Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647

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Applied Radiation and Isotopes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apradiso

Basalt characterization by means of nuclear and electrical well logging

techniques. Case study from Southern Syria
Jamal Asfahani n
Atomic Energy Commission, P.O. Box 6091, Damascus, Syria

a r t i c l e in f o abstract

Article history: Nuclear well logging, including natural gamma ray, density, and neutron-porosity techniques are used
Received 12 August 2010 with electrical well logging of long and short normal techniques to characterize the basaltic areas largely
Received in revised form extended in Southern Syria. Statistical analysis approach with the threshold concept has been adapted for
15 December 2010
such characterization, where four kinds of basalt have been identified: very hard basalt, hard basalt,
Accepted 15 December 2010
Available online 19 December 2010
fractured basalt, and basalt alteration products. The spectrometric gamma technique has also been
applied on the retrieved rock samples in order to determine the radioactive content (eU, eTh, and K%) of
Keywords: the basaltic section in the study area. No radioactive anomalies have been detected, the radioactive values
Nuclear well logging are normal and in the expected range.
Basalt
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Syria

1. Introduction
In Miocene to Holocene times, there was active volcanism over
most of Syria, although it occurred predominantly along the
margins of the rift Levant fault system zone to the south and south
west (Ponikarov, 1966). These younger volcanics commenced with
sub-aerial flood basalts in the early Miocene, mostly 20–16 Ma and
extended over most of Southern Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
This paper deals with the characterization and identification of
the nuclear and electrical signatures of basalt formations as a
function of depth using well logging techniques. Well logging
studies have been generally developed and extended in sedimento-
logical environments, particularly for petroleum purposes
(Schlumberger, 1991), and it is rare to find in the literature such
studies in volcanic complexes. We find for example the analysis of
geophysical well logging data collected during CDP log 102 in
Creataceous oceanic crust at the southern end of the Bermuda Rise,
which provides insight into the porosity structure of oceanic crust
(Wilkens et al., 1988). The approach followed by such an analysis
subdivides the studied hole on the basis of the porosity structure of
the column by adapting a new variable of DV/ø, which incorporates
both velocity and porosity, where three types of basalts are
distinguished (Wilkens et al., 1988). Borehole geophysical data from
basalt aquifers have been interpreted in order to define stratigraphy,
and alteration of the aquifers in basalt (Helm-Clark et al., 2004a).
Boldreel (2006) showed the possibility of using conventional bore-
hole logs to perform a detailed lithological/stratigraphical division of
a column of subaerially extruded basalt. Stratigraphical division of
n
Tel.: + 963 11 2132580; fax: +963 11 6112289.
E-mail address: cscientific2@aec.org.sy
the subaerial flood basalts penetrated by the Lopra-1/1A well has
been carried out using new wireline logging data measured in 1996
in the interval of 200–2489 m depth.
An extensive program of electrical well logging has been
recently conducted in Hawaii to determine the applicability of
the electrical tool to the volcanic environments. Electrical well
logging is found to be useful in Hawaii basaltic aquifers (Peterson
and Lao, 2006).
Several holes drilled in volcanic complexes in Southern Syria, to
depths more than 150 m, have been logged for characterizing
basalts by means of nuclear and electrical well logging techniques,
where the locations of those wells are shown in Fig. 1. This research
will be also of benefit for calibrating the surface geoelectrical data
obtained in such basaltic environments, where the interpretation
of such data is not an easy task, due to the high lateral and vertical
variations of basalt. In fact, the surficial geoelectrical sounding
technique has two important limitations:
 Omittance of beds, where very thin beds cannot be derived from
the sounding curve at greater depth.
 The principle of equivalence, where an evaluation of a sounding
curve may produce several equivalent solutions. The geophy-
sicist has to select the results that agree the best with the known
structure.
Therefore, nuclear and electrical well logging techniques pro-
vide a good tool for the characterization of the subsurface
geological and hydro-geological structures, and hence guide the
surficial geoelectrical interpretation by decreasing the obtained
solutions to a real and geologically acceptable one and by orienting
the investigation towards the favorable zones for ground-water
exploration.

0969-8043/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.12.008
642 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647
Fig. 1. Geological map of Southern Syria (Ponikarov, 1966), and the locations of the studied wells.
The main objective of this paper is therefore the following:
(1) Knowing the nuclear and electrical well logging signatures of
basaltic environments.
(2) The identification and characterization of basalt in the study
area by applying statistical analysis with adapting the thresh-
old concept. This consequently allows interpreting correctly
the surficial geophysical data and orienting the hydro-geolo-
gical investigations towards the favorable areas for ground-
water prospecting.
(3) Estimating the variation ranges of different measured nuclear
and electrical parameters (radioactivity, density, porosity, and
resistivity) related to the basaltic complex in the study area.
(4) Establishing a descriptive calibrated log in the studied area,
based on the nuclear and electrical well logging measurements.
(5) Evaluating the radioactive content (eU, eTh, and K %) of the
basaltic section in the study area.
2. Nuclear well logging techniques
2.1. Natural gamma ray well logging
Natural gamma logging records the natural radioactivity of the
rocks penetrated by a borehole. The radiation from radioactive
elements such as potassium-40 and the uranium and thorium
series and their decay products is detected. These elements emit
gamma radiation with energies between 0.24 and 2.62 MeV.
Quantitative estimates of the level of natural radioactivity of rocks
are usually related to the equivalent radium.
The natural gamma ray detected is used to compute the relative
clay content (Rcc) in the penetrated formation by applying the
following empirical relationship (Schlumberger, 1991):
Ig Igmin
Rcc ¼ ð1Þ
Igmax Igmin
where Ig is the measured radiation of the rock, Igmin is the minimum
clay-free gamma radiation, and Igmax is the gamma radiation of
pure clays or sections with the highest clay content of the profile
under study.
2.2. Density well logging
The probe of density well logging contains a gamma-emitting
source and a gamma detector. As the probe moves along the
borehole, the detector measures the scattered gamma radiation.
Because the amount of gamma radiation detected is a function of
the density of the surrounding rocks and fluid, the density
technique provides a log of the bulk density for the saturated
and unsaturated rocks along the borehole.
2.3. Neutron well logging
Essentially, the neutron–neutron method records the scattered
neutron radiation emitted by a fast neutron source in the probe as it
 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647
is moving along the borehole (The source used is Am-241/Be (1Ci)
and Boron tri-floride (BF3) is used for detecting the thermal
neutrons). The technique is based on the functional relationship
of the large cross-section of hydrogen atoms for slowing down fast
neutrons to thermal energy. Therefore, this technique provides a
log of the hydrogen content of the medium along the profile of the
borehole, which can usually be interpreted in terms of porosity.
The research carried out by applying this neutron well logging
technique in basaltic environments is mainly oriented towards
explaining whether neutron logs can be used in unsaturated basalt
to quantitatively estimate moisture content. Different studies have
clarified our knowledge on the neutron log data in unsaturated zones,
(Crosby and Anderson, 1971; Siems, 1973; Siems et al., 1974; Morin
et al.,1993). Knutson et al. (1994) derived nuclear log correlations for
saturated continental basalt and attempted to extrapolate these results
for unsaturated basalt with variable success. It is also shown that it is
possible to quantitatively correlate neutron log response to the amount
of both bound and unbound H regardless of saturated or unsaturated
conditions (Helm-Clark et al., 2004a). Commercially available neutron
logging tools, referred to as wireline or downhole neutron logging tools
are deployed in basalts instead. Fast neutrons from a high energy
source are emitted by such tools and the resulting energy attenuated
neutron flux after interaction with H and other neutron moderating
elements in the borehole environment is measured. Neutron log
interpretation in basalt is not an easy task, where the measured
neutron flux is moderated not only by H in water, but also by H in
hydrous minerals. The hydrous minerals are the clay fraction of
sediments that infiltrate fractures and other voids in basalts, or the
clays and zeolites formed by the alteration of basalts. The computed
neutron-porosity in the presence of those hydrous minerals exceeds
the actual porosity due to the moderation provided by the addition of
chemically bound H (Crosby and Anderson, 1971; Broglia and Ellis,
1990; Morse and McCurry, 1997; Cheney, 1981). Supplemental
information from other borehole geophysical tools are required to
distinguish between apparent neutron response in altered basalt from
that of saturated unaltered basalt (Helm-Clark et al., 2004b).
2.4. Spectrometric gamma measurements
The gamma spectrometer consisted of a 12.5% relative efficiency
Ge detector, with an energy resolution of 1.8 keV at 1.333 MeV,
coupled to an S-100 spectroscopy system with an 8192 ADC card.
The gamma ray measurements were carried out in a 10 cm thick
lead shield internally covered with a 1 mm thick copper sheet. The
calibration of the gamma spectrometer for K, U, and Th analysis was
achieved by using IAEA standard references materials RGTh and
RGU, which were counted under the same conditions as ore
samples (AQCS, 1995). The gamma spectra were analyzed using
Gamma and Neutron Activation Analysis Spectrum (GaNAAS) PC
program (Nuclear Analysis Software, 1991).
This spectrometric gamma counting is an indirect technique,
which gives U analysis as eU analysis. The term eU is commonly
used to refer to equivalent uranium and is equal to the true
uranium only if there is radioactive equilibrium in the rock being
analyzed, (Asfahani, 2003). Nineteen rock samples taken from
different depths from Kodana well were analyzed with the gamma
ray spectrometry in order to determine the U, Th, and K contents of
the studied basaltic section.
3. Electrical resistivity normal well logging techniques
3.1. Short and long normal well logging
In the normal device (Fig. 2), a current of constant intensity is
passed between two electrodes, A and B. The resultant potential
643
ΔV
I
B N
M
Spacing O
A
ΔV: Potential Difference.
I: Electrical Current
Fig. 2. Electrical short and long normal well logging configuration.
difference is measured between two other electrodes, M and N. The
electrodes A and M are incorporated in the sonde. B and N, are
theoretically, located at an infinite distance away. The distance AM
is called the spacing (16 in. spacing for the short normal, 64 in. for
the long normal), and the point of inscription for the measurement
is at O, mid-way between A and M.
3.2. Field works
Five drilled wells in Southern Syria have been studied by
applying the mentioned nuclear and electrical well logging tech-
niques, the locations of these logged wells are shown in Fig. 1. Their
depths vary between 190 and 300 m. The percussion method is
used for drilling those wells.
Digital Robertson geology well logging station is used for
carrying out these measurements. The present paper mainly
concentrates on the results obtained in Kodana well. The location
of this well in the Kodana region was previously decided by the
author’s investigation for water supplying purposes, using surficial
geoelectrical methods. Similar well loggings results have been
obtained in the other four wells.
4. Results and discussion
Nuclear and electrical well logging results are shown in Fig. 3.
These results are presented only for the saturated zone in Kodana
well (from depth of 110 m). The measured radioactivity is due to
the presence of potassium with the assumption that uranium and
thorium minerals are absent in the study area. In our studied case,
the radioactivity is therefore considered as an indicator of the clay
presence. Clay content is evaluated using Eq. (1), where a computed
clay log is obtained in the Kodana well as a function of depth as
shown in Fig. 3. The radioactivity measured in this well varies
between 23 and 57 cps with an average of 40 cps. A very distin-
guished radioactive peak is observed at the depth interval between
135 and 155 m, which indicates clay presence.
The values of the density log vary between 0.6 and 3.4 g/cm3
with an average of 1.38 g/cm3. The porosity log values vary
between a minimum of 3 and 50% with an average of 29%.
644 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647
Fig. 3. Nuclear and electrical logging measurements in Kodana well, with the established calibrated log.
The electrical short normal log values vary between 30 and
496 O m with an average of 151 O m. The electrical long normal log
values vary between 22 and 661 O m with an average of 171 O m. It
is remarkable to notice that radioactivity and porosity logs from
one side and density and resistivity logs from the other side are
correlated together in the same sense, where high porosity and
radioactivity and high resistivity and density reflect the basalt
alteration product and massive basalt, respectively. The porosity
(ø %) is inversely correlated with both density and electrical
logs, where high porosity with low density and low resistivity
obviously indicates the basalt alteration product and clay as shown
in Fig. 4(a and b).
Statistical analysis approach with one variant has been applied
on different logging measurements in order to easily differentiate
between different kinds of basalt. The traditional statistical ana-
lysis largely used in mining exploration (Bolviken, 1971) has been
adapted in this research with the threshold concept in order to
differentiate between the different basalts according to a statistical
criteria. Table 1 shows the statistical results which include the min,
max, mean, and the standard deviation (s).
Based on the mentioned nuclear and electrical values and on the
adapted threshold concept, four kinds of basalts have been
identified in the studied region as shown in Table 2.
These basalts are the following:
 Hard massive basalt.
 Hard basalt.
 Pyroclastic basalt.
 Alteration basalt products, clay.
The percussion technique used for drilling the studied wells has
many known disadvantages at economical and technical levels. It
produces lower quality and small samples, because the cuttings are
blown up outside of the rods and can be contaminated with other
rocks. The strata are often disturbed making representative sam-
ples difficult at times, especially soils below ground-water, in
addition to the uncertainties on the depths attributed to the limited
number of the retrieved samples. It is therefore extremely difficult
to accurately reconstruct the lithological section of the drilled
wells. This explains the need for a suitable technique capable of
continuously providing a real image as a function of depth for the
lithological distribution section of the studied well.
A calibrated geological log is therefore established according to
the different well logging results and their statistical treatment as
shown in the right of Fig. 3. One can easily notice the difference
between this calibrated log and that obtained simply by the
lithological description of the rock samples taken from the studied
well as shown in the left of Fig. 3. The calibrated log profile is based
on the analysis of different electrical and nuclear log parameters
interpreted integrally with the proposed statistical approach. Such
a statistical methodology allows a real continuous image as a
function of depth to be obtained for the lithological distribution of
the studied well. This accurate and punctual technique has a high
resolution and provides even the very detailed lithological varia-
tions. Such variations could not be distinguished on the lithological
profile obtained according to the drill products due to the discussed
disadvantages of retrieved small samples taken by the percussion
technique. For example, the interval depth of 120–170 m is simply
described as pyroclastic basalt, where the detailed lithological
variations are totally absent (the left of Fig. 3). This attests to the
importance of the well logging measurements in obtaining the
calibrated log, which can be generalized in the study area, and used
as a good tool in orienting the exploration towards the favorable
zones for ground-water in basaltic environments. The calibrated
established log also shows a consecutive form and repetition of
erosion surfaces, which characterize the Neogene basalt in the
study area. The basalt lavas are separated by thin red clay, due to
the entire decomposition of lava surfaces. Accordingly, one can
easily differentiate between three basalt lavas localized at depths of
125, 155, and 175 m, (Fig. 3). The main confined aquifer of fractured
basalt in the studied Kodana well is located at a depth of 186 m and
has a thickness of 8–10 m.
Fig. 5 shows a range chart of the variation of nuclear and
electrical parameters used in this research for the basalt char-
acterization. The identification and characterization of basalt in the
study area by applying the statistical analysis with adapting the
threshold concept is considered as a good tool, because it allows
 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647 645

50.000

45.000

40.000

35.000
Porosity 30.000

25.000

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

0.000
1.500 1.700 1.900 2.100 2.300 2.500 2.700 2.900 3.100 3.300 3.500
Density

50.000

45.000

40.000

35.000

30.000
Porosity

25.000

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

0.000
0.000 100.000 200.000 300.000 400.000 500.000 600.000 700.000
Resistivity

Fig. 4. (a) Inverse relationship between density and porosity data and (b) inverse relationship between resistivity and porosity data.

Table 1
Statistical characteristics of the nuclear and electrical studied parameters.

Radioactivity (cps) LSD (g/cm3) Porosity (ø %) Short normal (X m) Long normal (X m)

Min 22.9 0.599  3.6 30 22

Max 56.8 3.40 49.5 496 661
Mean (X) 40 1.38 29 151 171
s 6.11 0.64 11 101.26 128.35

Table 2
Statistical threshold concept for differentiating between different basalts in the study area.

Radioactivity (cps) LSD (g/cm3) Porosity (ø %) Short normal (X m) Long normal (X m) Classification

(X–s) r 34 (X + 3s) r 3.3 (X–3s)r  4 (X + 3s) Z455 (X+ 3s)Z 556 Hard massive basalt
(X + s) r 46 (X + 2s) r 2.66 (X  2s) r 7 (X + 2s) Z353 (X+ 2s)Z 428 Hard basalt
(X + 2s) r 52 (X + s) r2.02 (X  s) r15 (X + s) Z252 (X+ s) Z 300 Pyroclastic basalt
(X + 3s) r 58 (X  s) r 0.74 (X + s) r 40 (X  s) Z 50 (X  s) Z 43 Alteration basaltic products, clay

interpreting correctly the surficial geophysical data and orienting Fig. 6 shows one of the neutron logging applications in terms of
the hydro-geological investigations towards favorable areas for the porosity log (ø %) for determining and locating the variation of
ground-water prospecting. water level in the studied wells, where the differentiation between
646 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647

Fig. 5. Range chart of different basalt characterizations.

Fig. 6. A cross-section shows the boundary between saturated and unsaturated zones deduced from the established correlation of neutron-porosity logs (ø %) in the
study area.

Table 3 radioactivity sources are actually strongly recommended for both

Radioactive content of the basaltic rock samples. environmental and personal safety.
The results of the spectrometry gamma technique applied on
Number Depth (m) eU (ppm) eTh (ppm) K%
nineteen rock samples taken from different depths from the
1 14.5 1.78 2.89 0.76 saturated and unsaturated zones of the studied Kodana well are
2 40 1.89 6 0.71 shown in Table 3.
3 45 1.72 5.54 0.77 The average values of eU, eTh, and K% are 1.64 ppm, 3.3 ppm,
4 50 1.78 4.6 0.74
5 60 1.86 3.7 0.67
and 0.67%, respectively, which clearly indicate that no radioactive
6 65 1.67 1.98 0.47 anomalies have been detected in the analyzed samples, and the
7 68 1.89 2.99 0.92 detected values are normal and expected in such basaltic environ-
8 70 1.64 3.42 0.76 ments (Aswathanarayna, 1985).
9 73 1.86 2.53 0.71
10 81 1.4 2.98 0.45
11 85 1.67 3.79 0.77
12 90 1.62 3.45 0.75 5. Conclusion
13 100 1.53 3.15 0.79
14 102 1.11 2.36 0.43 A calibrated geological log has been established through the use
15 110 1.48 2.11 0.49
16 115 1.35 3.4 0.55
of nuclear and electrical well logging measurements obtained at
17 117 1.92 2.73 0.55 the Kodana well. Four kinds of basalt have been characterized
18 130 1.29 2.45 0.71 and identified by adapting the statistical analysis approach
19 170 1.75 2.85 0.67 of one variant with the threshold concept. These basalts are very
hard basalt, hard basalt, fractured basalt, and alteration products.
Such basalt characterization could be generalized in the study area
and used as a good tool in orienting the surficial geoelectrical
saturated and unsaturated zones is easily traced along the studied surveys towards the most favorable zones for ground-water
profile of 33 km passing by the four studied wells. Recent nuclear exploration.
well logging research encourages the utilization of very low The results of nineteen analyzed samples taken from Kodana
radioactivity sources 137Cs of 1.8 MBq (m50 mCi) for detecting well by the spectrometric gamma technique are expected and
such contact levels (Asfahani and Borsaru, 2007). Such low considered as normal for such basaltic environments.
 J. Asfahani / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69 (2011) 641–647
Acknowledgments
Dr. I. Othman, General Director of Syrian Atomic Energy
Commission is thanked for his encouragement to achieve this
research. Thanks to professor. J. Abou-Deeb from the Damascus
University, Faculty of Sciences for reading the manuscript and
providing some useful remarks. The anonymous reviewers are
thanked for their constructive suggestions and remarks that
considerably improved the paper quality. Prof. Jeff Schweitzer,
the editor of the ARI Journal is cordially thanked for the editing
corrections and for his important professional remarks.
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