Fresh Light On The Governors of Judea PDF

By David E.
Graves administrator of Roman law in a province, and included

military and administrative duties.5 In the senatorial provinces
The events of the Bible are steeped in history, so discoveries (i.e., Italy, Macedonia, Asia, Africa) during the time of
about political figures from the time of the Bible raise a certain Augustus (reigned 27 BC–AD 14), the provinces were
amount of curiosity and excitement. This was the case in governed by former praetors called proconsuls,6 who usually
January 2016, when an inscription was discovered that served for twelve months.7 However, in the border imperial
mentioned the name of a previously unproven governor of provinces (i.e., Syria, Arabia, and Judea), the “envoy of the
Judea. But before examining the new discovery, a little emperor—acting praetor” (legati Augusti pro praetore) was
background on Judea and who a Roman governor was and what divided into two further categories. Those in the regions where
he did is in order. legions were stationed, like Syria, were governed by legates
appointed by the emperor, and their office typically lasted 36
Judea months.8 However, in the smaller imperial provinces like
Judea, where small auxiliary armies, rather than legions, were
From 63 BC until AD 6, following its conquest by the based,9 the governor was of a lower “equestrian” rank (Equites
Roman general Pompey in 63 BC, Judea was initially ruled by Romani) called a prefect (equestrian praefecti10). Later, under
descendants of the Hasmonean house without royal title, and Claudius (r. AD 41–54), governors in these provinces were
later by the Herodian dynasty. Pompey reduced the territory of fiscal officials rather than soldiers, and were designated
Judea by annexing the Decapolis and all the coastal cities to the procurators (see discussion below). In late antiquity (e.g.,
new province of Syria,1 although the province of Judea did not Diocletian AD 284–305), provincial governors were known by
initially include Galilee, Gaulanitis (the Golan), Perea or the the titles consularis, corrector and praeses.11 The
Decapolis, it later came to include Judea proper, Idumea, administration of the provinces involved a supervisory role
Samaria, the Perea and the Galilee. Its capital was at Caesarea where the governor utilized the council of elders (τοπάρχης,
Maritima, not Jerusalem.2 The governor lived at the capital of toparchiēs, “leader of a district”12) and a diversity of advisors
his province in a palace-fortress called the Praetorium (Acts and staff (comites, “companions”13).
23:35), which, in the case of Judea province, was located at The duties of the governor of a Roman province usually
Caesarea. There was also a Praetorium in Jerusalem for when involved four main tasks.14
the governor was in residence there (Mt 27:27; Mk 15:16; Jn • First, they were the commanders of the army.15 In the
18:28, 19:9). According to Josephus, the province of Judea important senatorial provinces they commanded the legions,
during the late Second Temple period was divided into five but in the imperial provinces, such as Judea, they commanded
administrative districts (conclaves): Jerusalem, Gadara, auxiliary forces.16 There was a small number of forces, perhaps
Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris.3 comprising a cohort (speires) or two (e.g., one cohort
consisting of 300–600 men17). Acts mentions that “at Caesarea
Governors there was a man named Cornelius, a centurion of what was
known as the Italian Cohort” (Acts 10:1 ESV). This is probably
A Roman governor (praeses provinciae,4 ἡγεμων, hēgemōn) the Cohors II Italica voluntariorum civium Romanorum 18 that
or senator was an official appointed to be the chief was located at Caesarea and comprised Italian volunteers.19
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© David E. Graves
Map of Judea Province in the first century.
Kennedy goes on to explain: • Second, as the Senate’s financial agents, they were
responsible for minting coins21 and overseeing the collection of
These governors had no legionaries at their direct disposal taxes using tax collectors (publicans22). They would interact
but relied instead on the Caesarean and Sebastenian with monetary institutions, such as temples, to negotiate the
regiments formed by Herod. These troops are not actually advance of money as needed.
mentioned under either Archelaus (4 BC–AD 6), the prefects • Third, they were personally responsible (personalia
(AD 6–41), or Herod Agrippa II (AD 41–44), when he munera) for inspecting the accounting books (kalendarii)
briefly recovered his grandfather’s kingdom. However, at entrusted to the curatores kalendarii,23 and supervising major
Herod’s death in 4 BC, Josephus reports that Herod’s building projects24 under the direction of curators.25
cavalry and infantry commanders, Rufus and Gratus, • Finally, as the provinces’ supreme judges, they were
supported the Romans with “3,000 Sebastenians.” They are responsible to travel through the districts of their provinces
almost certainly the predecessors of “the regiment of hearing cases in the assize (δικαστήριον; dikasterion, “ten-man
Caesarean cavalry (500 men) and five regiments of court”) towns.26 While one could appeal (prouocatio,
Sebastenian infantry (2,500 men)” stationed at Caesarea in 44.20 provocation) to Rome,27 the cost made the trip prohibitive for
most28 (Paul could afford to appeal to Rome; Acts 25:11;
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26:32). Ulpian, of the third century AD, states that “the
governor in a province has greater authority in that province
than anyone other than the emperor.”29 In later periods, the
proconsul’s responsibilities were as diverse as dealing with
boundary disputes to dispensing the death penalty (ius gladii,
“right of the sword”; μάχαιρα, machaira30). However, during
the first two centuries AD, it was not strictly accurate to
equate this power with the ius gladii, which was the legal
right to execute any Roman citizen who was an “enemy of the
state,”31 as the ius gladii was limited to soldiers. 32 However,
the proconsul did have almost unlimited power, 33 and as
Garnsey argues:
While it is true that governors were not permitted to execute

citizens summarily, they were certainly able to execute them
judicially. That is to say, they could try, condemn and
execute citizens, provided that an appeal did not reverse the
sentence…Provincial governors may not have exercised
criminal jurisdiction from the first, when their task was
chiefly military and their subjects were predominantly
foreign. But in time, probably by the late Republic [49–27
BC], they performed as civil and criminal judges [lex
Rubria]. For the exercise of both of these functions they were
able to call upon powers which were part of their office.34
This is confirmed by Pilate, the governor of Judea (AD 26–

36), who said to Jesus during his trial, “Do you not know that I
have authority to release you and authority to crucify you?” (Jn
19:10). This indicates he had the ius gladii over Jesus.35
Life in Judea Before Governors
The Roman history of the province of Judea is rather David Graves

complex. In 47 BC, Julius Caesar appointed Antipater I, the Al Khazneh or The Treasury at Petra, Jordan, which was the
Idumean (died 43 BC), the procurator (regent) of Judea, Nabataean capital and the center of their caravan trade.
establishing the Herodian dynasty.36 Antipater appointed his
two sons to the most important state offices: Phasael (d. 40 BC)
was appointed governor of Jerusalem, while Herod the Great massacre of the innocents recorded in Matthew 2. According to
(73–4 BC) was appointed governor of Galilee.37 Matthew, he gave orders to kill all boys in Bethlehem and its
In 41 BC, Mark Anthony (Marcus Antonius) appointed vicinity of the age of two and under. While some have
Herod the Great and his brother Phasael as tetrarchs considered this event to be a myth,46 it is certainly not out of
(τετράρχης, tetrárchēs, kings) of Judea under the high priest character for him, since Herod was paranoid of rivals and is
and ethnarch (ἐθνάρχης, ethnarchēs; from ethnos “nation” + known for many atrocities, including having killed one of his
arkhein “to rule”) Hyrcanus II (r. 47–40 BC38). Herod lived wives and two of his sons.47 Augustus is reported to have said,
from 73 BC until his death at Jericho in 4 BC. He was the “It is better to be Herod’s pig (Gr. hus) than his son (Gr.
Roman puppet king of Judea. 39 Herod was not a true Jew, but huios).”48 As France points out, given the political climate, the
an Idumean (Edomite) from the Nabataean area around execution of a small number of children in a small town would
modern Petra, Jordan.40 He had ten sons with ten different not have drawn the attention of any but God.49
wives,41 one of whom was Malthace, a Samaritan who was Upon Herod’s death, his kingdom was divided among
Herod Antipas’ mother. three of his sons. Archelaus would rule as ethnarch (cf. 2
In 20 BC, Herod the Great was granted more control of the Cor 11:32) over Herod’s entire kingdom, 50 an office distinct
region by Augustus,42 and Herod appointed his brother Phasael from military command, with considerable latitude of
as tetrarch of Perea in Transjordan.43 While often referred to as application, and not as king. 51 Herod Antipas would rule as
Herod the Great, his official status was that of “a king who was tetrarch over Galilee (Lk 3:1–3) and Perea (Transjordan),
an ally and friend of the Roman people” (rex socius et amicus and Philip would rule over Gaulanitis (the Golan),
populi Romani44). Trachonitis, Batanea, and Panias. 52 Herod Antipas and Philip
Herod is famous for several significant events, such as held lesser-ranking tetrarchies from Archelaus.53 Hannah
building the Temple in Jerusalem in 22 BC45 and for the Cotton makes several helpful observations on this period:
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From 63 BC to the end of the first century AD, the area of The prefects or procurators who ruled over Judea in the
first half of the first century AD64:
Judea/Syria-Palaestina was subject to fluctuation between
direct Roman and dynastic rule. Secondly, even after the Governor’s Date of Rule Years of
Source
introduction of direct Roman rule, the history of the province of Name (AD) Rule
Judea/Syria-Palaestina is characterized by violent political,
Josephus J.W.
administrative, and military changes reflected in the changing Coponius 6–9 3
2.117
ranks of its officials.54
Marcus Josephus, Ant.
9–12 3
Governors Who Ruled Judea Ambivulus 18.31
Josephus, Ant.
There is debate whether Judea was an independent province Annius Rufus 12–15 3
18.32
(provincia Iudaea) from AD 6, or whether it received this
distinction later in its history. Cotton, quoting Schürer, sets Josephus, Ant.
Valerius
forth the consensus: 18.33–34; 15–26 11
Gratus
J.W. 2.243–47
From the beginning there existed an independent Roman
Philo, Legat. 299–
province of Judea, first ruled by a governor with the title of
Pontius Pilate 305; Mt 27:2; 26–36 10
praefectus, who later on was designated procurator, and
Lk 3:1
that the difference was merely semantic: “the difference
between praefectus and procurator in imperial provinces Josephus, Ant.
Marcellus 36–37 1
was one in name only.”55 18.89
Josephus, Ant.
But Cotton feels “more likely that the change of name Marullus 37–41 4
18.237
coincided with a change in the status of the former praefecti.”56
Roman Prefects of Judea (AD 6–41)
The term “prefect” (Lat. praefectus, “superior, head”),57 is

derived from praeficere or praefectura, meaning “to place a
person at the head of an office.”58 It was a magisterial title that
referred to the person, usually military,59 in charge of any
department of administration (a prefecture), such as the official
in charge of the distribution of food to the poor (praefectus
alimentorum); military administrator (praefectus civitatis and
praefetus aerarii militaris); commander of a military camp
(praefectus castrorum); fire chief (praefectus collegii fabrum and
praefectus vigilum); commander of a legion (praefectus legionis);
municipal administrator (praefectus municipii); commander of
the praetorian guard (praefectus praetorio), the king’s
representative (praefectus urbis); the postmaster (praefectus
vehiculorum); etc.60 Werner Eck points out, “There was,
however, a significant difference between the two functionaries,
the imperial legates of the province of Syria and the prefects in
Judea, who were subordinate to these statesmen.”61 Eck also
states that “Praefecti were normally appointed by the princeps
without Senate involvement.”62 While Roman provinces were
David Graves
usually ruled by a high-ranking official, the less important Pontius Pilate limestone inscription (82 cm high x 65 cm wide),
provinces, such as Judea and Perea, were entrusted to a prefect or Caesarea, Israel. Building dedication with four lines of writing in Latin.212
procurator (ἐπίτροπος, epitropos), especially during the reigns of
Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) and Tiberius (AD 14–37).63
In 4 BC, Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great, became the
tetrarch of Judea, Idumea and Samaria. 65 Judea became a
province under administration directly from Rome and was
governed by Coponius, a procurator (ἐπαρχίαν) of the
equestrian order.66 Cotton argues that in this initial stage of
Judean government, “Coponius did not act as an independent Michael C. Luddeni
governor of an independent provincial unit, but was part of the Prutah coin of Pontius Pilate from the Khirbet el-Maqatir
praefectus Iudaeae.”67 excavation. It was struck in Judea under Tiberius (AD 30). 213
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In AD 6, when Archelaus was removed from power, the
governance of Judea was transferred to Publius Sulpicius […]S TIBERIÉVM86
Quirinius (51 BC–AD 21),68 the imperial legate (governor) of […]TIVS PILATVS
the province of Roman Syria,69 and governed by its own […]ECTVS IVDA[…]E
praefectus, likely due to Judea’s small size.70 According to [...]É[…].87
Josephus, one of the first responsibilities for Quirinius was to
carry out a census for tax purposes in Syria71 and Judea.72 It is now on display in the Israel Museum88 in Jerusalem with a
However, Rhoads argues that Josephus was in error (as he is replica at Caesarea Maritima. The inscription is believed to be
known to be73) rather than Luke, and misdated the census, either part of a larger inscription, dedicating a temple to the
supporting Luke’s claim that the census took place during emperor Tiberius in Caesarea,89 or commemorating the
Herod’s reign before his death at the time of Jesus birth (Lk restoration of the Caesarea Maritima harbor.90 Alföldy
2:2; Acts 5:3774). (For a survey of the various arguments to proposed that [NAUTI]S TIBERIÉVM [PON]TIVS PILATVS
reconcile Josephus and Luke, see Porter.75) These events may [PRAEF]ECTVS IVDA[EA]E [...REF]É[CIT…] translated as
have occurred much earlier in 3/2 BC, as Eusebius indicated. 76 “[Seaman’]s Tiberieum “[Pon]tius Pilate, [Pre]fect of Jude[a
Rhoads argues that “Quirinius arrived earlier, possibly 5 BC, to [restor]e[s…”91 Recent archaeological research around the
begin the census which, because of the tumult surrounding harbor would support Alföldy’s proposal.92
Herod’s death, was not completed until 3/2 BC.”77 Based on an While Pontius Pilate has been mentioned in ancient texts (Jn
inscription on a Roman standard,78 Di Segni re-dates the 19:6),93 this was the first physical evidence that Pilate existed.
governors of Syria, which also impacts the date of the census of It is known that Pilate lived in Caesarea Maritima, the capital
Quirinius and supports the accuracy of Luke’s account.79 of Judea (established in AD 6 94) and only went to Jerusalem on
Of the thirty known governors (prefects, procurators, and legates) special occasions,95 so it is not surprising to find an inscription
of Judea (AD 6–135), three are known from the NT: Pontius Pilate with his name on it in Caesarea.
(the trial of Jesus; AD 26–36), Felix (Acts 23–24; AD 52–60), and The mention of Pilate with Tiberius (42 BC–37 AD) puts
Festus (Acts 25–26; AD 60–62). Three other governors are also Pontius Pilate in the same time period as Jesus, in the first
mentioned in the NT, but did not govern Judea: Quirinius, governor century. Pilate is most noted in the NT for being the Roman
of Syria (Lk 2:2); Sergius Paulus, governor of Cyprus (Acts 13:6– procurator before whom Jesus was brought to trial after
1280); and Gallio, governor of Achaia (Acts 18:12–1781). meeting before the Sanhedrin. Cornelius Tacitus (AD 55–120)
also wrote that “Christus, the founder of the name, had
Governor Pontius Pilate (Mt 27:2; Lk 3:1; AD 26–36) undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by
sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilatus.”96
Pontius Pilate (Lk 3:1; Acts 4:27; 1 Tm 6:13), was the The inscription also clarifies Pilate’s rank and title. The
governor (ἡγεμών, ēgemōn; Mt 27:2; Lk 3:1), prefect (Lat. Gospels speak of him as a governor (ἡγεμων, ēgemōn; Mt 27:2,
praefectus Iudaeae;82 ἐπίτροπος epitropos) or procurator (Lat. Lk 3:1), while Tacitus speaks of him as procurator (ἐπίτροπος,
Procurare83) of Judea from AD 26–36. The discrepancy had epitropos97). This led to debate over his title and rank98 until the
led to debate over his title and rank.84 It should be noted that discovery of the Pilate inscription99 in 1961, which settled the
procurator was the title used for the governor during the time issue and provided his official title as prefect (Lat. prafectus).
when Tacitus lived (AD 56–ca. 120) and wrote his work. The While this discovery does not prove that Pilate spoke with
Gospels used the generic term for his position, while the Jesus or demonstrate that the crucifixion took place, it supports
inscription85 used his official title of “prefect.” the historical reliability of the Gospels by corroborating the
During the 1961 excavations of the Roman theater near Caesarea existence of one of their major characters.100 In addition,
Maritima, Pilate’s residence, archaeologists led by Antonio Frova Keener points out that:
uncovered a limestone block with an inscription that read:
The technical details of the trials
here accord so well with other
The procurators who ruled until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70:
evidence on Roman legal procedure
Governor’s Name Source Date of Rule (AD) Years of Rule that some noted Roman historians
Cuspius Fadus Josephus, Ant. 19.363 44–46 2 use them as major source material
for understanding Roman Provincial
Tiberius Julius Alexander Josephus, Ant. 20.100 46–48 2
Judicial proceedings.101
Ventidius Cumanus Josephus, Ant. 20.103 48–52 4
Acts 23–24; Josephus, From numismatics (the study of
Tiberius Claudius Felix 52–60 8
Ant. 20.142 coins) we learn that Pilate did not
Acts 25–26; Josephus, strike any Roman coins that would
Porcius Festus 60–62 2
Ant. 20.182 have been considered blatantly
Lucceius Albinus Josephus, Ant. 20.197 62–64 2 offensive to the Jews over which he
was governor. There were no coins
Gessius Florus Josephus, Ant. 20.215 64–66 2
from the time of Pilate with the
Marcus Antonius Julianus Josephus, J.W. 6.238 66–70? 4 image of the Roman emperor or other
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offensive images or claims of divine status for the emperor.102
The Roman governors were guided by the ruling priests, and no
doubt proceeded cautiously when making policies.
Pilate was a prefect of equestrian rank who was likely a
former military tribune, and had auxiliary troops at his
command that comprised five infantry cohorts and a cavalry
regiment.103 While Pilate had absolute authority in his own
province, he was ultimately responsible to the legate in Syria
and to the emperor in Rome. 104 However, it is significant that Michael C. Luddeni
during the first six years of Pilate’s governorship (AD 26–32), Prutah coin of governor (procurator) Antonius Felix of
there was no Syrian legate in residence overseeing Judean Judea, struck under Emperor Claudius (AD 54). Found at
Khirbet el-Maqatir. The obverse inscription is translated “Nero
affairs, so there was only distant communication with Rome. 105
Claudius Caesar—son of Claudius.”219
This allowed Pilate to exercise a bloody governorship that
resulted in the massacre of several Galileans (Lk 13:1) and
Samaritans, provoking protests directed at the legate Vitellius examined. The commander wrote a letter to Felix that
in Syria (AD 35) and Pilate’s recall to Rome.106 Eusebius accompanied them, stating:
reports that he eventually committed suicide.107
Claudius Lysias, to his Excellency the governor Felix,
Roman Procurators of Judea (AD 44–ca. 70) greetings. This man was seized by the Jews and was about to
be killed by them when I came upon them with the soldiers
Upon the death of Agrippa I in AD 44, the region of Judea and rescued him, having learned that he was a Roman
reverted back to an independent Roman procuratorial citizen. And desiring to know the charge for which they
province.108 Due to the impact of the Roman peace (Lat. Pax were accusing him, I brought him down to their council. I
Romana), the governorship was gradually transferred from the found that he was being accused about questions of their
military prefects to civilian officers called Procurator law, but charged with nothing deserving death or
Augusti,109 who originally would have had backgrounds in imprisonment. And when it was disclosed to me that there
finance110 and would have been made provincial procurators. would be a plot against the man, I sent him to you at once,
Civilian and military command was split, and new smaller ordering his accusers also to state before you what they have
provinces were governed by civilian praesides (or rectores), against him (Acts 23:26–30 ESV).
who also took over some of financial functions of procurators
under the control of vicars of diocese.111 Jeffers explains that Paul stated in his defense that Felix had been governor for
“Judea province once again was governed by a Roman of many years (AD 52–60), until he was replaced by Porcius
equestrian rank, now called a procurator, but no different in Festus in AD 60. Therefore, it is assumed that Paul was
function or authority from the earlier prefects.”112 imprisoned by Felix from AD 57 to 59. After several hearings
In AD 41, Emperor Claudius appointed Agrippa I (Herodes before Felix and his wife Drusilla, a Jewess, he confined Paul
Iulius Agrippa, named after Augustus’ friend Marcus Vipsanius to Herod’s palace (the Praetorium) in Caesarea for two full
Agrippa) as king of Judea; he would rule from AD 41 until his years (Acts 24:1–27122), though he had freedom of movement
death in AD 44.113 Following Agrippa I’s death, Claudius within his place of confinement and could have visitors (Acts
appointed Cuspius Fadus (AD 44–46), as procurator of 24:23). Felix was apparently looking for a bribe, so he would
Judea,114 since Agrippa II was only sixteen at the time.115 Then often ask for Paul and hear him talk about faith in Jesus Christ,
in AD 48, Claudius appointed Agrippa’s son, Marcus Iulius but as a favor to the Jews, Felix kept Paul in prison (Acts
Agrippa II (r. AD 50–92), as Roman tetrarch, “King of the 24:27123). At the end of his two years’ term, in AD 60, Felix
Jews,”116 in a sense reinstating the Herodian dynasty under the was replaced as procurator of Judea (Acts 24:27; 25:12) by
control of the governor of Syria.117 All the procurators listed in Porcius Festus.124 Felix was summoned to Rome and was there
the table on page 78 served under his rule. Two of the
procurators are mentioned in the NT, Felix (Acts 23–24) and
Festus (Acts 25–26), and deserve further discussion.
Governor Tiberius Claudius Felix (Acts 23–24; AD 52–60)
In the late spring of AD 58, a riot at Jerusalem’s Temple

ultimately led to the arrest of the apostle Paul by the Romans.
Paul was escorted by armed guards from Jerusalem to the
Michael C. Luddeni
capital, Caesarea, to be questioned before Tiberius Claudius
Felix118 (AD 52–60119), the procurator of Judea,120 before Bronze prutah minted by Porcius Festus. Obverse: Greek
letters NEP WNO C (Nero) in wreath. Reverse: Greek letters
whom Paul “reasoned” (Acts 24:25121). There, in the custody of KAICAPOC (Caesar) and date LE (year 5=58/59 A.D), palm
Felix, the Roman procurator (ἡγεμον, hegemon; Acts 23:26), branch.220
Paul would be safe from the local mob and could be safely
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accused of cruelty and corruption of office by the Jews of know very well. If then I am a wrongdoer and have
Caesarea. The accusation was rendered nugatory by the committed anything for which I deserve to die, I do not seek
influence of his brother Pallas with Nero.125 to escape death. But if there is nothing to their charges
against me, no one can give me up to them. I appeal to
Governor Porcius Festus (Acts 25–26; AD 60–62) Caesar.” Then Festus, when he had conferred with his
council, answered, “To Caesar you have appealed; to Caesar
A few weeks after Porcius Festus (AD 60126) had been in you shall go” (Acts 25:10–12 ESV).
office, the case of Paul, who had been a prisoner at Caesarea
under Felix, was reported to him. Luke states that “three days A few days later, when Herod Agrippa II and his sister Bernice
after Festus had arrived in the province, he went up to came to Caesarea to welcome Festus as the new governor (Acts
Jerusalem from Caesarea. And the chief priests and the 25:13), Festus asked Herod what charges he could use to send
principal men of the Jews” (Acts 25:1–2 ESV) appealed to the Paul to Caesar (Acts 25:14–19). Agrippa stated that he would like
new Roman procurator to have Paul returned to Jerusalem for to hear Paul for himself. The next day in front of Festus and the
trial in Jewish courts. Festus instructed the Jews to come to Jews, Paul spoke openly. When Paul spoke to king Agrippa he
Caesarea, the capital of Judea, for the trial. About two weeks delivered one of his most famous addresses (Acts 26:1–23).
later in Caesarea, Paul was brought to court before Festus and Festus thought Paul might be mad but was certainly no criminal,
accused by the Jews. Their accusations proved empty (Acts and had nothing much to send in his report to Emperor Nero (AD
25:1–8), but to appease the Jews, Festus asked if Paul would 54–68) along with the prisoner (Acts 25:27127). Agrippa wondered
like to go to Jerusalem and be tried there (Acts 25:20). Paul replied: if Paul was trying to convert him (Acts 26:28).
Paul’s situation in Palestine was going from bad to worse, as
“I am standing before Caesar’s tribunal, where I ought to be he was caught between Jewish hatred and Roman indecision,
tried. To the Jews I have done no wrong, as you yourself and to argue his case in person in Caesar’s court would provide
AD 70-135 was the time period when the following Roman legates 136 governed Judea:
Length
Governor’s Name Source Date of Rule (AD)
of Rule
Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis Josephus, J.W. 6.237 70–71 1
Sextus Lucilius Bassus Josephus, J.W. 7.163 71–72137 1
Lucius Flavius Silva Josephus, J.W. 7.252 72–81 9
M. Salvidenus Mionnet 1807: 5.2; Madden 1881: 218 80–85 5
138
Cnaeus Pompeius Longinus CIL 3.857; 16.33, 36, 39 ca. 86 1
Sextus Hermetidius Campanus Smallwood 1981: 548; CIL 16.12=ILS 9059 ca. 93 1
Tiberius Claudius Atticus
Eusebius Hist. eccl. 3.32.1–6; Smallwood 1962: 131–33 ca. 99/100–102/103 3
Herodes139
Gaius Julius Quadratus
AE 1934: 176; CIL 3.I4387; Pliny Ep. 4.9.6–16; Sherk 1988: 178–9 102/3–104/5 2
Bassus140
Quintus Coelius Pompeius
Tacitus Ann. 1.222.5; ILS 1035, 1036; Birley 2012: 1179 105–108 2
Falco141
Tiberianus Malalas Chron. 11.356; Smallwood 1981: 549 114–116 3
Lusius Quietus Eusebius Hist. eccl. 4.2–5; Syme 1958: 9; Smallwood 1981: 550 116–119 3
Lucius Cossonius Gallus142 RMD 4.229; CIIP no. 1227; Eck 2006a: 12/2 col. 934 119–120 1
Marcus Paccius Silvanus

Quintus Coredius Gallus SEG 37.1477; 41.1547; 45.1946 ca. 122–125? 2
Gargilius Antiquus
IAA inv. no. 2008–1460=AE 2003: 1807; CIIP 2.226–27;

Quintus Tineius Rufus143 130–132 3
Smallwood 1981: 550
Bar Kokhba Revolt AD 132–135
Caius Quinctius Certus Publius

Applebaum, 1989: 117–18 134 ?
Marcellus
Sextus Julius Severus Cassius Dio Hist. Rom. 69.13.1–2 ca. 135 1
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him with an opportunity to proclaim the Gospel before the most supported the provincial governor in legal and administrative
exalted audience in the world. Festus and Herod both agreed matters such as corrector (correctors147) and census taker
that justice would demand Paul’s release, but Paul had (censitores148). Schmitz points out that:
appealed to Caesar (provocatio ad Caesarem;128 Acts 25:11–
12), and so had to go to Rome (Acts 26:32). 129 During the latter period of the republic, it sometimes
After being in office less than two years, Festus died in happened that a consul carried on a war, or a proconsul
Judea130 and was succeeded by Lucceius Albinus, who governed his province through his legati, while he
governed until AD 66.131 In that year, under the new procurator himself remained at Rome, or conducted some other more
Gessius Florus, a dispute arose between Greeks and Jews in urgent affairs. 149
Caesarea that was resisted by the Romans, so Nero appointed
the Roman general Vespasian as legate in charge of the Jewish Cotton describes that sometime in the early second century
rebellion in Judea. Jeffers mentions that Vespasian’s forces Judea became:
“consisted of three regular Roman legions, accompanied by
around 14,000 auxiliary troops and cavalry and some 18,000 A consular province, with two legions, as well as three
soldiers supplied by neighboring dependent kingdoms.”132 cavalry alae and twelve cohorts at the disposal of the
However, it was his son, Titus, who carried on the fight, as governor [139 AD150]—and all that in what was, after all, an
Vespasian remained in Rome to seek support for becoming the exceedingly small province. The Romans must have felt
emperor. The conflict eventually led to the seizure of the themselves faced with special problems calling for special
Masada fortress in AD 73.133 Cotton summarized the events of administrative and military measures.151
the Great Revolt of AD 66–70 as follows:
As Syme points out:
The Roman field commanders ruled Judea, and Antonius
Iulianus, the procurator mentioned in Josephus [AD 66– What had begun as the provincia of Caesar Augustus [27 BC–
70134] as taking part in Titus’ war council, must now have AD 14], managed for him by his legati, praetorian or consular
been in charge of finance only. After the revolt, Judea according to circumstances (and the former predominate at
became a one-legion praetorian province ruled by a legatus first), evolves into the system and hierarchy of the imperial
Augusti pro praetore in charge of the province as well as the provinces…Judea was soon elevated to consular status.”152
legion—the Legio Decima Fretensis. In fact, it was the first
province to have a legatus Augusti pro praetore of Syme records that:
praetorian rank in charge of a legion.135
An emergency in the East may be the reason for Falco’s
Roman Legates of Judea (AD 70–135) transfer, calling for the employment of an experienced vir
militaris. In 105–6, Arabia was annexed by the legate of
While the term legatus (anglicized as “legate”) was Syria, A. Cornelius Palma. Disturbances may have arisen
generally understood as an ambassador either sent to or by in Judea about this time, or a threat from Parthia. However
Rome, a third classification was the “Legati who accompanied that may be, Falco will have been transferred to Judea in
the Roman generals into the field, or the proconsuls and 105: his predecessor had been C. Julius Quadratus Bassus,
praetors into the provinces.”144 It is this last definition which also a military man, who assumed the fasces on 1st May
applied to Judea. of that year.153
Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, the city
lay in ruins. (Josephus recounts Titus’ reaction upon visiting The appointment of Lusius Quietus in AD 120 as
the city after AD 70: “And contrasting the sorry scene of governor (consular legate) is described by Eusebius as due
desolation before his eyes with the former splendour of the city, to Emperor Hadrian’s suspecting a Jewish rebellion in
and calling to mind the grandeur of its ruined buildings and Mesopotamia. 154 Eusebius states that Hadrian “instructed
their pristine beauty, he commiserated its destruction.”145) This Lusius Quietus to clear them [the Jews] out of the province.
grievously affected the surviving population of Jews in Judea, He later took an army and massacred a huge number of the
who began to take up arms against the perceived oppressors. inhabitants, and as a reward for this success was appointed
From AD 70 until 135, the resulting Judean rebellions (Quietus governor of Judea.”155
Rebellion, AD 115–117, and Bar Kokhba revolt, AD 132–136) Gallus, whose full name is Lucius Cossonius Gallus
required Rome to appoint a governing Roman legate capable of Vecilius Crispinus Mansuanius Marcellinus Numisius
commanding the military. Agrippa II was loyal to Rome, so he Sabinus, 156 had a long military career as the legate of Asia
was appointed the tetrarch until his death ca. AD 100, when (AD 100–111), proconsul of Sardinia, 157 and legatus Augusti
Judea came under complete Roman control. propraetore of Galatia, before being appointed the legatus
During this period, when a legion was stationed in Judea, the Augusti propraetore of Judea in AD 118 158 by the new
legatus iuridicus was accountable to a praetorian proconsul emperor Hadrian (AD 117–138).
governor, whose rank was that of a senator.146 These were Trajan had had his hands full with his preoccupation with
invested with the power to administer the province the threatened Jewish uprising and the war in Mesopotamia.
(propraetorian imperium and legatus pro praetore). The legate Hadrian, no doubt, wanted to suppress this as quickly as
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Bible and Spade 30.3 (2017)
possible, and so appointed experienced military governors in
Judea. Little is known about the events leading up to the Bar
Kokhba revolt. The new discovery about Gargilius
Antiquus, the governor of Judea from ca. AD 122–125,
helps fill some of this gap.
New Discovery About Gargilius Antiquus, AD 122–125?
In January of 2016, a new seven-line Greek dedicatory

inscription, believed to be part of a statue base, was
recovered from off the coast of Dor 159 by Haifa University
underwater archaeologists under the direction of Professor
Assaf Yasur-Landau. 160
The Greek (not Latin) inscription translates as, “The City of
Dor honors Marcus Paccius, son of Publius, Silvanus Quintus
Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus, governor of the province
of Judea, as well as […] of the province of Syria, and patron of
the city of Dor.”161 However, this was not the first time that CIIP
someone had been identified with the name Gargilius Antiquus, Honorary inscription for T. Mucius Clemens, shortly after AD
as both his son and grandson also carried the same name (see 70. Circular stone inscription fragment221 on a round base for a
below). The details in the inscriptions help to identify and date statue of the governor (h 75 cm, w ca. 73 cm). Translation
the corresponding Gargilius Antiquus.162 “(Someone)... honored Marcus Paccius son of Publius...Silvanus
Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus, imperial governor
with praetorian rank [of the province Syria Palaestina].” Found
First Mention of Gargilius Antiquus Before AD 135 near Dor (area of Bir el Malik), displayed at the Center of Nautical
and Regional Archaeology at Nahsholim, Dor.
He was first mentioned in an inscribed circular stone,
discovered in 1948 by the East Gate of the ancient city of Dor, Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus,
during the Israeli War of Independence.163 In 1978, the stone imperial governor with praetorian rank [of the province
was again located in the same vicinity164 and transferred to the Syria Palaestina].” 166, 167
Center of Nautical and Regional Archaeology at Nahsholim, Following the discovery there was some debate over where
where it is now on display.165 Gera and Cotton translated the Gargilius Antiquus ruled, either in Syria or Syria Palaestina,
Greek of the reconstructed circular stone inscription as, since the location was missing from the inscription. 168
“(Someone)...honored Marcus Paccius son of Publius… Ameling and Dąbrowa argued “it is more likely that Dor
belonged to the province of Judea/Syria Palaestina, and that
the honorand was governor of Judea.”169 The debate has now
been settled with the new discovery about the previously
known Gargilius Antiquus, who was suspected of being the
governor of Judea before the Bar Kokhba revolt, which was
suppressed in circa AD 135. 170
What is Known About Gargilius Antiquus?
Gargilius Antiquus was a Roman politician in the first half

of the second century AD. He held the position of praetorian
governor of the province of Arabia Petraea in approximately
AD 116–119,171 and in May of AD 119 became the consul
suffectus.172 He was likely confirmed as governor at Dor
between 122 and 125 (see dating below173). He is believed to
have been the proconsul of Asia in circa AD 134–135.174 His
position as the governor of Judea, once suspected,175 has now
been confirmed.176
The father of Gargilius Antiquus was likely Publius
Gargilius Antiquus.177 Antiquus also had a relative by the name
Haifa Museum
of Quintus Gargilius Antiquus (Tiberius Claudius Quartinus
Roman-era 1900-year-old inscription that mentions “The city Gaius Oppius Severus Gaius Herennius Caecilianus Marcius
of Dor honors Marcus Paccius... Gargilius Antiquus governor of Julius Clarus Publius Cassius Clarus Dexter178) from Africa.179
the province of Judea.” The inscription is now on display in the
Haifa University Library. It is believed that Marcus Paccius Silvanus Goredius [or
Coredius] Gallus Lucius Pullaienus Gargilius Antiquus180, 181
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82
Classical Numismatic Group, www.cngcoins.com
Left to right: Tetrassarion bronze coin from Hadrianopolis, Thrace. Struck during the reign of Marcus Aurelius/Lucius Verus
(AD 161–169), the reverse inscription translates as, “hegemon (governor) Gargilius Antiquus of Hadrianopolis.”223
Tetrassarion bronze coin from Philippopolis, Thrace. A laureate head of Antoninus Pius (AD 138–161) is on the obverse, while
the reverse translates as “governor Gargilius Antiquus of Philippopolis” (ca. 161).224
Bronze coin from Pautalia, Thrace struck during the reign of Antoninus Pius (AD 161). Laureate head of Antoninus Pius on the
obverse, reverse inscription is translated “magistrate Gargilius Antiquus of Pautalia.”
was his son and a senator and governor of Arabia. 182 His son and the statue base measures 27.5 by 25.5 inches (70 x 65 cm)
was also the governor of Thracia (legatus Augusti pro praetore and weighs over 1322 lb (600 kg), and was encrusted by sea
provinciae Thraciae) and patron of Thugga, Tunisia in AD shells when it was discovered.192
159/160183 and a Roman senator, whose career is documented Second, not only does this discovery confirm the identity of
up to his consul suffectus in AD 160/162.184 The son’s name, another governor of Judea, but it is only the second time that
Gargilius Antiquus, appears on coins of Hadrianopolis,185 Judea has been mentioned in an inscription outside of the
Perinthus,186 Philippopolis,187 Plotinopolis,188 and Pautalia189 Bible.193 The other occurrence is in the inscription from
during the reign of Antoninus Pius (AD 138–161) and Marcus Caesarea of Pontius Pilate.194 Immediately following the Bar
Aurelius/Lucius Verus (AD 161–169190). Kokhba revolt, the Romans abolished the province of Judea,
obliterating any mention of its name.
What Has Been Learned? The historical context of the two inscriptions mentioning
Gargilius Antiquus is less clear. Certainly, he is being honored
First, according to Prof. Yasur-Landau of the University of on two sculptures and lauded as the Prefect Antiquus. The
Haifa, the inscription stone “is the longest discovered in reason for this is unclear. Do they celebrate two different
maritime excavations in Israel.”191 It consists of seven lines, events, or do cities erect commemorative monuments without a
special reason? These questions remain unanswered.
Dating
Werner Eck, based on the first inscription, convincingly

argued that Gargilius Antiquus was not the governor of Syria.
He reasoned that Gargilius Antiquus
could not have obtained the governorship of Syria, which

was reserved for senior consulars, before 128 AD or later (i.e.,
at least ten years after the consulate). However, Poblicius
Marcellus, consul in 120, is attested in Syria in March 129,195
and his governorship there had started at the latest in summer
128, and continued till 134/5 AD. In other words, there was no
room in Syria for Gargilius Antiquus of the inscription from
Dor till [sic] 134/5, when he is attested in Asia.196
The new inscription mentions “the province of Judea, as

well as […] of the province of Syria.” Hadrian united the
province of Judea with Syria to create a single province called
Syria Palaestina just prior to AD 136, following the Bar
Kokhba revolt (AD 132–136197). So, this inscription must date
to just before Judea joined Syria as a province. This recent
Statue base found in the Thugga (Dougga) theater in the discovery is the latest of the two inscriptions and may be the
province of Africa proconsularis. Inscription M PACCIO SII last mention of Judea as an independent province in an
VANO CORIDI CALIOIPVIGAI NOCARCILIOAN IIOVO COS
PAGVSIHYGGINSIS PAIRONO DD PP VRAIORI IGABIXIO
inscription that will ever be found, given the rare occurrence
IIII CIIMENII. Photo archive CIL, Inv. No. PH0001695, used of the name Judea on inscriptions and that Judea’s name was
k
by permission. changed shortly after 135.
83 and Spade 30.3 (2017)

Bible Bible and Spade 30.3 (2017)
83
This recent discovery may be the last mention of
Judea as an independent province in an
inscription that will ever by found.
This indicates that Gargilius Antiquus was the governor of

Judea sometime before AD 135. This criterion has at least two Classical Numismatic Group
198
timeframes that work. Firstly, based on the first inscription, Sestertius coin minted in Rome (AD 117–138)
Werner Eck speculated that “Gargilius Antiquus (cos. 119) commemorating Hadrian’s visit to Judea, ca. AD 134/5–138.225
could have followed Cossonius Gallus199 as governor of Judea,
ca. 123/5.”200 But secondly, between Quintus Tineius Rufus,
who was governor from AD 130–132, and Caius Quinctius
Certus Publius Marcellus who was governor in 134, there is
room for Gargilius Antiquus to have been governor between
AD 132–134, for a post of one to two years. This would also fit
within the list of governors and match the existence of an
independent Judea, as mentioned in the inscription. Not only is
there now another inscription confirming the governor of
Judea, but it has provided the missing governor of Judea before
the province was combined with Syria, under the governance of Classical Numismatic Group
Syria Palaestina. Bar Kochba revolt (AD 132–135) silver shekel/tetradrachm
coin minted in Judea. Originally it showed the face of the
The Bar Kokhba Revolt Roman Emperor Nero—three letters of his name are still visible.
Defacing the Roman coins was an act of defiance.226
The Jews suspected that Hadrian had plans to build a temple
to Jupiter in Jerusalem where once the Jewish Temple stood.
This was anathema to the Jewish nation and led to increased We see that governors were vital for running Judea and
discontent in Judea. Gargilius Antiquus no doubt had his hands played a central role in the NT narrative in the trials of Jesus
full. It is clear, however, that whatever measures Gargilius and the apostle Paul. The new discovery about Gargilius
Antiquus took to quell the Jewish uprising, they were generally Antiquus, clarifying that he was a governor of Judea, sheds
unsuccessful, as the Bar Kokhba revolt began in the summer of more light on the subsequent years of the Jewish discontent
AD 132201 and continued to about AD 136, when the uprising leading up to the Bar Kokhba revolt.
was eventually crushed.202 The victory was marked by Emperor
Hadrian banning circumcision203 and exiling some of the Jews.
Roman Syria and Judea were merged into the new province of
Syria Palaestina, removing the Jewish provincial identity, 204
and Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina (AD 130–638205). Endnotes for this article can be found at www.BibleArchaeology.org.
Some of the Parchment Letters found in the Cave of Letters Type “Endnotes” in the search box; next, click the “Bible and Spade
in Nahal Hever, in the Judean Desert, were written by the Bibliographies and Endnotes” link; then page down to the article.
leader Shim’on Bar Kokhba himself. One is addressed to
Yehuda bar Menashe at Kiryat Aravaya, and instructs his friend
to bring several items to the cave. Among the items are myrtle
leaves, citrons, and palm branches, all used in preparations for
the celebration of the Passover meal.206
Cotton continues to explain that once the Bar Kokhba revolt David E. Graves received his PhD
was under control, in AD 136207 if not before,208 from Highland Theological
College and University of
the province remained under a senator of consular rank, Aberdeen in Scotland under the
since he was in charge of two legions at least until the supervision of Dr. Alistair Wilson
reign of Probus (276–82): two governors of senatorial rank (HTC) and Dr. I. Howard Marshall
from this reign are now attested on two columns from (UofA). David serves as a square
209 supervisor for ABR’s Shiloh
Caesarea Maritima. At the latest by 293–305 the Excavations in Israel. He is
governor became an equestrian as twice attested on the married to Irina and has two grown
same columns for Aufidius Priscus 210…This brings us daughters, Jessica and Rebecca.
down to the end of the third century. 211
Bible
84
Endnotes for Fresh Light on the
Governors of Judea
Summer 2017 Bible and Spade
Notes
1
Emil Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–
AD 135), eds. G. Vermes, F. Miller, and M. Black. 4 Vols. (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark,
1979), p. 240.
2
Shimon Applebaum, Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times: Historical and
Archaeological Essays, eds. J. Neusner (Leiden: Brill Academic, 1989), p.123.
3
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Volume VI, Books 14–15. Trans. R. Marcus
and A. Wikgren. Vol. 10. Loeb Classical Library 489 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1943), 14.5.4.
4
For a list of Latin terms used in ancient sources for Governor, see Appendix G in
Simon Corcoran’s The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and
Government, AD 284–324 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 2000), pp. 337–39.
5
Fred K. Drogula, The Office of the Provincial Governor under the Roman Republic
and Empire [to AD 235]: Conception and Tradition. Unpublished PhD Dissertation,
University of Virginia, 2005; Walter Eder, “Governor,” BrillPauly,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574–9347_bnp_e1121630, 2006 (accessed December 2016);
Daniëlle Slootjes, The Governor and His Subjects in the Later Roman Empire (Leiden:
Brill, 2006).
6
Ruth B. Edwards, “Rome,” Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. J.B. Green, S.
McKnight, and I.H. Marshall (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992), p. 712.
7
Egypt was directly ruled by the Emperor, so the governor of Egypt held a unique role
called Praefectus Aegypti. Ulpian, The Digest of Justinian. Trans. and ed. A. Watson
(Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 1.16.1–16, 1.17.1.
8
9
Michael Speidel, “The Roman Army in Judaea under the Procurators,” Roman Army
Studies, Vol. 2, ed. M. Speidel (Stuttgart: Gieben, 1992), pp. 224–32; James S. Jeffers,
The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the Background of Early
Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999), p. 134; Walter Eder, “Governor,”
BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1121630, 2006 (accessed
December 2016).
10
McKnight, and I.H. Marshall (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992), p. 712; Walter
Eder, “Governor,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1121630, 2006
(accessed December 2016); Monika Bernett, “Der Kaiserkult in Judäa unter den
Herodiern und Römern: Untersuchungen zur politischen und religiösen Geschichte
Judäas,” von 30 v. bis 66 n. Chr. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007, pp. 310–12; Werner
Eck, “Die Römischen Repräsentanten in Judaea: Provokateure Oder Vertreter Der
Römischen Macht?” The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed.
Mladen Popovic (Leiden: Brill, 2011), p. 48.
11
Walter Eder, “Governor,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e1121630, 2006 (accessed December 2016).
12
Ibid.
13
Ulpian, “Notitia dignitatum,” British Archaeological Reports, International 63.2.
Robert I. Ireland, ed. (Stuttgart: Teubner), Or. 13; Christian Gizewski and Franz
Tinnefeld, “Comes, Comites,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e303300, 2006 (accessed December 2016).
14
For the duties of governor see: Ulpian, “Notitia dignitatum,” British Archaeological
Reports, International 63.2. Robert I. Ireland, ed. (Stuttgart: Teubner), Or. 13, 1.18.1–21;
Simon Corcoran, The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and
Government, AD 284–324 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 2000), pp. 234–54.
15
Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and
Public Order (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 171.
16
Michael Speidel, “The Roman Army in Judaea under the Procurators,” Roman Army
Studies, Vol. 2, ed. M. Speidel (Stuttgart: Gieben, 1992), pp. 224–32.
17
18
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum. 20 vols. (Berlin, De Gruyter,
1974), 16.106. Online database: http://cil.bbaw.de/.
19
J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1878), 2:467; D.L.
Kennedy, “Roman Army,” Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 5, eds. D. N. Freedman, G.A.
Herion, D.F. Graf, and J.D. Pleins (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1996), p. 794.
20
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities: Volume VIII, Books 18–19. Trans. L.H.
Feldman. Vol. 12. Loeb Classical Library 433 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1965), 19.356–65; D.L. Kennedy, “Roman Army,” Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol.
5, eds. D.N. Freedman, G.A. Herion, D.F. Graf, and J.D. Pleins (New York, NY:
Doubleday, 1996), p. 795.
21
William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, and Steven T. Katz, eds., The Cambridge
History of Judaism: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, Vol. 4 (Cambridge University
Press, 1984), p. 43; Kenneth W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D.
700 (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 107.
22
Flavius Josephus, “Publican,” Jewish Antiquities: Volume IX, Book 20. Trans. L.H.
Press, 1965), 14.163 ff; Daniel Sperber, “Tax Gatherers,” Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 19.
Eds. M. Berenbaum and F. Skolnik, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: MacMillan, 2007), pp.
558–59.
23
Robert I. Ireland, ed. (Stuttgart: Teubner), 50.2.7.1.
24
Ibid, 1.18.7.
25
William Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London, UK:
Murray, 1875), p. 376.
26
G.P. Burton, “Proconsuls, Assizes and the Administration of Justice under the
Empire,” The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 65 (1975), pp. 92–106.
27
Livy, History of Rome, Books 3–4, trans. B.O. Foster, Vol. 2, Loeb Classical Library
133 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1922), 3.563; Pliny the Elder, Natural
History, Books 3–7, trans. H. Rackham, Vol. 2, Loeb Classical Library 352 (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1942), 6.90.
28
Christoph Georg Paulus, “Appellatio.” BrillPauly, 1:894–95,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e129020, 2006 (accessed December 2016).
29
Robert I. Ireland, ed. (Stuttgart: Teubner), 1.18.4 [Watson]. (See also Ulpian, The Digest
of Justinian. Trans. and ed. A. Watson [Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1998], 1.16.7–11; 1.18.1–12).
30
Ibid, 1.18.6.8; Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers,
Administration, and Public Order (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2012), p.
172.
31
Robert I. Ireland, ed. (Stuttgart: Teubner), 1.18.6.8.
32
Berger, Adolf, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, PA:
American Philological Society, 1953), p. 529; Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, “Procurators
and Prefects in the Early Principate,” Studies in Roman Government and Law, eds. A. H.
M. Jones, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1963), p. 60; Emil Schürer, The History of the
Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–AD 135), eds. G. Vermes, F. Miller,
and M. Black. 4 Vols. (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark, 1979), p. 368, n.73; Adrian N.
Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament: The Sarum
Lectures 1960–1961 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 2004), pp. 8–10; Yann Le Bohec,
“Military Penal Law,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e804570,
2006 (accessed December 2016); Harry W. Tajra, The Trial of St. Paul: A Juridical
Exegesis of the Second Half of the Acts of the Apostles (Eugene, OR.: Wipf and Stock,
2010), pp. 113–14; Polybius, The Histories, Books 5–8, eds. F.W. Walbank and C.
Habicht, trans. W.R. Paton, Vol. 3. Loeb Classical Library 138 (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2011), 6.37–38; Angelos Chaniotis et al., eds., Supplementum
Epigraphicum Graecum, 23 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1923), 39.851; 45.1133.
33
Gerhard A. Krodel, “Revelation,” Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament
Series (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress, 1989), p. 116.
34
Peter Garnsey, “The Criminal Jurisdiction of Governors,” The Journal of Roman
Studies 58 (1968), pp. 54, 59.
35
See also “Antipas,” Rv 2:13; 6:9−11.
36
McKnight, and I.H. Marshall (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992), p. 712. For a
chart of the House of Herod, see Bethja Bayer’s, “Herod I,” Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol.
9, 2nd ed., eds. M. Berenbaum and F. Skolnik (New York, NY: MacMillan, 2006), p. 33.
37
Abraham Schalit, Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 2, 2nd ed., eds. M. Berenbaum and F.
Skolnik (New York, NY: MacMillan, 2006), p. 205; Bethja Bayer, “Herod I,”
Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 9, 2nd ed., eds. M. Berenbaum and F. Skolnik (New York,
NY: MacMillan, 2006), p. 31.
38
Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, Vol. I, Books 1–2, trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol.
2, Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 1.244;
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Vol. VI, Books 14–15, trans. R. Marcus and A.
Wikgren, Vol. 10, Loeb Classical Library 489 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1943), 14.326; Klaus Bringmann, Leonhard Burckhardt, and Bruno Bleckmann,
“Tetrarches, Tetrarchia.” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e1205430, 2006 (accessed December 2016); Bethja Bayer, Encyclopedia
Judaica, Vol. 9, 2nd ed., eds. M. Berenbaum and F. Skolnik (New York, NY: MacMillan,
2006), p. 32.
39
Press, 1943), 14.9.2.
40
2. Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 1.6.2.
41
Ibid, 1.28.4.
42
Ibid, 1.14.4.
43
Ibid, 1.483.
44
Bethja Bayer, Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 9, 2nd ed., eds. M. Berenbaum and F.
Skolnik (New York, NY: MacMillan, 2006), p. 34.
45
Press, 1943), 15.11.1; The Jewish War, Vol. I, Books 1–2, trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol.
46
Michael Grant, Herod the Great (New York, NY: American Heritage, 1971), p. 12;
Tom Mueller, “Herod: The Holy Land’s Visionary Builder,” National Geographic 214.6
(2008), p. 42.
47
Press, 1943), 5.222–236; 15.365–372; 16.392–394; 17.182–187; The Jewish War, Vol. I,
Books 1–2, trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol. 2. Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1927), 1.550–51; Richard Thomas France, “Herod and the
Children of Bethlehem,” Novum Testamentum 31.2 (1979), pp. 114–19; Paul Maier,
“Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem,” Chronos Kairos Christos II, eD.E.J. Vardaman
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998), pp. 169–89.
48
Robert A. Kaster ed., Macrobius Saturnalia 2.4.11.
49
Richard Thomas France, “Herod and the Children of Bethlehem,” Novum
Testamentum, 31.2, pp. 114–19.
50
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 17.8.1.
51
Israel Shatzman, The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod: From Hellenistic to
Roman Frameworks (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991), p. 129.
52
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 17.20; The Jewish War, Vol. I, Books 1–2,
trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol. 2. Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1927), 1.562.
53
Ibid, 2.93–7; Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 17.317–20; Klaus Bringmann,
Leonhard Burckhardt, and Bruno Bleckmann, “Tetrarches, Tetrarchia.” BrillPauly,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1205430, 2006 (accessed December 2016).
54
Hannah M. Cotton, “Some Aspects of the Roman Administration of Judaea/Syria-
Palaestina,” Lokale Autonomie und römische Und Ordnungsmacht in Den
Kaiserzeitlichen Provinzen, Vom 1. Bis 3. Jahrhundert, ed. Werner Eck (München:
Oldenbourg, 1999), p. 81.
55
AD 135), eds. G. Vermes, F. Miller, and M. Black, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark,
1979), p. 359, n. 2; Hannah M. Cotton, “Some Aspects of the Roman Administration of
Judaea/Syria-Palaestina,” Lokale Autonomie und römische Und Ordnungsmacht in Den
Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 76–77.
56
Ibid (Cotton), p. 77.
57
Werner Eck, “Praefectus,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e1006960 (accessed December 2016), 11:752.
58
Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. 2 vols. (Philadelphia, PA:
American Philological Society, 1953), p. 642.
59
60
Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. 2 vols. (Philadelphia, PA:
American Philological Society, 1953), pp. 643–44; Werner Eck, “Praefectus,” BrillPauly,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1006960 (accessed December 2016), 11:752–
55.
61
Werner Eck, “Die Römischen Repräsentanten in
Judaea: Provokateure Oder Vertreter Der Römischen Macht?” The Jewish Revolt Against
Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Mladen Popović. Leiden: Brill, 2011), p. 48.
62
63
Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, “Procurators and Prefects in the Early Principate,”
Studies in Roman Government and Law, eds. A.H.M. Jones. 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK:
Blackwell, 1963), pp. 117–25.
64
James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the
Background of Early Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999), pp. 129–34.
65
66
Ibid, 2.117; Jewish Antiquities, 18.29; Israel Shatzman, The Armies of the
Hasmonaeans and Herod: From Hellenistic to Roman Frameworks (Tübingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1991), p. 129; Beate Ego, “Archelaus,” BrillPauly,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e132040 (accessed December 2016.
67
Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 77–78; Edward Dąbrowa, “The Date of the Census of Quirinius
and the Chronology of the Governors of the Province of Syria,” Zeitschrift Für
Papyrologie Und Epigraphik (2011), p. 137 n. 3; Maurizio Ghiretti, “Lo ‘status’ della
Giudea dall’età Augustea all’età Claudia,” Latomus, 44.4 (1985), pp. 754–66.
68
Victor Ehrenberg, Arnold H. M. Jones, and David L. Stockton, eds., Documents
Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1976),
p. 73.
69
Cassius Dio, Roman History: Books 51–55. Trans. E. Cary and H.B. Foster. Vol. 6,
Loeb Classical Library 83 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1917), 55.22, 6;
Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, 17.355; 18.2.
70
71
Hermann Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. 3 vols. in 5 parts (Berlin, 1892–
1916), p. 2683.
72
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.
73
Pere Villalba I. Varneda, The Historical Method of Flavius Josephus, ed. K.H.
Rengstorf (Leiden: Brill, 1986), p. 267.
74
See also John H. Rhoads, “Josephus Misdated the Census of Quirinius” Journal of
the Evangelical Theological Society (2011), 54.1: 65–87.
75
Stanley E. Porter, “The Reasons for the Lukan Census,” Paul, Luke and the Graeco-
Roman World: Essays in Honour of Alexander, J.M. Wedderburn, eds. A.
Christophersen, B. Longenecker, J. Frey, and C. Claussen (New York, NY: Bloomsbury
T&T Clark, 2004), pp. 165–88.
76
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History: Books 1–5. Trans. Kirsopp Lake. Vol. 1. Loeb
Classical Library 153 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926); date of 3/2 BC.
77
John H. Rhoads, “Josephus Misdated the Census of Quirinius” Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society (2011), 86 n. 40.
78
L’Année épigraphique, M. Corbier, P. Le Roux and S. Dardaine, eds. (Villejuif:
Collège de France, 2005), p. 1589; Angelos Chaniotis et al., eds., Supplementum
Epigraphicum Graecum, 23 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1923), 55.1723.
79
Leah Di Segni, “A Roman Standard in Herod’s Kingdom,” Israel Museum Studies in
Archaeology (2005), pp. 23–48.
80
Georges Lafaye, René Cagnat, J. Toutain, and Victor Henry, eds. Inscriptiones
Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes Vol. 4: Asia, nos. 1–1764 (Paris: Leroux,
1901/1927), pp. 930, 935; Martin, Thomas W. Martin, “Paulus, Sergius (Person),”
Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 5, eds. D. N. Freedman, G. A. Herion, D. F. Graf, and J. D.
Pleins (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1996) p. 205; William M. Ramsay, The Bearing of
Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (London, UK: Hodder
and Stoughton, 1915), pp. 150–72; Bastian Van Elderen, “Some Archaeological
Observations on Paul’s First Missionary Journey,” Apostolic History and The Gospel:
Biblical and Historical Essays presented to F. F. Bruce on his 60th Birthday, eds. W.W.
Gasque and R.P. Martin (Exeter, UK: Paternoster,1970), p. 155.
81
E. Mary Smallwood, Documents Illustrating the Principates of Gaius Claudius and
Nero, ed. William Smith, (Bristol: Bristol Classical, 1983), p. 105.
82
L’Année épigraphique, ed. A. Merlin (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1963), no. 104;
Philo, On the Embassy to Gaius. General Indexes, ed. J.W. Earp. Trans. F.H. Colson.
Vol. 10. Loeb Classical Library 379 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962),
38.299.
83
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 13–16. Tran. J. Jackson. Vol. 5. Loeb Classical
Library 322 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937), 5.44; Flavius Josephus,
The Jewish War, Vol. I, Books 1–2, trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol. 2. Loeb Classical
Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2.8.1; 9.2 §§117, 169.
84
Blackwell, 1963), pp. 115–25.
85
L’Année épigraphique, ed. A. Merlin (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1963), no. 104.
86
This word was not known to scholars, but they speculate that it was perhaps a temple
(Tiberieum) built to honor the emperor Tiberius.
87
Antonio Frova, “L’Iscrizione di Ponzio Pilato a Cesarea,” Rendiconti dell’Istitutio
Lombardo (1961) 95: 419–34; E. Jerry Vardaman, “A New Inscription Which Mentions
Pilate as ‘Prefect,’” Journal of Biblical Literature (1962), 81.1: 70–71; Giordano dell’
Amore, Virginio Borroni, and Antonio Frova, Scavi di Caesarea Maritima (Milano:
“L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1966), p. 217; Joan E. Taylor, “Pontius Pilate and the
Imperial Cult in Roman Judaea” New Testament Studies 52: 564–75; David Elton Graves,
Key Themes of the New Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (Toronto,
Can.: Electronic Christian Media, 2013), pp. 171–72.
88
89
Robert J. Bull, “Pontius Pilate Inscription,” Biblical Archaeology Review 8.5;
“Caesarea Maritima: The Search for Herod’s City,” Biblical Archaeology Review 8.3, pp.
24–40.
90
2. Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927),
1.21.5–7; Jewish Antiquities, Vol. VI, Books 14–15, trans. R. Marcus and A. Wikgren,
Vol. 10, Loeb Classical Library 489 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1943),
15.9.6.
91
Géza Alföldy, “Pontius Pilatus Und Das Tiberieum von Caesarea Maritima Scripta,”
Scripta Classica Israelica 18: 106–7.
92
Robert L. Hohlfelder, “Caesarea beneath the Sea,” Biblical Archaeology Review
(1982), 8.3: 42–47; Robert L. Hohlfelder, John P. Oleson, Avner Raban, and R. Lindley
Vann, “Sebastos: Herod’s Harbor at Caesarea Maritima,” The Biblical Archaeologist
46.3: 133–43; R. Lindley Vann, “Herod’s Harbor Construction Recovered Underwater,”
Biblical Archaeology Review 9.3: 10–14.
93
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 13–16. Tran. J. Jackson. Vol. 5. Loeb Classical
Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2.117–18; Jewish
Antiquities, 17.55–64; 85–89; Jewish Antiquities: Volume VIII, Books 18–19. Trans.
L.H. Feldman. Vol. 12. Loeb Classical Library 433 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1965), 18.3.3 §63; Philo, On the Embassy to Gaius. General Indexes, ed. J.W.
Earp. Trans. F.H. Colson. Vol. 10. Loeb Classical Library 379 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1962), 38.299–305; Helen K. Bond, Pontius Pilate in History and
Interpretation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 24–93.
94
Hayim Ben-Sasson, ed., A History of the Jewish People (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1985), pp. 246–47; Mathew George Easton, The New Easton Bible
Dictionary, Updated and Revised Edition, ed. D.E. Graves (Toronto, ON: Electronic
Christian Media, 2016), p.102.
95
Warren Carter, Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor (Collegeville, MN:
Liturgical, 2003), p. 115; Joan E. Taylor, “Pontius Pilate and the imperial cult in Roman
Judaea,” New Testament Studies (2006), pp. 567, 570.
96
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 13–16. Trans. J. Jackson. Vol. 5. Loeb Classical
Library 322 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937), 15.44.
97
Ibid.
98
Blackwell, 1963), pp. 115–25.
99
100
Craig A. Evans, “Excavating Caiaphas, Pilate, and Simon of Cyrene: Assessing the
Literary and Archaeological Evidence,” Jesus and Archaeology, eds. J.H. Charlesworth
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006), pp. 334–38; Brian C. McGing, “Pontius Pilate and
the Sources,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly (1991), 53: 416–38.
101
Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994), p. 401.
102
Craig A. Evans, “Excavating Caiaphas, Pilate, and Simon of Cyrene: Assessing the
Literary and Archaeological Evidence,” Jesus and Archaeology, eds. J.H. Charlesworth
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006), p. 333.
103
Helen K. Bond, Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation (Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 13.
104
105
Helen K. Bond, Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation (Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 14.
106
2. Loeb Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2.169–
77; Jewish Antiquities: Volume VIII, Books 18–19. Trans. L.H. Feldman. Vol. 12. Loeb
Classical Library 433 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 18.55–62;
Philo, “On the Embassy to Gaius,” General Indexes, ed. J. W. Earp. Trans. F.H. Colson.
38.300–301.
107
Classical Library 153 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926), 2.14.
108
Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 79, 81.
109
Blackwell, 1963), p. 115.
110
Werner Eck, “Procurator,” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e1009380 (2006, accessed December 2016).
111
Christopher Haigh, The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and
Ireland (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 21; Jill Harries, Law and
Empire in Late Antiquity, Revised (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001),
pp. 53–54.
112
Background of Early Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999), p. 134;
Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 76–77.
113
213; c.f. Jewish Antiquities: Volume VIII, Books 18–19. Trans. L.H. Feldman. Vol. 12.
Loeb Classical Library 433 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 19.279,
288; James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the
114
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities: Volume VIII, Books 18–19. Trans. L.H.
Press, 1965), 19.363.
115
116
Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities: Volume IX, Book 20. Trans. L.H. Feldman.
20.138.
117
Abraham Schalit, “Agrippa II,” Encyclopedia Judaica, eds. M. Berenbaum and F.
Skolnik. 2nd ed. New York, NY: MacMillan, 2006), 1:503.
118
F.F. Bruce cautiously argues that Felix’s full name was Tiberius Claudius Felix,
based on a partial inscription (L’Année épigraphique, eds. J. Gagé, M. Le Glay, H.-G.
Pflaum and P. Wuilleumier [Villejuif: Collège de France, 1967], p. 525) that mentions a
procurator (επίτροπος, epitropos) bearing the praenomen and nomen Tiberius Claudius—
the cognomen is tantalizingly missing, but believed to be Felix (F.F. Bruce, “The Full
Name of the Procurator Felix,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament [1978], 1: 33–
36; Michael Avi-Yonah, “The Epitaph of T. Mucius Clemens,” Israel Exploration
Journal [1966], 16.4: 261). Tacitus calls him Marcus Antonius Felix (Cornelius Tacitus,
Hist. 5.9).
119
L’Année épigraphique, eds. J. Gagé, M. Le Glay, H.-G. Pflaum and P. Wuilleumier
(Villejuif: Collège de France, 1967), p. 525; Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities:
Volume IX, Book 20. Trans. L.H. Feldman. Vol. 13. Loeb Classical Library 456
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 20.137; Suetonius, Jul. 5.23; F.F.
Bruce, “The Full Name of the Procurator Felix,” Journal for the Study of the New
Testament (1978), 1: 33–36; Michael Avi-Yonah, “The Epitaph of T. Mucius Clemens,”
Israel Exploration Journal (1966), p. 261.
120
20.142.
121
See also James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era:
Exploring the Background of Early Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999),
p. 134.
122
Kathyrn L. Gleason, Barbara Burrell, Ehud Netzer, Laurel Taylor, and J. Howard
Williams, “The Promontory Palace at Caesarea Maritima: Preliminary Evidence for
Herod’s Praetorium,” Journal of Roman Archaeology (1998), 11: 23–52.
123
See also David Elton Graves, Key Themes of the New Testament: A Survey of Major
Theological Themes (Toronto, Canada: Electronic Christian Media, 2013), p. 330.
124
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 4–6, 11–12. Trans. J. Jackson. Vol. 4. Loeb
Classical Library 312 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937), 12.54; Flavius
Josephus, The Jewish War, Vol. I, Books 1–2, trans. H.S.J. Thackeray, Vol. 2. Loeb
Classical Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2.13.7; 2.14.1;
Jewish Antiquities: Volume IX, Book 20. Trans. L.H. Feldman. Vol. 13. Loeb Classical
Library 456 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 20.8.7–11.
125
Ibid, 20.8–9.
126
Donfried notes that: “If one were to assume that the general sequence of the
subsequent events outlined in Acts is accurate—two-year Caesarean imprisonment,
hearing before Festus, and arrival in Rome—then the dates ca. AD 57–59 for the first of
these and a date of ca. AD 60 for Paul’s arrival in Rome would agree with the parameters
of possible dates reviewed above” (Karl Paul Donfried, “Chronology: New Testament,”
Anchor Bible Dictionary, eds, D.N. Freedman, G.A. Herion, D.F. Graf, and J.D. Pleins
[New York, NY: Doubleday, 1996], p. 1021). Keener proposes July of AD 59 for Festus
taking over as Procurator of Judaea (Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background
Commentary: New Testament [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994], p. 405). See also
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 4–6, 11–12. Trans. J. Jackson. Vol. 4. Loeb Classical
Library 203 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2.13.7; 2.14.1; Jewish
Antiquities: Volume IX, Book 20. Trans. L.H. Feldman. Vol. 13. Loeb Classical Library
456 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 20.8.7–11.
127
Ulpian, The Digest of Justinian. Trans. and ed. A. Watson (Philadelphia, PA:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 49.6.1.
128
Rainer Riesner, Rainer, Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy,
Theology. Trans. D.W. Stott (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), p. 155.
129
On the historical accuracy of the provocatio ad Caesarem and surrounding events
see the description by Riesner (Ibid, 155–56).
130
20.197.
131
F.F. Bruce, New Testament History, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1980), p.
345; Joel B. Green, “Festus, Porcius (Person),” Anchor Bible Dictionary, eds. D.N.
Freedman, G.A. Green (1992), pp. 794–95.
132
Background of Early Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999), p. 139.
133
58; 477–80; 559–61.
134
Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War: Volume III, Books 5–7. Trans. H.S.J.
Thackeray. Vol. 4. Loeb Classical Library 210 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1928), 6.238.
135
Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 79–80; Bengt E. Thomasson, “One-Legion Provinces of the
Roman Empire during the Principate,” Opuscula Romana (1973), 9.7: 63.
136
For details on these Roman Legates who ruled Judaea see Appendix A in E. Mary
Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: A Study in
Political Relations (Leiden: Brill, 1981), pp. 546–57.
137
Paul Gallivan dates his consulship to 72 or 73 (Paul Gallivan, “The Fasti for AD
70–96,” Classical Quarterly [1981], 31: 219); however Wener Eck dates his office to 83
or 84 (“Jahres-und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter” von 69/70 bis 138/139,
1 Teil [1982], Chiron 12: 307 n. 108).
138
His full name was Cnaeus Pinarius Aemilius Cicatricula Pompeius Longinus, and
he died in AD 105 (Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 20 vols.
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), 16.33, 36, 39. Online database: http://cil.bbaw.de/.
139
For the arguments for placing Atticus Herodes’ governorship of Judaea before those
of Quadratus Bassus and Pompeius Falco, see E. Mary Smallwood, “Atticus, Legate of
Judaea under Trajan,” The Journal of Roman Studies (1962), 52.1/2: 131–33.
140
For the identification of C. Julius Quadratus Bassus with C. Julius Bassus suffect
consul in 105, see David Magie, David, Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the
Third Century After Christ, 2 Vols. eds. T.J. Luce (New York, NY: Arno, 1975), 2:1457;
Ronald Syme, “Review of Die Reichsbeamten von Dazien, by A. Stein,” The Journal of
Roman Studies (1946), 36.1/2: 162–3.
141
His full name was Quintus Roscius Coelius Murena Silius Decianus Vibullius Pius
Iulius Eurycles Herculanus Pompeius Falco (Ronald Syme, “Consulates in Absence,” The
Journal of Roman Studies (1958), 48.1/2: 4.
142
His full name was Lucius Cossonius Gallus Vecilius Crispinus Mansuanius
Marcellinus Numisius Sabinus.
143
On Quintus Tineius Rufus and Sextus Julius Severus, see Shimon Applebaum,
Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times: Historical and Archaeological Essays, ed. J.
Neusner (Leiden: Brill Academic, 1989), pp. 117–23. Cassius Dio ascribes in part the
cause of the Jewish revolt to the collapse of the tomb of Solomon. Cassius records that
the Roman governor Tineius Rufus (AD 132) seriously underestimated the situation and
states:
Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing
signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to
the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; many outside nations, too, were
joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say,
was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best
generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he
was governor, against the Jews. Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the
open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by
intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers,
and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be
sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them.
Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine
hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five
hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the
number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. Thus
nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had
forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an
object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas
rushed howling into their cities. Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war.
Therefore, Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase
commonly affected by the emperors, “If you and your children are in health, it is well; I
and the legions are in health.” (Cassius Dio, Roman History: Books 51–55. Trans. E.
Cary and H.B. Foster. Vol. 6, Loeb Classical Library 83 [Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1917], 69:13–14.
144
Leonhard Schmitz, “Legatus,” Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, ed. W.
Smith (London, UK: Murray, 1875), p. 677.
145
Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War: Volume III, Books 5–7. Trans. H.S.J.
Thackeray. Vol. 4. Loeb Classical Library 210 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1928), 7.112.
146
E. Mary Smallwood, “Atticus, Legate of Judaea under Trajan,” The Journal of
Roman Studies (1962), 52.1/2: 131; Hannah M. Cotton, “Some Aspects of the Roman
Administration of Judaea/Syria-Palaestina,” Lokale Autonomie und römische Und
Ordnungsmacht in Den Kaiserzeitlichen Provinzen Vom 1. Bis 3. Jahrhundert, ed.
Werner Eck (München: Oldenbourg, 1999), p. 77.
147
Pliny the Younger, Letters, Books 8–10: Panegyricus. Trans. B. Radice. Vol. 2.
Loeb Classical Library 59 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), 8.24;
Ulpian, The Digest of Justinian. Trans. and ed. A. Watson (Philadelphia, PA: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 1.18.20; Christian Gizewski, “Corrector,” BrillPauly
(2006) http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e307300 (accessed December 2016).
148
Cornelius Tacitus, Annals: Books 1–3. Trans. C.H. Moore. Vol. 3. Loeb Classical
Library 249 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931), 1.31, 2.6; Peter Kehne,
“Legatus,” BrillPauly (2006), 7:cols. 354–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e700040 (accessed December 2016).
149
Leonhard Schmitz, “Legatus,” Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, ed. W.
Smith (London, UK: Murray, 1875), 678.
150
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter,
1974), 16.87. Online database: http://cil.bbaw.de/.
151
Kaiserzeitlichen Provinzen Vom 1. Bis 3. Jahrhundert, ed. Werner Eck (München:
152
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 20 vols. Bourne (Berlin: De
Gruyter, 1974), 16.68. Online database: http://cil.bbaw.de/; Ronald Syme, “Consulates in
Absence,” The Journal of Roman Studies (1958), 48.1/2: 1.
153
Ibid (Syme), 48.1/2: 4.
154
Eusebius, Pamphilus, and Jerome, The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome’s Version of
the Chronicles of Eusebius. Ed. by John Knight Fotheringham (Oxford, UK: Clarendon,
2012), Chron. 8; Paulus Orosius, The Seven Books of History Against the Pagans. Trans.
Roy J Deferrari (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2001), 7.12.7;
E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: A Study
in Political Relations (Leiden: Brill, 1981), 418.
155
Classical Library 153 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926), 4.2, 5.
156
L’Année épigraphique, ed. R. Cagna (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1888), p. 90;
L’Année épigraphique, eds. M. Corbier, P. Le Roux and S. Dardaine (Villejuif: Collège
de France, 1995), p. 1185; Ibid (2003), p. 1801; Theodor Mommsen, Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum, 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), 3.6813 = Hermann
Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, 3 vols. in 5 parts (Berlin, 1892–1916), p. 1038;
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter,
1974), 16.62; Margaret M. Roxan and P.A. Holder, “Roman Military Diplomas,” Bulletin
of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement 82 (London, UK: University of London
Press, 2003), 4.229.
157
L’Année épigraphique, eds. M. Corbier, P. Le Roux and S. Dardaine (Villejuif:
Collège de France, 1999), p. 1188.
158
Walter Ameling et al., eds., Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: Caesarea
and the Middle Coast, vol. 2, nos. 1121–2160. 7 vols. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011),
no. 1227; Werner Eck, “Senatoren von Vespasian bis Hadrian,” Prosopographische
Untersuchungen mit Einschluss der Jahres- u. Provinzialfasten der Statthalter. Vestigia.
Beiträge zur alten Geschichte. Hrsg. v. der Kommission für alte Geschichte und
Epigrafik des Deutschen archäologischen Instituts 13 (München: Beck, 1970), 180–86;
Werner Eck, “Cossonius,” BrillPauly (2006), 12/2 col. 934.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e12220910 (accessed December 2016).
159
Dor (Gr. Dora) is a coastal city, just 9 Roman miles (8.3 mi) north of Caesarea
Maritima (G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville and Joan Taylor, eds., The Onomasticon by
Eusebius of Caesarea and the Liber Locorum of Jerome: Palestine in the Fourth Century
AD. Trans. G.S.P. Freedman-Grenville [Jerusalem: Carta, 2003], 78.9; 136.16). In the
early second century AD their status changed when it was annexed to the province of
Phoenicia and in the late Roman period (AD 390) it became part of Palaestina Prima
(Avraham Negev and Shimon Gibson, eds., Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy
Land. 3rd ed. [New York, NY: Continuum International, 2001], pp. 144–45.
160
Philippe Bohstrom, “Divers find unexpected Roman inscription from the eve of
Bar-Kochba Revolt,” Haaretz (November 30, 2016). Retrieved from
http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193; Ilan Yavelberg and Ela Kehat,
“Ancient Inscription Permits, for the First Time, the Definite Identification of Gargilius
Antiques as the Roman Prefect during the Period before the Bar Kochba Revolt”
(University of Haifa, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.haifa.ac.il/index.php/en/home-
page3/2025.Yavelberg and Kehat 2016: n.p.
161
http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193; Ilan Yavelberg and Ela Kehat,
“Ancient Inscription Permits, for the First Time, the Definite Identification of Gargilius
Antiques as the Roman Prefect during the Period before the Bar Kochba Revolt”
(University of Haifa, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.haifa.ac.il/index.php/en/home-
page3/2025.Yavelberg and Kehat 2016: n.p.; Staff, “Rare find reveals previously
unknown Roman ruler in Judea,” The Times of Israel (December 1, 2016). Retrieved
from http://www.timesofisrael.com/rare-find-reveals-previously-unknown-roman-ruler-
in-judea/.
162
Ibid (Staff); Ilan Yavelberg and Ela Kehat, “Ancient Inscription Permits, for the
First Time, the Definite Identification of Gargilius Antiques as the Roman Prefect during
the Period before the Bar Kochba Revolt” (University of Haifa, 2016). Retrieved from
http://www.haifa.ac.il/index.php/en/home-page3/2025.
163
2: 2122 = Angelos Chaniotis et al., eds., Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (Leiden:
Brill, 1923), 37.1477; 41.1547; 45.1946; Ephraim Stern and Ilan Sharon, “Tel Dor, 1986:
Preliminary Report,” Israel Exploration Journal (1987) 37.4: 209; Ephraim Stern, Ilan
Sharon, and Ayelet Gilboa, “Tel Dor 1987, Preliminary Report,” Israel Exploration
Journal (1989), 39.1/2: 37.
164
Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,”
Israel Exploration Journal (1991), 41.4: 499 n.3.
165
Ibid, 1991: 497; 1991: 258; “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,”
Governors and Their Personnel on Latin Inscriptions from Caesarea Maritima, eds.
Hannah M. Cotton and Werner Eck (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and
Humanities, 2001), pp. 497–500.
166
2: 2122; 1989: 42; 1991: 260; 2001: 497.
167
First published in Hebrew in Qadmoniot (Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A
Dedicatory Inscription to the Ruler of Syria [Hebrew],” Qadmoniot [1989], 22.1/2: 42),
but also found listed in the Dor inspection file (1951), of the Israel Antiquities Authority
(IAA).
168
Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,”
Israel Exploration Journal (1991), pp. 258–66.
169
2: 2122: 844; Edward Dąbrowa, “M. Paccius Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius
Antiquus et son cursus honorum,” Nunc de suebis dicendum est: studia archaeologica et
historica Georgio Kolendo ab amicis et discipulis dicata, eds. A. Bursche and J. Kolendo
(Warsaw: Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1995), p. 99.
170
Ibid (Dąbrowa), pp. 99–102.
171
(Villejuif: Collège de France, 1973), p. 551.
172
L’Année épigraphique (1979), p. 62; cf. Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum
Latinarum. 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), 6:2384= 32526. Online database:
http://cil.bbaw.de/; Werner Eck and Christmann Eckhard, “Gargilius,” BrillPauly (2006),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e419020 (accessed December 2016).
173
Edward Dąbrowa, “M. Paccius Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius
Antiquus et son cursus honorum,” Nunc de suebis dicendum est: studia archaeologica et
historica Georgio Kolendo ab amicis et discipulis dicata, eds. A. Bursche and J. Kolendo
(Warsaw: Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1995), pp. 99–102;
William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, and Steven T. Katz, eds., The Cambridge
History of Judaism: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Vol. 4. (Cambridge University
Press, 1984), p. 101.
174
Georges Lafaye, René Cagnat, J. Toutain, and Victor Henry, eds., Inscriptiones
Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes: Asia, vol. 4, nos. 1–1764 (Paris: Leroux,
1901/1927), 4.848; Werner Eck, “Jahres-und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen
Statthalter” von 69/70 bis 138/139, 1 Teil. Chiron (1982), 12: 361; 2 Teil. Chiron (1983),
13: 148–176.
175
Collège de France, 1991), p. 1576; Walter Ameling et al., eds., Corpus Inscriptionum
Iudaeae/Palaestinae: Caesarea and the Middle Coast, vol. 2, nos. 1121–2160. 7 vols.
(Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011), 2:844; Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A
Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,” Israel Exploration Journal (1991), pp.
258–66; “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,” Governors and Their
Personnel on Latin Inscriptions from Caesarea Maritima, eds. Hannah M. Cotton and
Werner Eck (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 2001), pp. 497–
500.
176
http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193; Staff, “Rare find reveals
previously unknown Roman ruler in Judea,” The Times of Israel (December 1, 2016).
Retrieved from http://www.timesofisrael.com/rare-find-reveals-previously-unknown-
roman-ruler-in-judea/.
177
L’Année épigraphique (1954), p. 63.
178
The name of Quintus Gargilius Antiquus (Tiberius Claudius Quartinus Gaius
Oppius Severus Gaius Herennius Caecilianus Marcius Julius Clarus Publius Cassius
Clarus Dexter), is mentioned in an inscription from AD 138 AD (Theodor Mommsen,
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 20 vols. [Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974], 8.23246; Brent D.
Shaw, “Rural markets in North Africa and the political economy of the Roman Empire,”
Antiquités Africaines [1981], 54 n. 1). Permission was granted to the owner of an estate in
southern Numidia, an area which had been settled by rebellious Musulamians during the
reign of Tiberius (AD 14–37). The limestone inscription fragments were found at
Henschir Begâr (ancient Casae) in Tunisia, Africa in 1860 and in 1873. A portion of the
inscription translated as:
Quintus Gargilius Antiquus, son of Quintus, of the tribe Quirina, Tiberius Claudius
Quartinus, son of Tiberius, of the tribe Palatina, Gaius Oppius Severus, son of Gaius, of
the tribe Velina, Gaius Herennius Caecilianus, son of Gaius, of the tribe Palatina,
Marcius Julius Clarus, son of Marcus, of the tribe Quirina, Publius Cassius Clarus
Dexter, the quaestor, son of Publius, and Publius Nonius Macrinus, the quaestor, son of
Marcus, of the tribe Oufentina, assisted in drafting the decree (Paul Robinson Coleman-
Norton, Allan Chester Johnson, and Frank Card Bourne, Ancient Roman Statutes, eds. C.
Pharr [Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 2009], 207 no. 250.3).
An inscription found in the theater in Thugga (Dougga) in the province of Africa
proconsularis mentions the name of M. Paccius Silvanus Coredius Gallus L. Pullaienus
Gargilius Antiquus (Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 20 vols.
[Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974], 8.26579 = L’Année épigraphique, ed. R. Cagna [Villejuif:
Collège de France, 1893], p. 100; see Fig. 11; cf. L’Année épigraphique [1951], p. 75;
Giorgio Bejor, “Documentazione epigrafica di complessi statuarii nell’Africa romana:
alcuni esempi,” L’Africa romana: atti del 4. Convegno di studio, 12–14 dicembre 1986,
Sassari [Italia]. eds. A. Mastino [Sassari: Università degli studi di Sassari, 1987], p. 103,
Figure 1, 2; Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of
Syria,” Israel Exploration Journal [1991], p. 262; Bonello Lai Marcella, “La gens
Pullaiena,” Uchi Maius 1: Scavi e ricerche epigrafiche in Tunisia, eds. M. Khanoussi and
A. Mastino [Sassari: Editrice Democratica Sarda, 1997], 265 mit A. 112). The new 2016
inscription lacks the L. Pullaienus element of the latter, and the African location indicates
that is the name of his son.
179
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter,
1974), 8.23246; Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, “A Dedication from Dor to a
Governor of Syria,” Israel Exploration Journal (1991), 500 no. 41; Werner Eck, and
Christmann Eckhard, “Gargilius,” BrillPauly (2006), http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-
9347_bnp_e419020 (accessed December 2016); Paul Robinson Coleman-Norton, Allan
Chester Johnson, and Frank Card Bourne, Ancient Roman Statutes, eds. C. Pharr (Austin,
Tex.: University of Texas Press, 2009), 207 no. 250.3.
180
The son of M. Paccius Silvanus Coredius Gallus L. Pullaienus Gargilius Antiquus
(AD 160) is believed to be L. Pullaienus G. Antiquus (AD 190–192; Elimar Klebs, Paul
von Rohden, and Hermann Dessau, Prosopographia imperii Romani, 3 vols. Georgivm
Reimervm [1933], G 80). He was a Roman aristocrat who became a consul toward the
end of the reign of emperor Commodus (AD 180–192) and participated in the Secular
Games of AD 204 (Werner Eck and Christmann Eckhard, “Gargilius,” BrillPauly [2006],
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e419020 [accessed December 2016]).
181
Elimar Klebs, Paul von Rohden, and Hermann Dessau, Prosopographia imperii
Romani, 3 vols. Georgivm Reimervm (1933), G 79; Theodor Mommsen, Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum. 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), 2:844.
182
Géza Alföldy, “Der Senator Q. Gargilius Macer Aufidianus und seine Verwandten,”
Chiron (1978), 8: 361–76; Hilmar Schmuck, Biographischer Index der Antike /
Biographical Index of the Classical World. 3 Vols. (Leiden: De Gruyter Saur, 2001),
2:389.
183
(Villejuif: Collège de France, 1973), p. 551; Ivan Varbanov, Greek Imperial Coins and
Their Values. 3 vols. (Bourgas: Adicom, 2007), p. 3283; Dov Gera and Hannah M.
Cotton, “A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria,” Israel Exploration Journal
(1991), p. 262.
184
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 20 vols. (Berlin: De Gruyter,
1974), 3.7394 = Hermann Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, 3 vols. in 5 parts
(Berlin, 1892–1916), p. 1093; Mommsen, 8.26579; Werner Eck and Christmann Eckhard,
“Gargilius,” BrillPauly (2006), http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e419020
(accessed December 2016); Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: Caesarea and
the Middle Coast, vol. 2, nos. 1121–2160. 7 vols. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011),
2:844.
185
Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry, and Pere Pau Ripollés Alegre, eds. Roman
Provincial Coinage. 9 vols. (London, UK: British Museum Press, 2003), 4.10611;
4.8755; Ivan Varbanov, Greek Imperial Coins and Their Values. 3 vols. (Bourgas:
Adicom, 2007), p. 3283.
186
Provincial Coinage. 9 vols. (London, UK: British Museum Press, 2003), 4.8663.
187
Ivan Varbanov, Greek Imperial Coins and Their Values. 3 vols. (Bourgas: Adicom,
2007), p. 690 = CIG 673.
188
Provincial Coinage. 9 vols. (London, UK: British Museum Press, 2003), 4.4555.
189
Ibid, 4.8755.
190
Arthur Stein, Römische Reichsbeamte der Provinz Thracia (Sarajevo, 1920), pp.
24–27; Bengt E. Thomasson 2009, Laterculi Praesidum. Vol. 1 (Londongatan: Göteborg,
2009), 65; 22:028.
191
Staff, “Rare find reveals previously unknown Roman ruler in Judea,” The Times of
Israel (December 1, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.timesofisrael.com/rare-find-
reveals-previously-unknown-roman-ruler-in-judea/.
192
Ibid.
193
Ibid.
194
L’Année épigraphique, ed. A. Merlin (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1963) p. 104.
195
Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl, “Syria unter Domitian und Hadrian: Neue
Diplome für die Auxiliartruppen der Provinz,” Chiron 36:
221–47.
196
2:844.
197
AD 135), eds. G. Vermes, F. Miller, and M. Black, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark,
1979), 1:542–52.
198
2:2122.
199
Ibid, 2:1227.
200
Ibid, 2:844; cf. Edward Dąbrowa, “M. Paccius Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus
Gargilius Antiquus et son cursus honorum,” Nunc de suebis dicendum est: studia
archaeologica et historica Georgio Kolendo ab amicis et discipulis dicata, eds. A.
Bursche and J. Kolendo (Warsaw: Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego,
1995), pp. 99–102.
201
Hanan Eshel, “Bar Kokhba Revolt,” The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism,
eds. John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010), p. 422.
202
Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Second
Jewish Revolt against Rome (New York, NY: Random House, 1971), p. 50; Emil
Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–AD 135),
eds. G. Vermes, F. Miller, and M. Black, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark, 1979),
1:542–52; E. Mary Smallwood, “Atticus, Legate of Judaea under Trajan,” The Journal of
Roman Studies (1962), 52.1/2: 131; Hannah M. Cotton, “Some Aspects of the Roman
Administration of Judaea/Syria-Palaestina,” Lokale Autonomie und römische Und
Ordnungsmacht in Den Kaiserzeitlichen Provinzen Vom 1. Bis 3. Jahrhundert, ed.
Werner Eck (München: Oldenbourg, 1999), pp. 428–66.
203
David Magie, trans. “Vita Hadriani,” Historia Augusta: Hadrian. Aelius. Antoninus
Pius. Marcus Aurelius. L. Verus. Avidius Cassius. Commodus. Pertinax. Didius Julianus.
Septimius Severus. Pescennius Niger. Clodius Albinus. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library
139 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1921), 14:2.
204
Hayim Ben-Sasson, ed., A History of the Jewish People (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1985), p. 334; Ariel Lewin, The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and
Palestine (Los Angeles, CA: Getty, 2005), p. 33.
205
Klaus Bringmann, Leonhard Burckhardt, and Bruno Bleckmann, “Tetrarches,
Tetrarchia.” BrillPauly, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1205430, 2006
(accessed December 2016); Cassius Dio, Roman History: Books 51–55. Trans. E. Cary
and H.B. Foster. Vol. 6, Loeb Classical Library 83 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1917), 69:12:1–2.
206
Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Second
Jewish Revolt against Rome (New York, NY: Random House, 1971), p. 129.
207
Classical Library 153 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926), 4.6.
208
Hanan Eshel, “Bar Kokhba Revolt,” The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism,
eds John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010), p. 421.
209
Collège de France, 1993), 2.1620.5–6; 1623; Barbara Burrell, “Two Inscribed Columns
from Caesarea Maritima,” Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 99: 288–89.
210
Collège de France, 1993), pp. 1621, 1624.
211
Kaiserzeitlichen Provinzen Vom 1. Bis 3. Jahrhundert, ed. Werner Eck (München:
212
L’Année épigraphique, ed. A. Merlin (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1963), no. 104;
Walter Ameling et al., eds., Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: Caesarea and
the Middle Coast, vol. 2, nos. 1121–2160. 7 vols. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p.
228, Fig. 1277.
213
Ya ʻakov Meshorer, Jewish Coins of the Second Temple Period (Tel Aviv, Israel:
Am Hassefer and Masada,1967), p. 333; David Hendin and Herbert Kreindler, Guide to
Biblical Coins. 5th ed. New York, NY: Amphora, 2010/1987), p. 659.
[Endnotes 214-218 were associated with illustrations not used in the final article due
to space considerations, but are included for interested researchers]
214
2: 2123, p. 845 = L’Année épigraphique, eds. J. Gagé, M. Le Glay, H.-G. Pflaum
and P. Wuilleumier (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1967), p. 525 = L’Année épigraphique
(1986), p. 693.
215
F.F. Bruce, “The Full Name of the Procurator Felix,” Journal for the Study of the
New Testament (1978), pp. 33–36.
216
Michael Avi-Yonah, “The Epitaph of T. Mucius Clemens,” Israel Exploration
Journal (1966), pp. 258–64.
217
Nikos Kokkinos, “A Fresh Look at the Gentilicium of Felix Procurator of
Judaea,” Latomus 49.1 (1990), pp. 126–141.
218
2: 2123, p. 845.
219
David Hendin and Herbert Kreindler, Guide to Biblical Coins. 5th ed. New York,
NY: Amphora, 2010/1987), p. 652.
220
Ibid, p. 653.
221
2: 2122, p. 443 = Angelos Chaniotis et al., eds., Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum
(Leiden: Brill, 1923), 33-1266.
222
Theodor Mommsen, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum. 20 vols. Berlin, De Gruyter.
Online database: http://cil.bbaw.de/, 1974, 8.26579 = L’Année épigraphique, ed. R.
Cagna (Villejuif: Collège de France, 1893), p. 100; cf. L’Année épigraphique (1951), p.
75.
223
Provincial Coinage. 9 vols. (London, UK: British Museum Press, 2003), 4.10611; Ivan
Varbanov, Greek Imperial Coins and Their Values. 3 vols. (Bourgas: Adicom, 2007),
3283; see also Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry, and Pere Pau Ripollés Alegre, eds.
Roman Provincial Coinage. 9 vols. (London, UK: British Museum Press, 2003), 4.8755
in the reign of Antonius Pius (AD 86–March 161).
224
Ivan Varbanov, Greek Imperial Coins and Their Values. 3 vols. (Bourgas: Adicom,
2007), p. 690.
225
Harold B. Mattingly, Edward Allen Sydenham, and Carol H.V. Sutherland, eds.,
The Roman Imperial Coinage. 13 vols. (London, UK: Spink & Son, 1923), 2.893; var.
225 (holding spear).
226
Leo Mildenberg, The Coinage of the Bar Kokhba War. Typos 6, ed. Patricia
Erhart Mottahedeh (Aarau-Frankfurt am Main-Salzburg: Suerländer, 1984), 85.12.

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By David E.

Graves administrator of Roman law in a province, and included

While it is true that governors were not permitted to execute

This is confirmed by Pilate, the governor of Judea (AD 26–

Life in Judea Before Governors

The Roman history of the province of Judea is rather David Graves

Roman Prefects of Judea (AD 6–41)

The term “prefect” (Lat. praefectus, “superior, head”),57 is

78 and Spade 30.3 (2017)

Governor Tiberius Claudius Felix (Acts 23–24; AD 52–60)

In the late spring of AD 58, a riot at Jerusalem’s Temple

Marcus Paccius Silvanus

IAA inv. no. 2008–1460=AE 2003: 1807; CIIP 2.226–27;

Bar Kokhba Revolt AD 132–135

Caius Quinctius Certus Publius

New Discovery About Gargilius Antiquus, AD 122–125?

In January of 2016, a new seven-line Greek dedicatory

What is Known About Gargilius Antiquus?

Gargilius Antiquus was a Roman politician in the first half

Werner Eck, based on the first inscription, convincingly

could not have obtained the governorship of Syria, which

The new inscription mentions “the province of Judea, as

by permission. changed shortly after 135.

83 and Spade 30.3 (2017)

This indicates that Gargilius Antiquus was the governor of

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