞ ∞
1
ϕ (1) ≡ ∑ f m (1) = ∑ 4
= +∞ (8.4)
m =0 m =0

If we extend the field R to R ≡ R ∪ {+∞} through Alexandroff one-point compactification of

real line 2, (8.3) is defined in s = 1,

2R is locally compact noncompact Hausdorff space (Heine?Borel theorem). In [4] it is shown how Alexandroff
one-point compactification can be used as a prototype for topological extensions.
156

12 1 1
ϕ (1) = + ∞ = 2
= · . (8.5)
(1 + 1) (1 − 1) 2 0

and (8.4) holds iff we define,

1
≡ +∞ (8.6)
0

But, if we define,

1
≡0 (8.7)
0
we have,
1 1
ϕ (1) = + ∞ = · ⇒ +∞ ≡ 0 (8.8)
2 0
what is absurd!.

If we define the partial sums,

n
ψn (s) ≡ ∑ f j ( s ), (8.9)
j =0
we have,
lim ψn (s) ≡ ϕ (s) , (8.10)
n→∞

and,

lim ψn (1) ≡ ϕ (1) = +∞. (8.11)

n→∞

Since (4.6) has geometrical sense at s = 1, by (8.11), the right side of (4.6) should also be +∞
for s = 1, and this verifies if and only if we assign to the division by zero the value +∞. Hence,
this is counterexample that prove the inconsistency of the definition (8.7)

As (4.6) has been derived from a geometrical identity that holds for d ∈ [0, 2], and it isn´t a
series development (like Taylor, MacLaurin, Laurent, Fourier, ... series) by which a function
is approached in a point, and by (7) in Figure 13, d = 2 ⇐⇒ s = 1, we should conclude
that (8.3) would must hold also for s = 1, which is the singular point where the chain of circles
collapses at a single point: the tangency point of the circumferences γ A and γB .

So, defining the division by zero in R as in (8.6), we can define the extended form of (4.6) as,

∞
1 s2
∑ 2n −2n + s + s−1 (s + 1) (s2 − 1) , |s| > 1
= (8.12)
n =0 s + s
 157

Figure 16 represents the functions f 0 (s), f 1 (s), f 2 (s), f 3 (s), f 10 (s), f 50 (s), its first 4 partial
sums (thin dashed curves) and ϕ(s) (thick dashed curve):

1.25

0.75

0.5

0.25

λ
0 0.5 1 1.5

Figure 16
158

R EFERENCES
[1] Romig, H. G. Discussions: Early History of Division by Zero.
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-9890%28192410%2931%3A8%3C387%3ADEHODB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9
z
[2] H. Michiwaki, H. Okumura and S. Saitoh Division by Zero. ≡ 0 in Euclidean Spaces.
0
International Journal of Mathematics and Computation, 28(2017); Issue 1, 2017), 1-16.

[3] Álvarez Lobo, J. The Signum Function of the Second Derivative and its application to the determination of
relative extremes of fractional functions (SF2D). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322910312

[4] Beer, G.; Vipera, M.C The Alexandroff one-point compactification as a prototype for extensions.
Advances in Mathematics 231 (2012) 1598?1618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aim.2012.07.008

[5] Weisstein, Eric W. Inradius. From MathWorld - A Wolfram Web Resource.

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Inradius.html

[6] Weisstein, Eric W. q-Polygamma Function. From MathWorld - A Wolfram Web Resource.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/q-PolygammaFunction.html

[7] Weisstein, Eric W. JAL-series. From MathWorld - A Wolfram Web Resource.

https://www.wolframalpha.com/examples/mathematics/calculus-and-analysis/sums/

Metaphysical reflection. Everywhere, in everything, when we look for the underlying cause of anything, we always find
amazing mathematical relationships, which cannot be nothing more than the handprints of an Omniscient Creator.