Dilatant

A dilatant (/daɪˈleɪtənt/, /dɪ-/) (also termed shear thickening) material is one in which viscosity
increases with the rate of shear strain. Such a shear thickening fluid, also known by the initialism STF, is
an example of a non-Newtonian fluid. This behaviour is usually not observed in pure materials, but can
occur in suspensions.

A dilatant is a non-Newtonian fluid where the shear viscosity

increases with applied shear stress. This behavior is only one type
of deviation from Newton’s Law, and it is controlled by such
factors as particle size, shape, and distribution. The properties of
these suspensions depend on Hamaker theory and Van der Waals
forces and can be stabilized electrostatically or sterically. Shear
thickening behavior occurs when a colloidal suspension
transitions from a stable state to a state of flocculation. A large
portion of the properties of these systems are due to the surface
chemistry of particles in dispersion, known as colloids.

This can readily be seen with a mixture of cornstarch and water[1]

(sometimes called oobleck), which acts in counterintuitive ways
when struck or thrown against a surface. Sand that is completely soaked with water also behaves as a
dilatant material. This is the reason why when walking on wet sand, a dry area appears directly
underfoot.[2]

Rheopecty is a similar property in which viscosity increases with cumulative stress or agitation over
time. The opposite of a dilatant material is a pseudoplastic.

Contents
Definitions
Stabilized suspensions
Electrostatically stabilized suspensions
Sterically stabilized suspensions
Theories behind shear thickening behavior
Order to disorder transition
Hydroclustering
Examples
Corn starch and water (oobleck)
Silica and polyethylene glycol
Applications
Traction control
Body armor
See also
References
 External links

Definitions
There are two types of deviation from Newton's Law that are observed in real systems. The most
common deviation is shear thinning behavior, where the viscosity of the system decreases as the shear
rate is increased. The second deviation is shear thickening behavior where, as the shear rate is increased,
the viscosity of the system also increases. This behavior is observed because the system crystallizes
under stress and behaves more like a solid than a solution.[3] Thus, the viscosity of a shear-thickening
fluid is dependent on the shear rate. The presence of suspended particles often affects the viscosity of a
solution. In fact, with the right particles, even a Newtonian fluid can exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. An
example of this is cornstarch in water and is included in the Examples section below.

The parameters that control shear thickening behavior are: particle size and particle size distribution,
particle volume fraction, particle shape, particle-particle interaction, continuous phase viscosity, and the
type, rate, and time of deformation. In addition to these parameters, all shear thickening fluids are
stabilized suspensions and have a volume fraction of solid that is relatively high.[4]

Viscosity of a solution as a function of shear rate is given via the Power Law equation,[5] where η is the
viscosity, K is a material-based constant, and γ̇ is the applied shear rate.

Dilatant behavior occurs when n is greater than 1.

Below is a table of viscosity values for some common materials.[6][7][8]

Material Viscosity (cP)

Benzene 0.60
Carbon Tetrachloride 0.88
Ethanol 1.06
Water 1 to 5
Mercury 1.55
Pentane 2.24
Blood 10
Anti-Freeze 14
Sulfuric Acid 27
Maple Syrup 150–200
Honey 2,000–3,000
Chocolate Syrup 10,000–25,000
Ketchup 50,000–70,000
Peanut Butter 150,000–250,000
Stabilized suspensions
A suspension is composed of a fine, particulate phase dispersed throughout a differing, heterogeneous
phase. Shear-thickening behavior is observed in systems with a solid, particulate phase dispersed within a
liquid phase. These solutions are different from a Colloid in that they are unstable; the solid particles in
dispersion are sufficiently large for sedimentation, causing them to eventually settle. Whereas the solids
dispersed within a colloid are smaller and will not settle. There are multiple methods for stabilizing
suspensions, including electrostatics and sterics.

In an unstable suspension, the dispersed, particulate phase will

come out of solution in response to forces acting upon the
particles, such as gravity or Hamaker attraction. The magnitude
of the effect these forces have on pulling the particulate phase out
of solution is proportional to the size of the particulates; for a
large particulate, the gravitational forces are greater than the
particle-particle interactions, whereas the opposite is true for
small particulates. Shear thickening behavior is typically
observed in suspensions of small, solid particulates, indicating
that the particle-particle Hamaker attraction is the dominant Energy of repulsion as a function of
force. Therefore, stabilizing a suspension is dependent upon particle separation
introducing a counteractive repulsive force.

Hamaker theory describes the attraction between bodies, such as particulates. It was realized that the
explanation of Van der Waals forces could be upscaled from explaining the interaction between two
molecules with induced dipoles to macro-scale bodies by summing all the intermolecular forces between
the bodies. Similar to Van der Waals forces, Hamaker theory describes the magnitude of the particle-
particle interaction as inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Therefore, many stabilized
suspensions incorporate a long-range repulsive force that is dominant over Hamaker attraction when the
interacting bodies are at a sufficient distance, effectively preventing the bodies from approaching one
another. However, at short distances, the Hamaker attraction dominates, causing the particulates to
coagulate and fall out of solution. Two common long-range forces used in stabilizing suspensions are
electrostatics and sterics.

Electrostatically stabilized suspensions

Suspensions of similarly charged particles dispersed in a liquid
electrolyte are stabilized through an effect described by the
Helmholtz double layer model. The model has two layers. The
first layer is the charged surface of the particle, which creates an
electrostatic field that affects the ions in the electrolyte. In
response, the ions create a diffuse layer of equal and opposite
charge, effectively rendering the surface charge neutral. However,
Particle in solution stabilized via the
the diffuse layer creates a potential surrounding the particle that electrostatic double-layer force
differs from the bulk electrolyte.
The diffuse layer serves as the long-range force for stabilization of the particles. When particles near one
another, the diffuse layer of one particle overlaps with that of the other particle, generating a repulsive
force. The following equation provides the energy between two colloids as a result of the Hamaker
interactions and electrostatic repulsion.

where:

V = energy between a pair of colloids,

R = radius of colloids,
−H = Hamaker constant between colloid and solvent,
h = distance between colloids,
C = surface ion concentration,
k = Boltzmann constant,
T = temperature in kelvins,
= surface excess,
= inverse Debye length.

Sterically stabilized suspensions

Different from electrostatics, sterically stabilized suspensions rely
on the physical interaction of polymer chains attached to the
surface of the particles to keep the suspension stabilized; the
adsorbed polymer chains act as a spacer to keep the suspended
particles separated at a sufficient distance to prevent the Hamaker
attraction from dominating and pulling the particles out of
suspension. The polymers are typically either grafted or adsorbed
onto the surface of the particle. With grafted polymers, the
backbone of the polymer chain is covalently bonded to the
particle surface. Whereas an adsorbed polymer is a copolymer
composed of lyophobic and lyophilic region, where the lyophobic
Particle in suspension stabilized via
region non-covalently adheres to the particle surface and the
steric hindrance.
lyophilic region forms the steric boundary or spacer.

Theories behind shear thickening behavior

Dilatancy in a colloid, or its ability to order in the presence of shear forces is dependent on the ratio of
interparticle forces. As long as interparticle forces such as Van der Waals forces dominate, the suspended
particles remain in ordered layers. However, once shear forces dominate, particles enter a state of
flocculation and are no longer held in suspension; they begin to behave like a solid. When the shear
forces are removed, the particles spread apart and once again form a stable suspension. This is opposite
of the shear thinning effect where the suspension is initially in the state of flocculation and becomes
stable when a stress is applied.[9]

Shear thickening behavior is highly dependent upon the volume fraction of solid particulate suspended
within the liquid. The higher the volume fraction, the less shear required to initiate the shear thickening
behavior. The shear rate at which the fluid transitions from a Newtonian flow to a shear thickening
behavior is known as the critical shear rate.
Order to disorder transition
When shearing a concentrated stabilized solution at a relatively low shear rate, the repulsive particle-
particle interactions keep the particles in an ordered, layered, equilibrium structure. However, at shear
rates elevated above the critical shear rate, the shear forces pushing the particles together overcome the
repulsive particle-particle interactions, forcing the particles out of their equilibrium positions. This leads
to a disordered structure, causing an increase in viscosity.[10]

The critical shear rate here is defined as the shear rate at which the shear forces pushing the particles
together are equivalent to the repulsive particle interactions.

Hydroclustering
When the particles of a stabilized suspension transition from an
immobile state to mobile state, small groupings of particles form
hydroclusters, increasing the viscosity. These hydroclusters are
composed of particles momentarily compressed together, forming
an irregular, rod-like chain of particles akin to a logjam or traffic
jam. In theory the particles have extremely small interparticle
gaps, rendering this momentary, transient hydrocluster as
incompressible. It is possible that additional hydroclusters will
Transient hydroclustering of particles
form through aggregation.[11]
in a solution.

Examples

Corn starch and water (oobleck)

Cornstarch is a common thickening agent used in cooking. It is also a very good example of a shear
thickening system. When a force is applied to a 1:1.25 mixture of water and cornstarch, the mixture acts
as a solid and resists the force.

Silica and polyethylene glycol

Silica nano-particles are dispersed in a solution of polyethylene glycol. The silica particles provide a high
strength material when flocculation occurs. This allows it to be used in applications such as liquid body
armor and brake pads.

Applications

Traction control
Dilatant materials have certain industrial uses due to their shear thickening behavior. For example, some
all wheel drive systems use a viscous coupling unit full of dilatant fluid to provide power transfer
between front and rear wheels. On high traction road surfacing, the relative motion between primary and
secondary drive wheels is the same, so the shear is low and little power is transferred. When the primary
drive wheels start to slip, the shear increases, causing the fluid to thicken. As the fluid thickens, the
torque transferred to the secondary drive wheels increases proportionally, until the maximum amount of
power possible in the fully thickened state is transferred. See also: limited slip differential, some types of
which operate on the same principle..... To the operator, this system is entirely passive, engaging all four
wheels to drive when needed, and dropping back to two wheel drive once the need has passed. This
system is generally used for on-road vehicles rather than off-road vehicles, since the maximum viscosity
of the dilatant fluid limits the amount of torque that can be passed across the coupling.

Body armor
Various corporate and government entities are researching the application of shear thickening fluids for
use as body armor. Such a system could allow the wearer flexibility for a normal range of movement, yet
provide rigidity to resist piercing by bullets, stabbing knife blows, and similar attacks. The principle is
similar to that of mail armor, though body armor using a dilatant would be much lighter. The dilatant
fluid would disperse the force of a sudden blow over a wider area of the user's body, reducing the blunt
force trauma. However, against slow attacks which would allow flow to occur, such as a slow but
forceful stab, the dilatant would not provide any additional protection.[12]

In one study, standard Kevlar fabric was compared to a composite armor of Kevlar and a proprietary
shear-thickening fluid. The results showed that the Kevlar/fluid combination performed better than the
pure-Kevlar material, despite having less than one-third the Kevlar thickness.[12]

Four examples of dilatant materials being used in personal protective equipment are Armourgel, d3o,
ArtiLage ( Artificial Cartilage foam) and 'Active Protection System', manufactured by Dow Corning.[13]

In 2002, researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and University of Delaware began
researching the use of liquid armor, or a shear-thickening fluid in body armor. Researchers demonstrated
that high-strength fabrics such as Kevlar can be made more bulletproof and stab-resistant when
impregnated with the fluid.[14][15] The goal of the “liquid armor” technology is to create a new material
that is low cost and lightweight while still offering equivalent or superior ballistic properties compared to
current Kevlar fabric.[16]

For their work on liquid armor, Dr. Eric Wetzel, an ARL mechanical engineer, and his team were
awarded the 2002 Paul A. Siple Award, the Army’s highest award for scientific achievement, at the Army
Science Conference.[17]

See also
Newtonian fluid
Non-Newtonian fluid
Bingham plastic
Colloid
Double layer (interfacial)
Rheology
DLVO theory
Hamaker theory
Suspension (chemistry)
Power-law fluid
Pseudoplastic
Silly Putty
 Thixotropy
Liquid Armor
d3o

References
1. Cornstarch science (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCHPo3EA7oE) on YouTube
2. Wet Sand Science (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_qRh5Y-hO8) on YouTube
3. Coleman, Paul C. Painter, Michael M. (1997). Fundamentals of polymer science : an
introductory text (2nd ed.). Lancaster, Pa.: Technomic. pp. 412–413. ISBN 978-1-56676-
559-6.
4. Galindo-Rosales, Francisco J.; Rubio-Hernández, Francisco J.; Velázquez-Navarro, José F.
(22 May 2009). "Shear-thickening behavior of Aerosil® R816 nanoparticles suspensions in
polar organic liquids". Rheologica Acta. 48 (6): 699–708. Bibcode:1974AcRhe..13.1253J (ht
tps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974AcRhe..13.1253J). doi:10.1007/s00397-009-0367-7 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00397-009-0367-7).
5. Cunningham, Neil. "Rheology School" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110725153939/http://
www.brookfieldengineering.com/education/rheology_papers_benchmark_products.asp).
Brookfield Engineering. Archived from the original (http://www.brookfieldengineering.com/ed
ucation/rheology_papers_benchmark_products.asp) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 4 June
2011.
6. Barnes, H.A.; Hutton, J.F.; Walters, K. (1989). An introduction to rheology (5. impr. ed.).
Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-87140-4.
7. Atkins, Peter (2010). Physical chemistry (9th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Co.
ISBN 978-1-4292-1812-2.
8. "Viscosity Chart" (http://www.research-equipment.com/viscosity%20chart.html). Research
Equipment Limited. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
9. Morrison, Ian; Sydney Ross (2002). Colloidal Dispersions: suspensions, emulsions, and
foams. Wiley-Interscience. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-471-17625-1.
10. Boersma, Willem H; Jozua Laven; Hans N Stein (1990). "Shear Thickening (Dilatancy) in
Concentrated Dispersions" (https://research.tue.nl/nl/publications/shear-thickening-dilatancy
-in-concentrated-dispersions(c567b9b2-ebca-4baa-9b24-eeaba11c1826).html). AIChE
Journal (Submitted manuscript). 36 (3): 321–332. doi:10.1002/aic.690360302 (https://doi.or
g/10.1002%2Faic.690360302).
11. Farr, R. S.; et al. (June 1997). "Kinetic theory of jamming in hard-sphere startup flows".
Physical Review E. 55 (6): 7206–7211. Bibcode:1997PhRvE..55.7203F (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/1997PhRvE..55.7203F). doi:10.1103/physreve.55.7203 (https://doi.org/10.1
103%2Fphysreve.55.7203).
12. Gill, Victoria (2010-07-09). "Liquid armour 'can stop bullets' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scie
nce_and_environment/10569761.stm). BBC News.
13. [1] (http://www.activeprotectionsystem.com) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010060
3043033/http://www.activeprotectionsystem.com/) June 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
14. "A Call to Armor: Army Explores Stronger, Lighter, Cheaper Protection" (https://www.ausa.or
g/articles/call-armor-army-explores-stronger-lighter-cheaper-protection). Association of the
United States Army. 2016-05-20. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
15. "Liquid Armor: University of Delaware's innovation" (https://www.bodyarmornews.com/liquid-
armor-university-delawares-innovation/). Body Armor News | BodyArmorNews.com. 2015-
03-10. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
16. "How the U.S. Army Uses Liquid Body Armor" (https://www.thebalancecareers.com/liquid-b
ody-armor-3331922). The Balance Careers. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
17. "Army Scientists, Engineers Develop Liquid Body Armor" (https://www.correctionsone.com/p
roducts/duty-gear/articles/1334941-Army-Scientists-Engineers-Develop-Liquid-Body-Armo
r/). CorrectionsOne. Retrieved 2018-07-11.

External links
Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) Fabric: Publications (https://web.archive.org/web/2006091701
4545/http://www.ccm.udel.edu/STF/pubs1.html)
Liquid Body Armor: Rheologists Apply Shear-Thickening Fluids to Protective Gear (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20070106214700/http://discoveriesandbreakthroughs.org/dbis/stories/2
006/15201.html)
Army Science: Robots, Liquid Armor and Virtual Reality (http://www.military.com/soldiertech/
0,14632,Soldiertech_Science,,00.html)
"Troops to test liquid armour" (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-2340507,00.htm
l)
A demonstration of the dilatant behaviour of a starch slurry (https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=1eVFONh_5OM) on YouTube
Liquid body armor tested in Poland (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VH3fmxYamqM) on
YouTube

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