Professional Documents
Culture Documents
III-8 FarmStructures 1-31
III-8 FarmStructures 1-31
Review Materials
Farm Structures
Prepared by
Ronaldo B. Saludes
Assistant Professor I
Agrometeorology and Farm Structures Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines at Los Baños
College, Laguna
May 2009
(Reproduction with Permission Only)
PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 1
Farm Structures
Ronaldo B. Saludes
Assistant Professor I
Agrometeorology and Farm Structures Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines at Los Baños
College, Laguna
I. Introduction
Farm buildings and structures are important parts of an integrated rural development.
Knowledge on the design and construction of farm buildings are needed to have an
effective storage, especially for the new high yielding grain varieties which are more
susceptible to pests than the traditional types
Improved management and breeding programmes to increase animal production have
created a need for more appropriate animal housing.
To improve the standards of living for the rural population, it is necessary to provide
durable, comfortable and healthy homes, with clean water, sanitation facilities and
community infrastructure.
Farm Structures
PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 2
1. Tension members
slender structural members subjected to tensile stress ( e.g. tie rods, hangers)
2. Beams
structural member subjected to loads perpendicular to the long axis of the member
normally in horizontal position (e.g. floor joists, girders) but sometimes found in an inclined and
vertical position (e.g. rafters in roof and studs)
3. Compression members
Farm Structures
vertical members that resist axial compressive loads (e.g. columns)
4. Combined members
members subjected to combined effects of compression/tension and bending
(e.g. beam columns)
P
P P
(a) tension member (b) beam
P
P
P P
Assumptions
Stress is uniformly distributed over the area
Load is axial or perpendicular to the area
Types of Shear
P
Horizontal shear
(slides horizontally)
Vertical shear
(dropping down between supports)
Note: Horizontal shear failure on wood beams is very common because the shearing resistance of
wood is much less parallel to the grain than that of across the grain.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
A. WOOD
one of the most common construction materials
Qualities
strong material light in weight
durable with artistic and natural beauty
ease of fastening
Lumber Measurement
Note:
thickness and width of commercially available lumber is in inches while length is
in feet of even length
nominal sizes of 2”x 2” and lower are priced based on linear foot and not by
board foot
STRENGTH GROUP
CLASS V
(Low Strength)
Class I
(High Strength)
END USES
CLASS II
Heavy-duty construction where both strength and
(Moderately High Strength)
durability are required such as bridge, girders, rafters,
chords, purlins, balustrades, stairs, high-grade beams
Plywood
made up of 3,5,7 or more veneer slices laid one upon the other with grain of
each at right angles to those of the sheets above and below it
thickness varies from 3.2 mm, 4.7 mm, 12 mm, 20 mm with a width of 1.20 m
and length of 1.80 m to 2.40 m
Types of plywood
a. Softwood – most common for structural use
b.Hardwood – used for paneling and finishing where usually only one face is with
hardwood finish
c. Marine – for external use
B. CONCRETE
Qualities
a. durability c. strength in compression
b. hardness d. ease of forming into various shapes
Functions of Mortar
a. used to bond units together
b. seal the spaces between the units
c. tie steel reinforcement and anchor bolts into the wall
d. provide design of lines of color and shadows
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING
FULLER’S FORMULA
Let
C = no. of bags of cement per cubic meter of concrete work
S = volume of sand (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work
G = volume of gravel (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work
c , s , g = cement-sand-gravel ratio (relative amounts of solids by volume in a
mixture)
C = 55 / ( c + s + g)
S = 0.028 * C * s
G = 0.028 * C * g
Class A (1:2:4) - used for beams, slab columns, and for all members which are
subjected to bending stress
Class B (1:2.5:5) - used for all members not reinforced for bending stress
Class C (1:3:6) - used for footing not under water
C. MASONRY
Classification
a. Bearing – thickness ranges from 15 cm to 20 cm and are used to carry load aside
from its own weight
b. Non-bearing – thickness ranges from 7.5 cm to 10 cm and are intended for walls,
fences
20 cm
40 cm
D. ROOFING MATERIAL
Qualities
Reasonable cost
Availablitiy
Durability
Ease of installation and repair
1. Plain
widely used for roofing, gutter, flashing, ridge etc.
standard size of 90 cm wide by 2.4 m long
2. Corrugated
widely used for roofing and siding material
standard width of 80 cm with varying length of 1.5 m to 3.6 m at an interval
of 30 cm
Thickness
measured in terms of gauge number ranging from no. 14 to no. 30
( higher gauge no., the thinner the GI sheet)
a. Side lapping
20 – 30 cm
Purlin
Classification of loads based on the area over which they are applied
A. Vertical loads
1. Dead loads
include the weights of various structural members and materials permanently
attached to the structure (e.g. weight of roofing or floor covering, columns, beams,
girders, walls, windows, etc.)
estimated dead load of wood beams (uniformly distributed)
where
W weight of one truss, lbs
S bay (distance between adjacent trusses), ft
L span of truss, ft
2. Live loads
B. Lateral loads
include wind loads and seismic loads
WIND LOADS
occurs when structures block the flow of wind converting wind’s kinetic energy into
potential energy of pressure.
Basic formula
p = Ce Cq qs I
where
p design wind pressure
Ce combined height, exposure, and gust factor coefficient
Cq pressure coefficient
qs wind stagnation pressure
I importance factor
Methods of determining wind loads for primary lateral-force- resisting system (LFRS)
wind
wind
ward
ward
leeward leeward
0-5 m
kN/ m²
Cattle Tie stalls 3.4
Loose housing 3.9
Young stock (180 kg) 2.5
Sheep 1.5
Horses 4.9
Pigs (90 kg) Slatted floor 2.5
(180 kg) Slatted floor 3.2
Poultry Deep litter 1.9
Cages Variable
Repair shop (allowance) 3.5
Machinery storage 8
(allowance)
NAILED CONNECTIONS
Nail
penetration
a. Lateral resistance in side grain – nail is driven perpendicular to the grain of holding
member.
nails
side member
holding
P member
P
strongest type of nailed connection
b. Lateral resistance in end grain – nail is driven parallel to the grain of holding
member
P holding
member
The allowable design load for common nails and spikes driven into the side grain of
seasoned wood can be calculated using the formula:
P = KD1.5
where P allowable lateral load in pounds per nail at rated penetration
K a constant related to the density of the wood
D diameter of the nail
Rated penetration of wood species grouped according to density and other mechanical
properties:
For actual nail penetrations less than the rated values, the reduced allowable lateral load
is in proportion of the actual penetration to the rated penetration. No increase is allowed for
penetrations above the rated values.
Allowable lateral loads for nails driven into the end grain of wood are 2/3 those of side grain.
B. Withdrawal-Type Connections
1. Withdrawal from side grain – nail driven perpendicular to grain of holding member
P/2 P/2
P
holding member
nail
side member
2. Withdrawal from end grain – nail driven parallel to grain of holding member
nail
side member
P/2 P/2
holding member
inherently weak connection and is not permitted in the design (no allowable load)
Allowable withdrawal load for common wire nails and spikes driven into the side grain of
seasoned wood that will remain seasoned, or unseasoned wood that remained unseasoned in
service can be calculated from the formula:
P = 1380 G2.5D
where G specific gravity of wood based on oven dry weight and volume
D nail diameter in inces
P Allowable load in pounds per inch of penetration
The allowable withdrawal load for common wire nails driven into end grain is only one
half that obtained in side grain.
a. BENDING STRESS
Design Formula
b = M / S < ’b
where
b actual bending stress
’ b allowable bending stress
M maximum bending moment of beam
S section modulus of beam
b. HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRESS
Design Formula
V = 3/2(V/A) < ’V
where
V maximum horizontal shearing stress
V’ maximum horizontal shearing stress
V maximum design shear in the beam
A cross sectional area of the beam
c. DEFLECTION
deformation that accompanies bending
maximum deflection occurs at center span for simple beams
maximum deflection
max
Design formula
b. Concentrated loads
where
max maximum deflection of beam, m
w uniformly distributed load, N/m
P concentrated load, N
l span length, m
E modulus of elasticity of wood, N/m2
I moment of inertia of beam section, m4
Type of Member Member loaded with live load Member loaded with live
only load and dead load
d. BEARING STRESS
compressive stress perpendicular to grain of wood occurring at beam supports or
other members framed into the beam
P1
Column
beam
c c
beam support
P2
Design Formula
Design Formula
c = P / A < ’c
SR = le / r
SR = le / d
a. SHORT COLUMN
SR < 11
b. INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
11 < SR < k
k = 0.671 (E / ’’C )1/2
c. LONG COLUMN
k < SR < 50
Design Formula
t = P / An < ’t
b fc
kd/3
kd C
jd
h d
As = pbd
T
fs/n
the reinforced distribution of
section bending stress
Moment resistance of a rectangular concrete section
with tension reinforcing
C = ½(kd)(b)(fc) = ½ kfcbd
Using the compression force C, the moment resistance of the section may be expressed as
fc = (2 M) / (k j b d2)
The resisting moment may also be expressed in terms of the steel and the steel stress as
M = T jd = As fs jd
This may be used for the determination of the steel stress or finding the required area of steel
fs = M / (As jd)
As = M / (fs jd)
Balanced Design
A design for reinforced concrete beam that will cause the limiting stresses in the concrete
and steel bars to be reached simultaneously, causing them to fail at the same time.
balanced k = 1 / (1 + fs / n fc )
j = 1 - k/3
p = (fc k) / (2 fs)
The code limits the tensile steel percentage to 0.75 that of balanced design to
ensure under reinforced design of concrete beams. This condition will provide
ductile type of failure and will give warning to the user of the structure before failure
occurs.
STRUCTURAL FRAMES
2. Truss
A truss is a jointed frame that is used to support loads over a relatively long span. In
general, the loads are applied to the truss in a direction transverse to its length and the loads
are applied only at the joints.
Purlin Ridge
Roofing
Top chord
Panel
Rise
Eave overhang
Web members
Bottom chord
Span
Types of trusses
a. Howe c. Pratt e. Warren
b. Fink d. Shawver f. braced-rafter
3. Arch
This type is used where high rise and floor spaces free of obstruction are desired. Its
more frequent use on frames is to provide large hay-storage space over dairy stables and
storage space in machinery sheds and similar structures.
In two-story construction, the arch may be supported on the wall plate at the second
floor level, or it may be continuous from crown to foundation wall with the arch ribs serving
as studding in the sidewalls.
4. Rigid Frame
This is widely used in bridge construction and industrial buildings. The distinguishing
characteristics of the rigid frame are:
a. The joints are fixed, or rigid, rather than hinged
b. The basic geometric figure is not necessarily a triangle but can be almost any shape
c. Some or all of the members carry both bending and axial loads
5. Cylindrical tanks
This is especially adaptable to structures in which the walls are subjected to outward
lateral pressure due to contained liquid or semi-liquid material. The silo, water tanks and the
circular grain bin are the common examples.
A. FOUNDATION
Foundation is defined as a base upon which a building rests and through which the
loads on the building are transmitted to the ground. It is a common practice to place
footings under foundation of buildings in order to enlarge the bearing area between the
foundation and the ground, thus distributing the load over a larger area and reducing the
unit pressure. The combination of foundation and footing keeps the building level and
plumb and reduces settling to a minimum.
Types of Foundation
1. Continuous wall foundation - may be used
either as basement walls or as curtain walls
2. Pier foundation - often used to support the
timber frames of light buildings with no suspended floors
3. Pad and pole foundation - consists of small
concrete pads poured in the bottom of holes which support pressure treated poles
4. Floating slab or raft foundation - consists of
a poured concrete floor in which the outer edges are thickened to 20 to 30cm and
reinforced
5. Pier and ground level beam foundation -
commonly used where extensive filling has been necessary and the foundation
would have to be very deep in order to reach undisturbed soil
6. Piles - are long columns that are driven into
soft ground where they support their load by friction with the soil rather than by a
firm layer at their lower end
Footing Proportion
a
a
2a 1½ a
B. WALLS
Good quality walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire resistance,
thermal insulation and sound insulation.
a. Masonry wall - wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay or
concrete blocks, or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some
form of mortar
b. Monolithic wall - wall is built of a material placed in forms during the construction.
Examples are traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall. The earth walls are
inexpensive and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from rain by a
rendering or wide roof overhangs.
In dwelling houses with ceilings, wall height of 2.4m is suitable. Low roofs or ceilings in a
house create a depressing atmosphere and tend to make the rooms warmer in hot
weather.
C. FLOORS
For farm buildings, including homes, simple floors offering hard, durable surfaces at
ground level grade are probably adequate for the vast majority of situations. Floors may be
built at ground level, i.e. on the soil within the building, in which case they are called solid
or grade floors, or they may be supported on joists and beams in which case they are
called suspended or above-grade floors. The finished level of a solid floor should be at
least 150mm above outside ground level as a protection against flooding. The topsoil
should be removed and replaced with coarse material before the actual floor slab is
constructed.
D. ROOFS
A roof is an essential part of any building in that it provides the necessary protection
from rain, sun, wind, heat and cold. The integrity of the roof is important for the structure
of the building itself as well as the occupants and the goods stored within the building.
The roof structure must be designed to withstand the dead load imposed by the
roofing and framing as well as the forces of wind and in some areas, snow or drifting dust.
The roofing must be leak proof, durable and perhaps satisfy other requirements such as
being fire resistant, a good thermal insulator or high in thermal capacity.
Flat Roof – used only to a limited extent on farm buildings. Maintenance is high since the
roof has little slope for water to run off
Shed Roof – the simplest and easiest to construct and maintain. It is common sight on
single story poultry houses, open sheds for cattle or swine, and similar buildings
Gable Roof – one of the most universally used roof shapes on farm buildings. This type of
roof is commonly seen on two-story poultry houses, dairy barns, and single-story buildings
that are too wide for shed type of roof.
Hip Roof – more desirable from an architectural standpoint than from utilitarian value. It
requires more complicated framing than the gable roof and is consequently more expensive
to build. One of the most common uses of hip roof is on garages.
Monitor and Semi-Monitor Roof – special types of roof with additional height to give
more room for storage. The extension above the main roof was often used for ventilation,
and windows in the vertical walls give additional light.
Gambrel Roof – used to gain more space for the overhead storage of hay and feed. This
roof is common sight on two-story dairy barns and other livestock shelters where overhead
storage of hay is desired.
Arch Roof – also known as gothic roof. Prefabrication of laminated arched rafters has
made the construction of arched roofs simple and easy. Its uses are the same as for the
gambrel roof.
Doors are essential in buildings to provide security and protection from the elements
while allowing easy and convenient entry and exit. Farm buildings may be served
adequately with unframed board doors, while homes will need more attractive, well-framed
designs that close tightly enough to keep out dust and rain and allow only minimal air
leakage. Large openings can be better served by rolling doors rather than the side-hinged
type.
Windows provide light and ventilation in a building an allow those within to view the
surrounding landscape and observe the activities in the farmyard. In sitting rooms and
workrooms where good light and ventilation are important, the window area should be 5 to
10% of the floor area of the room. Windows sometimes need to be shaded to reduce heat
radiation or closed to keep out driven rain or dust. In addition screening may be needed
for protection from insects. Shutters, either top-or side hinged, are commonly used to
provide the needed protection. Side-hung glazed windows, fly screens and glass or timber
louvers are also used.
LIVESTOCK HOUSING
Sanitary condition
A. POULTRY HOUSING
The objective in poultry housing is to keep the fowls comfortable, so as to promote
health, get maximum production and conserve feed and the energy generated by the birds. A
properly designed poultry housing must also aim at removing the excess moisture the birds
breathe out from the lungs. If the air in the house is loaded with moisture, serious trouble
from disease may develop. Proper ventilation is the remedy for this but poultry houses
should be not exposed to strong winds. Draft in poultry houses interferes with the bird's
comfort and seriously affects their health. To avoid draft a site is selected where the house
will be protected from the prevailing winds thus, ideal windbreak is necessary. Drainage is
another important consideration in selecting a site because it causes undesirable dampness.
Location near a jungle should be avoided. Light in a poultry house is essential for the well
being of the birds. Plenty of sunlight, well distributed through out the house is a good source
of their cheerfulness.
FARMSTEAD PLANNING
The farmstead forms the nucleus of the farm operation where a wide range of farming
activities takes place. It normally includes the dwelling, animal shelters, storage structures,
equipment shed, workshop and other structures. A carefully organized farmstead plan should
provide an arrangement of buildings and facilities that allows adequate space for convenient
and efficient operation of all activities, while at the same time protecting the environment
from such undesirable effects of odor, dust, noise, flies and heavy traffic.
Types of Farmstead
1. Concentrated In this type, all structures are in close proximity, in many instances, will
all or most of the buildings joined together or connected by sheds or covered walks.
3. Suburban type It consists primarily of residence and small service buildings, where the
essential farm operations area carried on with hired services.
4. Distributed type This is the most common type of farmstead where buildings are
located sufficiently far apart to allow adequate room for road drives and yards,
reasonable fire safety, and sanitation, yet sufficiently close together to be effective
for farm operation.
Zone Planning
Zone planning can be a useful tool, but it is most effective when planning a new
farmstead. The farmstead is divided into different zones of 10 to 30 meters wide by
concentric circles as shown below.
Zone I, at the center of the farmstead, is for family living, and should be protected
from odor, dust, flies, etc. In Zone II, clean, dry and quiet activities, such as implement
sheds and small storage structures can be placed. In Zone III, larger grain storage, feed
storage and small animals are placed, whereas large-scale animal production is in Zone IV
and beyond.
The advantage of zone planning is that it provides space for present farm operations,
future expansion and a good living environment.
Factors to be considered in Farmstead Planning
Good drainage, both surface and sub-surface, provides a dry farm courtyard and a stable
foundation for buildings. A gentle slope across the site facilitates drainage, but a
pronounced slope may make it difficult to site larger structures without undertaking
extensive earth-moving work
Adequate space should be provided to allow for maneuvering vehicles around the
buildings and for future expansion of the farm operation
Air movement is essential for cross ventilation, but excessive wind can damage buildings.
Since wind will carry odors and noise, livestock buildings should be placed downwind
from the family living area and neighboring homes. Undesirable winds can be diverted
and reduced by hedges and trees or fences with open construction
Solar radiation may adversely affect the environment within buildings. An orientation
close to an east-west axis is generally recommended in the tropics
An adequate supply of clean water is essential on any farm. When planning buildings for
an expanded livestock production, the volume of the water supply must be assessed.
Where applicable, the supply pipe in a good building layout will be as short as possible
Similarly, the length of electric, gas and telephone lines should be kept to a minimum
The safety of people and animals from fire and accident hazards should be part of the
planning considerations. Children especially, must be protected from the many dangers
at a farmstead
It is often desirable to arrange for some privacy in the family living area by screening off
the garden, outdoor meeting-resting places, verandah and play area
Measures should be taken for security from theft and vandalism. This includes an
arrangement of buildings so that the farm court and the access driveway can be
observed at all times, especially from the house
A neat and attractive farmstead is desirable and much can be achieved toward this end,
at low cost, if the appearance is considered in the planning, and effective landscaping is
utilized.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Admixture - a material other than portland cement aggregate, or water added to concrete to
modify its properties.
Age Hardening (precipitation hardening) - occurs in some metals, notably certain stainless
steel, aluminum, and copper alloys, at ambient temperature after solution heat treatment,
the process being one of a constituent precipitating from solid solution.
Aggregate - inert material, which is mixed with portland cement and water to produce concrete.
Allowable Stress - it is the maximum unit stress considered desirable for design calculations,
considering the characteristics of the material, the type of structure, the degree of exposure
to deterioration, etc.
Alloy - is a substance with metallic properties composed of two or more elements of which at
least one is a metal.
Anisotropy - is the characteristics of exhibiting different properties when tested in different
directions (as tensile strength "with the grain" or "across the grain)
Annealing - is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usually done to soften it.
Baluster- a small post supporting the handrail or a coping
Balustrade- a series or row of balusters joined by a handrail or a coping as the parapet of a
balcony
Barn - an enclosed covered building for the keeping and care of livestock and/or storage of
roughage.
Beam - a structural member that is reasonably long compared with its lateral dimensions when
suitably supported, and subjected to transverse forces so applied as to induce bending of the
member in an axial plane.
Bearing Stress - is a contact pressure between separate bodies.
Bending Moment - is the tendency or a measure of tendency, to produce motion, especially
around a point or an axis. It is a measure of the stresses acting on the beam.
Bridging - process of connecting one joint to another.
Brittleness - is the tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation.
Building - shelter; a place of equipment that is an aid to the conservation and better use of the
farm resources.
Centroid - is a point that corresponds to the center of gravity of a very thin homogenous plate
of the same area and shape.
Charpy Test - is one which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by
the impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a
measure of the impact strength of the metal.
Circular stair- staircase with steps winding in a circle or cylinder
Cocktail stair- a winding stair case
Cold Shortness - is brittleness of metal at ordinary or low temperature.
Cold Working - is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.
Column - an element used primarily to support axial compressive loads and with a height at
least three times its least lateral dimension.
Compressive Stress - tend to press or squeeze an object.
Concrete - a mixture of portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water.
Damping Capacity - is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a process
of absorbing kinetic energy of vibration owing to hysterisis.
Dead Load - is the weight of the structure itself.
Decarburization - is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel occurring during hot rolling,
forging, and heat treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the carbon.
Deformation - the amount of change in the materials shape.
Ductility - is that property that permits permanent deformation before fracture in tension
Durability - materials are considered durable if they retain their strength and other properties
over a considerable period of time.
Elastic Limit - is the limit of stress within which deformation disappears after the stress is
removed Modules - means small measure.
Elasticity - the ability of a material to return to its original shape after the removal of stresses.
Embrittlement - involves the loss of ductility because of a physical or chemical change of the
material.
Factor of Safety - denotes the ratio between the maximum load that a member can carry and
the design load; is the ratio of the ultimate strength to the working stress - common factor of
safety for wood is 4 and for steel is 2.
Farmstead - is a limited area within the farm, occupied by building corrals, fences, and gates,
and used generally as center of operations for farm work and activities.
Flight of stairs – series of steps leading from one landing to another
Floor joist – structural member of a building that carries the wood flooring
Form- temporary boarding, sheating or pan used to produce the desired shape and size of
concrete
Free Carbon - is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron that is in the form of graphite or
temper carbon.
Girder- structural member of a building that carries the floor joist and the flooring
Handrail- a rail running parallel with the inclination of the stairs that holds the balusters
Hard Drawn - is a temper produced in a wire, rod, or tube by cold drawing.
Hardening - is the heating of certain steel above the transformation range and then quenching,
for the purpose of increasing the hardness.
Hardness - resistance to indention, usually measured by some form of indention test, is the
characteristics of a material most frequently associated with hardness.
Heat Treatment - is an operation or combination of operations involving the heating and
cooling of metal or an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of altering the properties of the
material.
Homogenous Materials - have the same structure at all points. (Steel consists of randomly
oriented iron crystals of different sizes, with other matter in between and is thus not
homogenous).
Impulsive Load - a suddenly applied load.
Isotropic - materials have the same properties in all directions. (Wood has a grain; rolled steel
is not isotropic).
Izod Test - is a test which a specimen, support at one end as a cantilever beam, is broken by
the impact of falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a measure
of the impact strength.
Joints - is the entire assemblage at the intersections of the members.
Landing – horizontal floor as resting place in a flight
Lateral ties – lateral reinforcements of vertical bars in a tied column
Live Load - is the weight carried by the structure, on the weight that is super imposed on it.
Loose Housing - a management system for dairy cattle wherein the adult animals are given
access to a feeding area, a resting area, and an adjoining open lot.
Malleability - is the material's susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling or hammering.
The more malleable the metal, the thinner the sheet into which ft can be formed.
Mechanical Anchorage - any mechanical device capable of developing the strength of the
reinforcement without damage to the concrete. It is the means by which the pre-stress force
is permanently transferred to the concrete.
Modulus of Elasticity - is the ratio of the increment of unit stress to increment of unit
deformation. It is a measure of stiffness of materials.
Modulus of Rupture - is the measure of the resistance of materials to bending stresses.
Moment of Inertia - is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying all the infinitely small
areas by the square of their distances to the neutral axis
Neutral Surface - is a horizontal plane separating the compressive and tensile stresses.
Panel - the portion of a truss that occurs between two adjacent joints of the upper chord.
Pedestal - an upright compression member having a ratio of unsupported height to average
least lateral dimension of 3 or less.
Pitch - the height or rise of a truss divided by the span.
Plastic Bending - bending of a material beyond the elastic range of strain.
Stress Relieving - is the heating of a metal body to a suitable temperature and holding it at
that temperature for a suitable time for the purpose of reducing interval residual stress.
Stringer – inclined plane that supports or holds the tread and the riser of a stair
Temper - is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal treatment:
for example, annealed temper (soft), hard temper, spring temper.
Tensile Stresses - are those tending to pull an object in two, or to stretch it.
Toughness - the term toughness applies to the capacity of a material to resist fracture under
impact loading.
Tread – horizontal part of a step including the nosing
Truss - is a jointed frame, used to support loads over a relatively long span. Bays - these are the
spaces between trusses.
Ultimate Strength - it is the unit stress occurring when a material is carrying its maximum
load; the amount of stress which produces failure by increasing the unit stress until breakage
or rupture occurs.
Uniformly Distributed Load - is a load of uniform magnitude, for each unit of length, that
extends, over a portion or the entire length of a member.
Unit Stress - is the internal resistance per unit area that results from an external force
Vertical Shear - the tendency for one part of a beam to move vertically with respect to an
adjacent part is called.
Wall - a vertical element used primarily to enclose or separate spaces.
Wind Break- several rows of trees of various sizes to reduce air velocities and dust.
Workability - this characteristic of a material measures the ease with which it can be worked or
shaped.
Working Stress/Allowable Unit Stress - the highest unit stress to which a material should be
subject for a specific purpose.
Wrought Alloy Steel - is steel that contains significant quantities of recognized alloying metals,
the most common being aluminum, chromium, etc.
Conversion Factors
Density
1 lb/ft3 = 0.157 kN/m3
IV. References