Int J Fract (2007) 148:251–260
DOI 10.1007/s10704-008-9199-1
ORIGINAL PAPER
Cyclic loading and fracture mechanics of Ductal
concrete
Ehab Shaheen · Nigel G. Shrive
Received: 13 November 2007 / Accepted: 19 March 2008 / Published online: 8 April 2008
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) is a spe-
cial type of ultra high strength, superplasticized, silica
fume concrete, often fibre-reinforced, with improved
homogeneity because the traditional coarse and fine
aggregate are replaced by fine sand with particle sizes
in the range of 100–400 µm [4–16 thousandths of an
inch]. RPC properties are attractive because compres-
sive strengths up to 800 MPa [116 ksi] have been
recorded, but more typically in excess of 200 MPa
[29 ksi]. Flexural strengths up to 141 MPa [20.4 ksi]
and fracture energy of 40 kJ/m2 [kJ/in.2 ] have been
reported—the latter achieved when steel or stainless
steel fibres were included in the mix (Baché (1998) Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd international conference on superp-
lasticizers in concrete, Ottawa, pp 35–41; Coppola et al.
L’Industria Ital Cemento 707:112–125 (1996); Blais
and Couture PCI J 44(5):60–71 (1999); Richard and
Cheyrezy (1994) Proceedings of V. Mohan Malhotra
symposium on concrete technology: past, present, and
future (SP 144). American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
pp 507–518; Richard and Cheyrezy Cement Concrete
Res 25(7):1501–1511 (1995)). Ductal
, a commer-
cial RPC, has a compressive strength of approximately
E. Shaheen (B) · N. G. Shrive
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary,
2500 University Drive NW, Calgary,
AB, Canada T2N 1N4
e-mail: eshaheen@ucalgary.ca
N. G. Shrive
e-mail: ngshrive@ucalgary.ca
150 MPa [22 ksi] with metallic or organic fibres. All
tests described here were performed on 40 × 40 ×
160 mm [1.6 × 1.6 × 6.3 in.] (Width (b) × Depth (d) ×
length (L)) prisms with Poly Vinyl Alcohol
(PVA) fibres. Ductal
is a family of RPC and micro-
defect-free concretes containing micro silica, silica
fume, cement, Quartz sand, superplasticizer, and PVA
fibres. Mechanical and fracture parameters were inves-
tigated using four point bending. Low and high cyclic
fatigue tests were conducted in three stages, starting
from low to high strain cycles. Cracks generated by
cyclic fatigue tests were monitored periodically in order
to evaluate the rate of crack propagation. Cracks were
also investigated using a high magnification micro-
scope. Three pairs of specimens were tested, notched
and un-notched to evaluate fracture parameters. Four
point bending was used again because determination
of the J-Integral (JI C ) requires the application of pure
bending over a portion of the beam. Load was applied
at the third points over a span (S) of 120 mm [4.7 in.],
providing a span to depth ratio (S/d) of 3.0. Specimens
were notched using a 1 mm [0.04 in.] thick diamond
saw. The crack tip generated was circular and the crack
length (s) was approximately 10 mm [0.4 in.]. Tests on
the notched specimens included measurement of the
crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). Closed-
loop testing was developed using a feed back signal
from the (CMOD) clip gauge attached to the notched
specimens and from strain gauges attached to the un-
notched specimens. The weight (w) of each specimen
was obtained prior to testing. Fracture parameters were
123
252 E. Shaheen, N. G. Shrive

calculated from the load–deflection curves obtained properties. Concretes in the chemically bonded ceram-
from the notched and un-notched specimens. ics (CBC) category can be divided into macro-defect-
free (MDF) and densified-with-small-particles (DSP)
Keywords Fracture mechanics · Reactive powder concretes. DSP materials include both ultra high perfor-
concrete · Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres · mance concrete (UHPC) and reactive powder concrete
Silica fume · Cyclic loading · Crack mouth opening (RPC) (Baché 1998; Blais and Couture 1999; Coppola
displacement (CMOD) · Fatigue et al. 1996; Richard and Cheyrezy 1994). These rela-
tively new materials are characterised by an extremely
Nomenclature dense microstructure, compressive strengths in the range
ac Critical effective crack length of 150–250 MPa [22–36 ksi] (UHPC), or 200–840 MPa
AT otal Total area under the load–deflection (P –δ) [29–122 ksi] (RPC) and superior durability performance.
curve Reactive powder concrete is a special type of ultra
Ac Area up to peak load (Pe ) high strength superplasticized silica fume concrete,
CMOD Crack mouth opening displacement often fibre-reinforced, with improved homogeneity
CTODc Critical crack tip opening displacement because traditional coarse and fine aggregate are
d Beam depth replaced by very fine sand with particle sizes in
δc Deflection corresponding to maximum the range of 100–400 µm [0.004–0.016 in.] (Blais and
load (Pc ) Couture 1999; Richard and Cheyrezy 1994, 1995). Com-
δe Deflection corresponding to maximum pressive strengths up to 800 MPa [116 Ksi] have been
load (Pe ) in the elastic region reported, but more typically strengths are around 200
δ150 S/150 MPa [29 ksi]. Flexural strengths are typically in the
E Modulus of elasticity of beam 20–30 MPa [2.9–4.4 ksi] range, but 141 MPa [20.4 ksi]
EC Plain strain modulus of elasticity of the was achieved when stainless steel fibres were included
imaginary beam including the effective in the mix (Dugat et al. 1996). Fibres are added to
elastic crack overcome the limited tensile capacity of concrete. The
g(ac ) Geometry function for stress intensity fibres alter the mechanical characteristics of the mate-
factor rial, especially after the matrix has cracked, by bridg-
GI c Critical energy release rate for mode-I ing across the cracks and providing some post-cracking
cracks ductility and fracture toughness. The bridging reduces
GF Fracture energy the stress intensity at the crack tip, and higher energy is
JIc Critical J -Integral required for crack extension. The amount of additional
KIc Critical stress intensity factor for mode-I energy required for crack extension depends mainly on
cracks the physical and material properties of the fibres and
Pc Maximum load reached in the the matrix (Dubey and Banthia 1998).
load–deflection curve (P –δ) For many structures the live load varies in a repeti-
Pe Maximum load reached in the elastic tive manner: forces developed by wind, waves, trains,
region vehicular traffic and the like are cyclic in nature, often
σb Flexural toughness factor inducing vibration. Thus the design of structures which
S Beam span have a significant live to dead load ratio requires knowl-
TJCI Absolute toughness, measured by the area edge of the behaviour of the building materials under
under the P –δ curve to a deflection of repetitive loading.
Span/150 The roof canopies of the Shawnessy light rail transit
ν Poisson’s ratio station in Calgary have been constructed with Ductal
,
w Beam width a commercial RPC. The thin, light weight shell cano-
pies constructed from this new concrete were pre-cast
1 Introduction and assembled on site (Adeeb et al. 2005). The exper-
imental investigation described here was performed to
Innovative Portland cement concretes are categorised investigate the fatigue behaviour and fracture parame-
according to their mechanical, chemical, and physical ters of this new material.

123
Cyclic loading and fracture mechanics of Ductal
concrete
2 Research significance
Most recent design codes require that ultimate and ser-
viceability limit states be considered in the design of
concrete and masonry structures. Serviceability limit
states use cracking criteria and crack initiation is usu-
ally assumed to occur when the modulus of rupture or
cracking strength is exceeded (Reda Taha et al. 2002).
Only a small amount of research has been performed
on the mechanical properties and fracture mechanics
of RPC. The mechanical properties of Ductal
rein-
forced with 12 mm organic fibres (PVA) for corrosion
free concrete were therefore investigated. Cracks were
examined to assess fibre bridging, pull-out or fracture
during crack propagation. The modes of failure under
monotonic and cyclic fatigue loading were compared.
3 Experimental methods
The compressive strength of the Ductal
was deter-
mined from 3 (50 mm [2 in.] diameter × 100 mm [4 in.]
long) cylinders. Fracture toughness tests were
conducted to evaluate fracture parameters. Four point
bending tests were performed on three plain (un-
notched) and three notched 40 mm [1.6 in.] × 40 mm
[1.6 in.] × 160 mm [6.3 in.] (width × depth × length)
beams over a span (S) of 120 mm [4.3 in.]. The results
obtained were used to evaluate different fracture param-
eters. The method is that developed by Reda Taha et al.
(2002), with dimensions adjusted to suit the size of
specimens available. The span to depth ratio was 3.0
for all specimens. Cyclic fatigue tests were performed
on un-notched specimens of the same size, loaded in
the same way over the same span.
3.1 Fracture mechanics tests
The flexural performance of the fibre-reinforced con-
crete was evaluated in terms of fracture parameters
derived from areas under the load vs. mid-span deflec-
tion curves of beams loaded at their third points. Pairs
of notched and un-notched beams were tested in four
point bending. The test arrangement was as per Fig. 1
but with space underneath the specimen to accommo-
date a clip gauge to measure the crack mouth open-
ing displacement (CMOD) of the notched specimens
as shown in Fig. 2. Specimens were notched using a
253
LVDT
P/2 P/2
d a0
S/3
S
L
Fig. 1 Specimen dimension parameters for cyclic fatigue and
four-point test set-up
3 mm thick carbide saw blade. The crack tip was semi-
circular as shown in Fig. 3. Four point bending was used
as the determination of JI C requires the application of
zone of pure bending over the notched section of the
beam (Broek 1982; Shah et al. 1995; Rice et al. 1973).
Closed-loop testing was developed using a feed-
back signal from the CMOD clip gauge attached to
the notched specimens, or the strain gauge glued to
the bottom of the un-notched specimens at their mid-
span. The feedback provided stable, controlled failure
of the samples. The CMOD and the applied load were
recorded using a data acquisition system sampling at
5 Hz (5 readings/s). Loading was applied in displace-
ment control (0.01 mm/s [0.0004 in./s]) using an MTS
machine. The machine was programmed to change the
rate of loading from 0.01 mm/s [0.0004 in./s] to
0.00033 mm/s [13 µin./s] according to the CMOD feed-
back signal, to provide a controlled rate of increment
of CMOD. For the un-notched (control) specimens,
the mid-span tensile strain was the control parameter.
Three un-notched specimens were tested under mono-
tonic loading to obtain data for the fracture parameters.
Results from these specimens were also used to guide
the choice of fatigue strains to be applied to specimens
subject to fatigue loading.
3.2 Cyclic fatigue
The cyclic fatigue tests were conducted to measure the
number of cycles to failure (N) under different low,
medium and high strain ranges. The four strain ranges
were:
– 170 µε between 70 and 240 µε (155 (mean) ± 85
(amp)).
123
254 E. Shaheen, N. G. Shrive

Fig. 3 Crack geometry

recorded using a data acquisition system running at

5 Hz (5 readings/s).

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Physical and mechanical properties

4.1.1 Density, compressive strength and initial

modulus

The weight (w) of each specimen (notched and un-

Fig. 2 Four-Point bending test: (a) notched and (b) un-notched
(plain) specimens
notched) was obtained prior to testing. The densities of
the specimens were calculated and are given in Table 1.
The density ranged from 2,316 to 2,383 kg/m3 [145–
149 lb/ft3 ] with an average of 2,342 kg/m3 [146 lb/ft3 ].
These values are similar to those obtained for the carbon
fibre reinforced reactive powder concrete (CFRRPC)
density range reported by Shaheen and Shrive (2006)
(1,760–2,410 kg/m3 [110–150 lb/ft3 ]). The average
compressive strength of the three cylinders was 136
MPa [19.7 ksi]). The Young’s modulus determined for

– 150 µε between 100 and 250 µε (175 (mean) ±75 Table 1 Mass and density values (volume of 0.000256 m3
(amp)). (15.6 in.3 ))
– 320 µε between 80 and 400 µε (240 (mean) ± 160 Specimen Mass g (ounce) Density Kg/m3 (lb/ft3 )
(amp)).
– 470 µε between 80 and 550 µε (315 (mean) ± 235 UN1 601 (21.2) 2,348 (147)
UN2 599 (21.1) 2,340 (146)
(amp)). UN3 610 (21.5) 2,383 (149)
Closed-loop testing used a feed back signal from a N1 593 (20.9) 2,316 (145)
N2 599 (21.1) 2,340 (146)
strain gauge glued to the bottom centre of the test N3 595 (21.0) 2,324 (145)
prisms. The mid span strain and the applied load were

123
Cyclic loading and fracture mechanics of Ductal
concrete 255

Fig. 4 Load vs. deflection Deflection (in)

for notched and 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
non-notched specimens 20 2

18 1.8
Non-Notched
Notched
16 1.6

14 1.4

12 1.2

Load (Kips)
Load (kN)
10 1

8 0.8

6 0.6

4 0.4

2 0.2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Deflection (mm)

Table 2 Fracture toughness test values (40 mm [1.6 in.] × 40 mm [1.6 in.] × 160 mm [6.3 mm] beams with 10 mm [0.4 in.] notch depth
on tension side of beam)
Specimen Type Pc kN (Kip) δc mm (in.) Pe kN (Kip) δe mm (in.) Ac kN mm (Kip in.) ATotal kN mm (Kip in.)

UN-1 Un-notched 15.53 (3.5) 2.29 (0.09) 20.01 (4.5) 0.18 (0.007) 6.7 (0.06) 33.02 (0.3)
UN-2 Un-notched 17.83 (4) 2.03 (0.08) 20.61 (4.6) 0.11 (0.004) 7.2 (0.064) 31.41 (0.28)
UN-3 Un-notched 13.54 (3) 2.12 (0.08) 16.48 (3.7) 0.10 (0.004) 3.9 (0.035) 26.35 (0.23)
N-1 Notched 6.9 (1.6) 2.75 (0.11) 5.34 (1.2) 0.29 (0.011) 1.27 (0.011) 6.41 (0.06)
N-2 Notched 8.01 (1.8) 3 (0.12) 4.07 (0.9) 0.26 (0.01) 1.53 (0.014) 10.26 (0.09)
N-3 Notched 8.25 (1.9) 2.93 (0.12) 4.64 (1.0) 0.10 (0.004) 1.47 (0.013) 10.37 (0.09)

Ductal
was 53.3 GPa [7.7 × 106 psi], which is lower
than the Young’s modulus reported for CFRRPC (85.5
GPa [12.4×106 psi]) (Karihaloo and Nallathambi 1989;
Mindess et al. 1977; Johnston 1982; Cox and Marshall
1994), but higher than values reported for OPC concrete
and HPC (23 GPa and 30 GPa [3.3 and 4.3 × 106 psi],
respectively).
4.1.2 Fracture parameters of RPC
Sets of different parameters were derived from the
load–deflection curves obtained for the notched and
un-notched specimens (Fig. 4). These parameters
included the peak load (Pc ) and its corresponding
deflection (δc ), and the elastic load (Pe ) and its corre-
sponding deflection (δe ). Areas under each load–
displacement curve were calculated using trapezoidal
integration (Adams 1995). For the notched specimen,
the area under the curve up to the peak load was deter-
mined (AN ). For the un-notched specimen, the area
under the curve up to the magnitude of the peak load
of the notched specimen (AUN ) was first calculated,
then the total area under the whole un-notched load
deflection curve (AT otal ). The parameters derived from
the experimental results are summarized in Table 2.
The parameters in Table 2 were used to calculate sev-
eral fracture parameters using a MathCADTM program
(Reda Taha et al. 2002) (Table 3). The critical notch
depth (ac ) was calculated using the effective elastic
crack model proposed by Karihaloo and Nallathambi
(1989). The critical effective crack length (ac ) was
assumed to correspond to the peak load (Pc ). The model
also determines the modulus of elasticity (E) using the
elastic load (Pe ) within the proportional limit and the

123
256 E. Shaheen, N. G. Shrive

Table 3 Fracture parameters for Ductal
where S, beam span; w, beam width; d, beam depth;
Parameter Value δ150 , S/150. The fracture parameters calculated are
listed in Table 3. The flexural toughness factor calcu-
E GPa (×106 psi) 53.3 (7.7) lated for Ductal
was slightly higher than the frac-
Ec GPa (×106 psi) 66.6 (9.6) ture toughness factor (6.4 MPa) reported by Dubey and
ac mm (in.) 10 (0.39)
KI C MPa m1/2 (Ksi in.1/2 ) 7.1 (6.4) Banthia (1998) for high performance steel fibre rein-
GI C N m/ m2 (lbf in./in.2 ) 229 (1.8) forced concrete with high reactivity Metakaolin and
CTODc µm (µin.) 28.8 (1,133) silica fume. This could be related to the bond strength
JI C N m/ m2 (lbf in./in.2 ) 1.3 × 104 (74.3) between the fibre and the matrix, which increases with
GF N m (lbf in.) 4.7 × 103 (26.9)
TJ CI N m (Kip in.) 31.9
an increase in matrix strength, but the rate of de-bond-
σb MPa (Kip) 7.4 ing following the peak load is much higher for high
performance matrices.

4.1.3 Cyclic fatigue

corresponding deflection (δe ). The elastic limit is usu-
ally defined as a proportion of the peak load. All the
elastic loads chosen for analysis were about 65–75%
within the linear region of the load–deflection curve.
The LEFM parameters determined were the critical
stress intensity factor KI C and critical energy release
rate GI C , using Eqs. 1 and 2 (Broek 1982):
√
KI C = g(αc )σc π ac (1)


1 − ν2
GI C = KI2C (2)
E
where g(ac ), geometry function for stress intensity fac-
tor; ν, Poisson’s ratio. KI C was used to express the
fracture toughness of the concrete. KI C represents a
measure of how much and how far the local stress
field is altered (Broek 1982; Shrive and El-Rahaman
1985; Gopalaratnam and Shah 1987). Finally, the frac-
ture energy GF was calculated. The fracture energy
is calculated as the total energy absorbed to failure,
assuming that the energy absorption takes place only
in the fracture zone and all deformation outside this
zone is purely elastic (Giaccio et al. 1993; Baalbaki
et al. 1992).
Toughness analysis was also conducted based on the
JSCE method (Shaheen and Shrive 2006; JSCE-SF4
1994). JSCE flexural toughness parameters are based
on the total amount of energy required to deflect the
beam specimen by a specified amount. The absolute
toughness TJCI is defined as the area under the load–
deflection curve to a deflection of span/150. Another
parameter, called the flexural toughness factor σb , a
measure of the equivalent flexural strength, defined as:
TJCI · S
σb = (3)
δ150 · w · d 2
No failure by complete separation of cracked surfaces
was obtained for any of the specimens tested in
fatigue—that is, no specimen broke into two pieces.
The specimens certainly cracked and the cracks were
bridged by fibres incorporated in the mix. For cements
reinforced with ductile (rubbery) fibres, a strong inter-
face usually exists between the fibres and the cement
paste (Cox and Marshall 1994). For the specimen sub-
jected to 70–240 µε, the test was terminated after 6 mil-
lion cycles; for the specimen subjected to 80–400 µε,
after 3.6 million cycles; the specimen subjected to 100–
230 µε, after 4 million cycles; and finally, for the spec-
imen subjected to 80–550 µε, the test was terminated
after 6 million cycles.
Typical stress vs. load curves for cyclic fatigue speci-
mens are shown in Fig. 5. The cracks generated from the
cyclic fatigue were investigated using a high magnifica-
tion (300×) microscope. The high fatigue life was pro-
vided by the organic fibres incorporated in mix, which
bridged the cracks. Of the fibres that appeared to remain
bonded in the matrix, some appeared to be stretched
below their elastic limit, and were buckled across the
crack in the unloaded specimen (Fig. 6). One imagines
that these fibres had partially pulled out of the matrix
as the crack opened to the maximum tension of the
cyclic loading, and were now buckled across the shorter
crack width in the unloaded specimen. Other fibres
however, appeared to have experienced plastic defor-
mation, clearly being subject to a permanent change in
their cross-sectional area (similar to necking in ductile
metals) (Fig. 6). This seems feasible if these fibres did
not undergo any pull-out. Yet other fibres were bro-
ken (Fig. 6). Some fibres retained their geometry and
appeared straight with no signs of loading as can be

123
Cyclic loading and fracture mechanics of Ductal
concrete 257

Fig. 5 Stress–strain curve (u in)

(low cycle fatigue) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
20 3

18
2.5
16

14
2

Stress (MPa)
12

(Ksi)
10 1.5

8
1
6

4
0.5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Strain (ue)

Fig. 6 Fibre failure

Fibre break

Plastic
Deformation

Elastic
Deformation

seen in Fig. 7: these we assume had de-bonded and
pulled out at one end. Finally, some fibres split (Fig. 8),
which we attribute to shear in these fibres because of
their angle relative to the crack. In specimens subjected
to low cycle and medium cycle fatigue, fibre splitting
was observed and fibres with elastic and plastic defor-
mations. However, in the specimen subjected to the
high strain range (550 µε), all forms of fibre defor-
mation and failure were present. Given that we did
not actually break a specimen with the fatigue load-
ing applied—even up to 6 million cycles, it is clear that
the fibres are able to provide sufficient tensile rein-
forcement across the cracks, and have sufficient fatigue
resistance themselves to stabilize the response of the
specimen under these loading conditions. Additionally,
multiple cracking was noticed around the crack tip,
as shown in Fig. 9a, b. Such crack branching would
increase the energy demand for further crack prop-
agation, thereby increasing local fracture toughness.
The multiple crack formation may be due to the pres-
ence of flaws near the crack tip. Flaws such as air
voids, micro cracks, etc. are inherent in the concrete
as shown in Fig. 10, even though the RPC tested
here is typically very dense with low porosity and
permeability.
Fibre failure is expected to precede matrix crack
growth (Cox and Marshall 1994). There was no actual
crack propagation rate versus number of cycles
recorded in order to construct a fatigue compliance
curve. The rate of crack growth was estimated by

123
258 E. Shaheen, N. G. Shrive

Fig. 7 Fibre de-bonding

Fig. 8 Fibre splitting

attempting to measure the crack length and noting the

associated number of cycles. Fatigue generated cracks
were initiated approximately after 1,380 cycles for the
specimen subjected to 80–400 µε, with an initial crack
length of 0.6 mm [0.02 in.]. Subsequent readings are
listed below and shown in graphically Fig. 11:
– 3,050 cycles, crack length 10 mm [0.39 in.]
– 3,150 cycles, crack length 13.5 mm [0.53 in.]
– 3,260 cycles, crack length 21.5 mm [0.85 in.]
– 36,490 cycles, crack length 31 mm [1.22 in.]
The rate of crack growth was fast initially but the rate
slowed down as more and more fibres were brought
into action bridging the crack. The curve is opposite in
sense to what would be expected from the Paris equa-
tion, which describes crack growth in metals.
Some fretting-like behaviour was observed on all
fatigue test samples. Gradual material loss was noticed
Fig. 9 Crack branching (a) and (b)
at the contact points between the test specimens and
top and bottom rollers. A picture of the material loss
due to support contact fretting is shown in Fig. 12.
Ductal
is also manufactured with steel fibres which
would potentially produce different results because of
the different fibre properties. However the basic mecha-
nisms involved in increasing the toughness of the con-
crete with fibres would remain—fibre pull-out, fibre
yield and fibre fracture. The fatigue properties of steel
would be different to those of the organic fibres used
in the mix tested here, but a similar high resistance to
fatigue failure would be expected based on the work of
Richard and Cheyrezy (1995). Mild steel fibres might

123
Cyclic loading and fracture mechanics of Ductal
concrete 259

Fig. 10 Microscopic picture of fracture surface. Air voids and Fig. 12 Fretting of the concrete at the contact support
reinforcing fibres are visible

cant improvements to a number of properties. When

be expected to corrode, although corrosion of such
fibres would be very slow in the high density mixes
achieved, because of the very low permeability and
porosity. However mild steel fibres exposed in a crack
might corrode locally. Obviously, stainless steel fibres
would not create this risk. The concrete tested here
will also have excellent durability to corrosive environ-
ments, due to the use of polymer based fibres. With fur-
ther knowledge of the behaviours of RPC, RPC mixes
using steel or other fibres could potentially be opti-
mised for certain attributes. The results obtained in
the tests described here show the material has con-
siderable potential to provide concretes with signifi-
investigating the fatigue properties of a material simi-
lar in many respects to Ductal
(CARDIFFRC), Far-
hat et al. (2007) had similar difficulty in failing the
specimens. A couple of specimens were tested up to
20 million cycles, 10–85% of the ultimate flexural
strength.
5 Summary and conclusions
The density of Ductal
was in the range of (2,316–
2,383) Kg/m3 [145–149 lb/ft3 ]), Young’s modulus cal-
culated for Ductal
was 53.3 GPa [7.7 × 106 psi]. The

Fig. 11 Crack length vs. Crack Length (in) (a)

number of cycles for loading 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
40000 40000
between 80 and 400 µε

35000 35000

30000 30000
Number of Cycles (N)

Number of Cycles (N)

25000 25000

20000 20000

15000 15000

10000 10000

5000 5000

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Crack Length (mm) (a)

123
260
fracture parameters indicate that the material is tougher
than other concretes. The results of the tests reported
here also show that Ductal
clearly possesses excel-
lent resistance to low and high cyclic fatigue load,
even in the presence of a crack. The material is thus
an excellent candidate for many structural elements
and structures that are subjected to high and low cycle
fatigue.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to Lafarge North America
for supplying the specimens, and the technical staff of the Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering for their help in the testing. The finan-
cial aid of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Coun-
cil of Canada is gratefully acknowledged.
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