20

Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts

Judy A. Johnson, Elhadi M. Yahia, and David G. Brandl

CONTENTS
20.1 Introduction 507
20.2 Applications for Insect Control. 508
20.2.1 Dried Fruits 511
20.2.2 Tree Nuts 515
20.2.3 Combinations with Other Treatments 517
20.3 E(fects on Quality 519
20.3.1 Almonds (Prunus dulcis) 519
20.3.2 Apricots (Prunus armeniaca) 519
20.3.3 Chestnuts (Castanea sativa) 520
20.3.4 Dates (Phoenix dactylifera) 520
20.3.5 Figs (Ficus carica) 520
20.3.6 Hazelnuts, Filberts (Corylus spp.) 521
20.3.7 Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) 521
20.3.8 Peéan (Carya illinoinsis) 521
20.3.9 Pine Nuts (Araucaria spp.) 521
20.3.10 Pistachio (Pistacia vera) 521
20.3.11 Raisins (Vitus vinifera) 522
20.3.12 Walnuts (Juglans regia) 522
20.4 Conclusions 522
20.5 Future Research Needs 523
References 523

20.1 Introduction
'Dried fruits and tree nuts are relatively high-value products used primarily for snack foods
or as confectionary ingredients, and their successful marketing requires strict attention to
quality control. The United States alone produces nearly 1.5 million metric tons each year
of almonds, hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, dates, figs, prunes,
raisins, and dried apricots, worth more than $3 billion (USDA, 2007). These are also
valuable products for the foreign export market, important to the economies of such
major producers as the United States and Turkey.
Dried fruit and tree nuts typically have one or more preharvest insect pests that feed
directIy on the product and are capable of causing considerable damage and quality loss
(Simmons and Nelson, 1975). Although many of these may be present at the time of

507
 --
508 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and Tree j

harvest and are often brought into storage, they generally do not reproduce under storage TABLE 20.1
conditions (Johnson et al., 2002). However, because they may continue to feed and cause Postharvest Insect Pests
additional damage, and often present phytosanitary problems for processors, they are
CommonName
considered postharvest pests. Feeding damage by these insects also may provide entry to
aflatoxin-producing molds (Aspergillus spp.) (Campbell et al., 2003).lnitial disinfestation of Field pests (do not normal
Carob moth
an incoming product is sufficient to control these pests and reduce their damage. These
Codling moth
commodities are also susceptible to attack by a number of common stored product moths Dried fruit beetles
and beetIes, the most serious being the Indianmeal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Simmons
and Nelson, 1975).Because stored product pests are capable of repeated infestation during
storage, long-term protective treatments or repeated disinfestation treatments are neces- Filbertworm
Navel orangeworm
sary for their control.
Raisin moth
Current insect control measures for dried fruit and nuts depend largely on fumigation to Tropical nut borer
disinfect large volumes of incoming product during harvest, as well as to control storage Various nut weevils
infestation (Johnson, 2004). Methyl bromide, a fumigant used in a wide range of post-
harvest applications, is scheduled for worldwide withdrawal from routine use as a Postharvest Storage Pests ~
fumigant in 2015 under the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances (UNEP, Almondmoth
2006), and its use has already been severely restricted in developed countries. Resistance Indianmeal moth
to phosphine, often used as an altemative to methyl bromide for dried fruit and nut crops Grain and flour beetles
in developed countries, has been documented in many insect populations (Benhalima
et al., 2004), and some regulatory agencies have expressed concems over worker safety Various beetles
with this compound (Bell, 2000). Sulfuryl fluoride, long used for structural fumigation,
has recentIy been registered for commodity fumigation in several countries including the Vinegar flies
United States (Prabhakaran and Williams, 2007), but reduced toxicity of this compound
against insect eggs and at lower temperatures (Bell and Savvidou, 1999) may limit its Curculio Spp., to be ql
applicability. Moreover, there is a mounting pressure against the general use of chemical of product to prevent
fumigants due to atmospheric emissions, safety, or health concems, and an increased products are cosmop
interest in organic food production, resulting in efforts to develop nonchemical technologies subject to quarantine
as altemative control methods for insects. Among these technologies are low and high inspectors.
temperatures, irradiation, and modified atmosphere (MA) and controlled atmosphere (CA). Correctly appliedp
Dried fruits and nuts, like most low-moisture, durable commodities, often tolerate rates for fieldpests,bu
extreme MA and CA (very high CO2 andjor very low O2) at levels used to control insects. prevent further dama
More than 25 years ago, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency approved carbon reproduce in storage,
dioxide, nitrogen, and combustion product gases as a means to manage insects infesting stored product insect
raw and processed agricultural products, including dried fruits and tree nuts (Johnson, conditions. Driedfrui
1980, 1981). While current insect control measures for dried fruits and nuts still rely on storage for monthsor I
fumigation, there is some limited commercial use of MA and CA for these products, by storage pests. Stra
primarily for organic product lines. This chapter will discuss the potential applications ments are effectiveine
and effect on product quality of MA and CA treatments for insect control in dried fruits rely on one or moredi
and tree nuts. Disinfestation treat
processing and stora
residues on marketed
mental and workersa
fruit and nut product
20.2 Applications for Insect Control handled, no single d
A variety of insects, infesting the product either in the field or during storage, may be Fumigants are cornrn
found in postharvest dried fruits and nuts (Table 20.1). Although infestations cause direct wide range of applic
damage through feeding and by contaminating product with excreta, webbing, and any altemative treatm
exuvia, these loses are relatively low. Increased losses occur when infestations cause the too costIy. For some i
implementation of regulatory actions or, worse yet, loss of consumer confidence. controlled atrnosphen
The presence of any live insects may impact trade, particularly to foreign markets. Some The volumes ofdrie
states and countries consider certain field pests, such as codling moth, filbertworm, and of time to meet the del
Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 509

TABLE 20.1
Postharvest Insect Pests of Dried Fruits and Nuts
CommonName Scientific Name Pest Status
Field pests (do not normally reproduce in storage)
Carob moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae Pest of dried fruits and nuts
Codling moth Cydia pomonella Quarantine pest in walnuts
Dried fruit beetles Carpophilus spp. Field pests in dates, figs, and on drying
fruits, norrnally reproduces in storage
only under high moisture conditions
Filbertworm Cydia latiferreana Pest of hazelnuts
Navel orangeworm Amyelois transitella Pest in California tree nuts and figs
Raisin moth Ephestia figulilella Found on drying fruits, occasionally nuts
Tropical nut borer Hypothenemus obscurus Pest of macadamias
Various nut weevils Curcu/io spp. Pests of pecans, chestnuts, hazelnuts,
and acoms
Postharvest Storage Pests (primarily found in storage)
Almond moth Cadra cautella Common in nut products
Indianmeal moth Plodia interpunctella Most serious storage pest, cornmon
on all dried fruits and nuts
Grain and flour beetles Oryzaephilus spp. and Tribo/ium Cornmon in stored dried fruits
spp. and nuts
Various beetles Cryptolestes spp., Cryptophagus Occasionally pests of dried fruits
spp., and Trogoderma spp. and nuts
Vinegar flies Drosophila spp. Cornmon in dried fruits

Curculio spp., to be quarantine pests, and as such require specific disinfestation treatments
of product to prevent pest introductions. While most of the storage insects found in these
products are cosmopolitan in distribution (Simmons and Nelson, 1975),and are not usually
subject to quarantine restrictions, they can cause the rejection of product when found by
inspectors.
Correctly applied preharvest pest management practices result in very low infestation
rates for field pests, but disinfestation treatments shortly after harvest are often necessary to
prevent further damage and meet phytosanitary standards. Because most field pests rarely
reproduce in storage, a single treatment is sufficient. In contrast, populations of common
stored product insects such as the Indianmeal moth may increase rapidly under storage
conditions. Dried fruits and tree nuts are considered durable products, and may be held in
storage for months or even years, during which the product is always at risk of reinfestation
by storage pests. Strategies emphasizing exclusion, sanitation, and use of protective treat-
ments are effective in controlling storage pests, but dried fruit and nut processors commonly
rely on one or more disinfestation treatments to ensure insect-free products.
Disinfestation treatments must be efficacious, economical, applicable to the existing
processing and storage system, and must not harm product quality or leave chemical
residues on marketed producto AIso, for treatments to be completely accepted, environ-
mental and worker safety concerns should be manageable. Because of the diversity of dried
fruit and nut products, their production, storage, and marketing methods, and volumes
handled, no single disinfestation method is suitable for all situations (Johnson, 2004).
Fumigants are commonly used because of their efficacy, economy, and suitability to a
wide range of applications (Hagstrum and Subramanyam, 2006). To be widely adopted,
any altemative treatment must be as effective and practical as fumigants, and must not be
too costly. For some applications within the dried fruit and nut industry, modified and
controlled atmospheres may be useful.
The volumes of dried fruits and nuts that must be treated within relatively short periods
of time to meet the demands of various markets are sometimes quite large when compared
510 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and TTl

to fresh horticultural commodities. MA and CA treatments are successful in replacing

chemical fumigants only when they can be applied in a practical, timely, and economical
manner to these large volumes. ConsequentIy, research has concentrated on the applica-
tion of MA or CA to existing processing methods and storage systems (Figures 20.1 and
20.2), in order to avoid drastic changes to facilities and to keep costs low. The methods
used to generate treatment atmospheres include gas from cylinders (Figure 20.3), exother-
mically generated low oxygen atmospheres (GLOA) using combustion to reduce oxygen
levels (Storey, 1975), and gas separation systems (Johnson et al., 1998, 2002; Figure 20.4).
Another form of modified atmosphere treatment is the use of low pressures to obtain
reduced oxygen tensions (Navarro et al., 2003; Figure 20.5).

FIGURE 20.3
Almond silosbeingtre

FIGURE 20.1
some examples of dried fruit and nut storage found in the central valley of California. Clockwise from top:
walnut silos, Fibreen covered raisin stacks; and plastic covered almond piles.

FIGURE 20.4
Hollow fiber membram

20.2.1 Dried Fru

Sun-dried fruits SI
a variety of insect
and vinegar flies
nitidulid beetlesal
of excessivemoist
moth, almond IDO
(Tribolium castaneu
FIGURE 20.2
also be found (Sin
Cornmon method of sun drying raisins on paper trays.
 Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts
511

FIGURE 20.3
Almond silos being treated with CO2.

FIGURE 20.4
Hollow fiber membrane gas separation system.

20.2.1 Dried Fruits

Sun-dried fruits such as raisins or figs are susceptible to attack as the product dries by
a variety of insects such as raisin moth (Cadra figulilella), nitidulid beetles (Carpophilus spp.),
and vinegar flies (Drosophila spp.) (Simmons and Nelson, 1975). Some, in particular,
nitidulid beetles and vinegar flies, may continue to reproduce in storage under conditions
of excessive moisture. The most common pests infesting product in storage are Indianmeal
moth, almond moth (Cadra cautella), grain beetles (Oryzaephilus spp.), and red flour beetle
(Tribolium castaneum), a1though a variety of additional common stored product insects may
also be found (Simmons and Nelson, 1975).
512 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and Ir,

melanogaster pupae
and more than 2 Wi
raisins may be stO
times are not una
treatment requires
An economican
bromide, phosphin
the GLOA system'
and further costsal
plant heating syste
refined analysis (5<
slightly lower than
was the least cos
brornide has incre
Protocol. Methyl bJ
400% from 1995to
with the furnigant
FIGURE 20.5 While early GL<
Flexible, plastic treatment container under vacuum.
about safety, rising
of relatively inexp
Soderstrom and Brandl (1984a) treated raisins using GLOA, with a combustion atmos- the demand for or
phere of 0.5 kPa O2, 12-14 kPa CO2, 1.0 kPa argon, and the balance nitrogen. Stacks of altemative, and be
raisin bins were treated under either polyethylene sheeting or Fibreen, a weatherproof yard stacks.
paper laminated with tar and reinforced with fiberglass. The latter is commonly used for Researchers in tl
commercial raisin storage, and was secured to a wooden framework built around atmospheres to trE
stacked raisin bins and sealed to the ground with oiled dirt. Using a continuous purge hermetic storage, a
rate of 12.7 m3/h, oxygen levels in small raisin stacks (34 m3) covered with polyethylene plastic containersd
dropped to 0.5 kPa in about 15 h. When adult Oryzaephilus mercator, adult red flour beetle or GrainPro Cocoo
and Indianmeal moth pupae were treated in these stacks, complete mortality was reached system to apply e
at 48,72, and 96 h after purging began, respectively. Larger-scale tests used two Fibreen- 60-85 kPa CO2 and
covered raisin stacks, 1869 and 3308 m3, treated at an initial purge rate of 283 m3/h to a 151 m3 chambe
reduce oxygen to the target level of <0.5 kPa (Table 20.2). Of the insects treated, Drosophila temperatures of 2
85 kPa CO2 was 01
pressure, and was 1
60 kPa CO2 for 4.5
TABLE 20.2
effectively controll
Efficacyof GLOA Treatments in Two Different Sizes of Fibreen-Covered Raisin Stacks between the treate
Parameters 3308 m3 Stack 1869 m3 Stack Related laborato
Initial purge rate 283 m3/h 283 m3/h
low pressures «1;
Time to 0.5 kPa O2 48 h 24h rate comparable te
Maintenance purge rate 17 m3/h 14-17 m3/h treatments, which
Average temperature 27°C WC disinfestation, witl
Exposure needed for 100% mortality (time is from the beginning of initial purge) exposure. Howeve
Cadra figuli/ella pupae 72 h 120h needed to cause ea
Pladia interpunctella pupae 48 h 72h
Another study u
Drasaphila melanagaster pupae 120 h >336h
Carpaphilus hemipterus rnixed cultures 60 h 120 h dates (Hussain, 19
Oryzaephilus surinamensis adults 48 h 10-20 kPa, insectn
O. surinamensis larvae 48 h The effect of GL
Triba/ium castaneum adults 48 h et al. (1998).An ex(
T. castaneum larvae 60 h
shipping container
Saurce: From soderstrom, E.L. and Brand!, D.G., J. Ecan. Entamal., 77,440, 1984a. were infested witl
Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 513

melanogaster pupae proved to be the most tolerant, requiring 5 days (120h) at around 27°C,
and more than 2 weeks at around 16°C.Although these treatment times may seem lengthy,
raisins may be stored in Fibreen-covered stacks for several months, and such treatments
times are not unacceptable. Phosphine is the fumigant of choice for such stacks and
treatment requires a minimum of 3 days at 27°C (Soderstrom et al., 1984).
An economic analysis was made of CA treatment of raisins, comparing costs for methyl
bromide, phosphine, GLOA, and nitrogen (Gardner et al., 1982).At the time of the analysis,
the GLOA system was found to be competitive with both methyl bromide and phosphine,
and further cost savings were seen when heat from the generators was recovered for use in
plant heating systems. Use of liquefied nitrogen was found to be the most costly. A more
refined analysis (Soderstrom et al., 1984)found the cost of GLOA ($9.66-$10.64jMT) to be
slightly lower than phosphine ($1O.76jMT).At the time of this analysis, methyl bromide
was the least costIy ($8.39jMT). Since these studies were done, the cost of methyl
bromide has increased considerably, largely due to restrictions imposed by the Montreal
Protocol. Methyl bromide prices in the west coast of the United States increased by about
400% from 1995 to 2001 (UNEPjTEAP, 2001), and may have made CA more competitive
with the fumigant.
While early GLOA systems were shown to be efficacious and cost effective, concerns
about safety, rising natural gas prices, environmental issues, and the continued availability
of relatively inexpensive fumigants prevented adoption of the method by processors. As
the demand for organic raisins increased, some processors revisited CA treatments as an
altemative, and began using liquid nitrogen to disinfest raisins stored in Fibreen-covered
yard stacks.
Researchers in the Middle East have used a variety of methods to generate modified
atmospheres to treat durable commodities such as dried fruits, including liquid CO2,
hermetic storage, and vacuum treatments. Treatments were often applied within flexible,
plastic containers developed for low cost, portable grain storage, known as Volcani Cubes
or GrainPro Cocoons (Donahaye et al., 1991).Navarro et al., (1998a)used such a container
system to apply CA treatments to disinfest dates of nitidulid beetles. An atmosphere of
60-85 kPa CO2 and 4-7 kPa O2 generated from cylinderized liquid CO2 was applied within
a 151 m3 chamber partially filled with 30 t of dates stacked in crates on pallets at
temperatures of 22°C-28°C. During the initial purge, a CO2 concentration of about
85 kPa CO2 was obtained in the chamber within 1 h by introducing the gas under high
pressure, and was maintained for 10 days. After that, CO2 levels were maintained at about
60 kPa CO2 for 4.5 months using approximately 0.8 kg C02jday. Insect populations were
effectivelycontrolled using this regimen, and no significant difference in quality was found
between the treated dates and controls stored at -18°C.
Related laboratory studies showed that C02levels >20 kPa, low 02levels «7 kPa) and
low pressures «170 mmHg) caused Carpophilus hemipterus to leave artificial refuges at a
rate comparable to methyl bromide treatments (Navarro et al., 1989). The low pressure
treatments, which provided O2 levels of <4.7 kPa, were the most effective means of
disinfestation, with more than 80% of the beetles leaving refuges after just 10 min of
exposure. However, exposure periods for these treatments in excess of 24 h would be
needed to cause complete mortality (Navarro et al., 1998b)
Another study used storage under low pressure to control insect infestation in stored
dates (Hussain, 1974).When infested dates are packed in polyethylene bags at pressures of
10-20 kPa, insect mortality was 100%after 2 days.
The effect of GLOA on Cadra cautella infestation in dried figs was studied by Damarli
et al. (1998).An exothermic generator that maintained 1 kPa O2 and 10-15 kPa CO2 in a 6 m
shipping container was used at 25°C-35°C for 24-72 h. Dried fig samples of 3-4 kg to 8.5 t
were infested with C. cautella larvae (16-22 days old) and eggs (24, 48, and 72 h old).
514 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and Il

There was 100% mortality of all stages in small-scale experiments at 35°C after 24 h effects of repeatec
exposure. Complete mortality of all stages infesting 8.5 t of dried figs was obtained at 4-14 h) and the Íl
35°C after 30 h exposure. This exposure was comparable to the 24 h methyl bromide 0.3 mgjmL for 24
treatment recommended to disinfest figs of C. cautella. phila. Psocid pOp
Laboratory studies (Meyvaci et al., 2003a) investigating methyl bromide altematives period with CA,
showed that 5 days of exposure to high C02levels (90-96 kPa) caused complete mortality untreated popula
of C. cautella eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults at 25°C-35°C. Mixed-stage cultures of the fig DDVP alone conb
mite (Carpoglyphus lactis) required 6 days at these temperatures. Results for low-pressure treatments resulte
(4.3 kPa) treatments were less consistent, but found that 3 day exposures at 25°C and alone. After six ex
2 day exposures at 30°C and 35°C was sufficient to control C. cautella, but 3 day exposures increased 1.8- and
at 30°C and 35°C were needed to control fig mites. In a related field study, Emekci et al. increased resistanc
(2003) applied cylinderized CO2 to a 36 m3 flexible plastic storage container loaded with with insecticideap
about 15 MT of dried figs. CO2 and O2 levels were >95 kPa and <1 kPa, respectively, and psocids in stored f
remained stable throughout the 5 day treatment. Test insects included C. cautella eggs,
P. interpunctella larvae, O. surinamensis pupae and adults, and mixed stages of C. hemipterus
20.2.2 Tree Nuts
and C. lactis. The treatment was done at an average temperature of 28°C, and was sufficient
to kill all test insects. As with dried frui
Mills et al. (2003) considered CO2 ('2:40 kPa) as an altemative to methyl bromide crops such as alrnc
fumigation for disinfesting dried dates of carob moth (Ectomyelois ceratoniae). Use of CO2 relatívely Iow temF
under vacuum did not improve insect control and was not considered to be practical. and may be a ph~
CO2 treatment of dates in heated freight containers was more successful, providing nearly all tree nuts
adequate insect control after 4 days of exposure. The application of CO2 to dates under Indianmeal moth,
plastic cover was also considered successful and recommended when container capacity is In California, th
inadequate. major tree nut era
Increasing CO2 concentrations (60-98 kPa) or decreasing O2 concentrations (0.5-5 kPa) navel orangeworrr
caused progressively greater mortality of red flour beetle larvae (Soderstrom et al., 1992). damage by movin
Mortality was also increased by increasing temperature (38°C-42°C). However, pretreat- Storey and Sode
ment conditioning at 38°C for 24 or 48 h significantly reduced mortalities for the highest navel orangeworn
CO2 and lowest O2 treatments. These results suggest that temperatures above 38°C could 9-9.5 kPa CO2, wit
be useful in reducing treatment times for CA, but wam that prior exposure to elevated most tolerant to lo
temperatures should be avoided. Donahaye et al. (1994) also showed the effect of increas- and 38 and 37 h a
ing temperature on efficacy of low O2 treatments for nitidulid beetles (Carpophilus hemi- orangeworm were
pterus and Urophorus humeralis). For both species LT9ss for 1 kPa and 2 kPa O2 at 35°C were adults were expo
usually less than half those at 26°C. mortality.
Tarr and Clingeleffer (2005) treated eggs, pupae, and adults of the red flour beetle in Brandl et al. (1
hermetically heat-sealed gas barrier bags containing 500 g of golden-colored, sultana orangeworrn mor
raisins, with or without the addition of a commercial O2 absorber. The bags were held at treatment times ti:
30°C for 9 days, 22SC for 20 days, or 15°C for 45 days. These times exceeded the minimum action of O2 conce
time recommended by Annis (1987) for population extinction of red flour beetle under low to control navel (
O2 conditions. O2 levels in the bags with or without the O2 absorber were ~1.7 kPa, and their response; In
2.9-16.3 kPa, respectively. All fruit samples treated with O2 absorbers produced 100% while navel orang
mortality, with no occurrence of a second-generation population, when incubated post- that navel orange
treatment at 27°C for 60 days. Fruit stored in hermetically sealed bags without O2 absorbers content, is less tolE
at 22SC and 30°C produced 100% adult mortality but eggs and pupae survived. Results at storage environrnE
15°C were confounded by complete control mortality of eggs and pupae, suggesting that The effect of lo\
the low temperature alone had a great effect. The low O2 atmosphere was also found to Sodertrom and Br
minimize raisin color change during storage. treated for 20 h \\
The psocid Liposcelis bostrychophila is a common insect pest, which infests a variety contained in the n
of processed and unprocessed stored foods in households, granaries, and warehouses. CO2 (40 kPa) signi
Psocids are highIy resistant to most forms of pest control, and their populations in stored more susceptible,
foods have increased alarmingly in some regions of Asia. Ding et al. (2002) examined the the storage at the 1
 Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 515

effects of repeated exposures to low O2 CA (1 kPa O2, 35 kPa CO2, and 64 kPa N2 for
4-14 h) and the insecticide dichlorvos (dimethyl dichloro-vinyl phosphate, DDVP 80%,
0.3 mgjmL for 24 h) on population growth and development of resistance of L. bostrycho-
phila. Psocid populations were treated and evaluated every 2 weeks over an 11 week
period with CA, with DDVP, or with altemating treatments of CA and DDVP. An
untreated population increased 48.1-fold over the 11 week periodo Neither CA nor
DDVP alone controlled psocid population growth. However, altemating CA and DDVP
treatments resulted in a significant increase in mortality compared with either treatment
alone. After six exposures, resistance in populations exposed to either CA or DDVP alone
increased 1.8- and 2-fold, respectively, and probit analysis of data suggested that further
increased resistance was possible. Results of this study have indicated that altemating CA
with insecticide applications could be a more effective management measure for control of
psocids in stored foods than use of these treatments alone.

20.2.2 Tree Nuts

As with dried fruits, tree nuts may be infested with field pests during harvest. For nut
crops such as almonds, that are most often sun dried, or walnuts, which are dehydrated at
relatively low temperatures, these field pests are capable of continued damage in storage,
and may be a phytosanitary concern in exported product (Johnson, 2004). In addition,
nearly all tree nuts are susceptible to infestation by common stored product insects such as
Indianmeal moth, grain beetIes, and red flour beetles.
In California, the navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella, is a serious pest of the three
major tree nut crops: almonds, pistachios, and walnuts. Although primarily a field pest,
navel orangeworm may be brought into storage where younger larvae may continue to
damage by moving to uninfested nuts (Curtis et al., 1984; Soderstrom and Brandl, 1984b).
Storey and Soderstrom (1977) began investigations on the use of CA to control
navel orangeworm using an exothermically generated low O2 atmosphere «1 kPa O2,
9-9.5 kPa CO2, with the balance mostIy N2). Pupae and mature larvae were found to be the
most tolerant to low oxygen treatments, with LT9Ss of 145 and 138 h at 18°C, respectively,
and 38 and 37 h at 27°C, respectively. Sublethal exposures of low oxygen to adult navel
orangeworm were found to reduce their progeny number; no progeny were produced after
adults were exposed for 8 h, while 24 h exposures were required for complete adult
mortality.
Brandl et al. (1983) examined the effect of various levels of O2 and CO2 on navel
orangeworm mortality and determined that low O2 was more important in reducing
treatment times than CO2• Further study (Soderstrom et al., 1986) looked at the inter-
action of O2 concentration, temperature, and relative humidity (RH) on the time needed
to control navel orangeworm and Indianmeal moth. The two test species differed in
their response; Indianmeal moth was more affected by changes in O2 concentrations
while navel orangeworm responded more strongly to changes in RH. It was suggested
that navel orangeworm, as a pest that feeds mainly on product with a higher moisture
content, is less tolerant to changes in relative humidities. Indianmeal moth, found in drier
storage environments, is better able to survive low relative humidities.
The effect oí low O2 or elevated CO2 atmospheres on insect feeding was examined by
Sodertrom and Brandl (1982). Feeding of navel orangeworm and Indianmeal moth larvae
treated for 20 h with various levels of O2 and CO2 was determined through a red dye
contained in the rearing medium. Both the lowest level oí O2 (1 kPa) and highest level of
CO2 (40 kPa) significantly reduced larval feeding of both species. Navel orangeworm was
more susceptible, particularly to high CO2. Therefore, these results indicate that purging
the storage at the beginning of nut filling operation would be beneficial in reducing insect
 --
516 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and II

damage to the nuts. CO2 treatments were considered more practical beca use it was thought their use as quara
that 40 kPa CO2 would be easier and cheaper to obtain in a rapid purge of treatment done have improv
containers. Navarro et al. (
Soderstrom and Brandl (1984b) conducted a series of successful tests using GLOA to treatrnent times fa
treat bulk stored almonds under plastic covers, in a 3000 fe steel silo, and in 30 m by 7.3 m treatrnent containl
diameter concrete silos containing 450 MT of inshell almonds. The initial purging of the control in durable
concrete silo took 8 h, and 100% mortality of Indianmeal moth and navel orangeworm exposures to low
pupae was reached at 36 and 60 h after purging, respectively. eggs, diapausing 1
Codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.), is a common field pest of California walnuts. the most tolerant a
Although it does not reproduce in storage, it is considered a quarantine pest by some plastic containers
countries, and processors have relied on methyl bromide to disinfest incoming product (inshell alrnonds
(Johnson, 2004). Diapausing codling moth larva e may be present in harvested walnuts, and required extended
were found to be the most tolerant life stage to both low O2 and high CO2 atmospheres treatments at 25°(
at 25°C, with the lowest LT95 (13.6 d) obtained at 60 kPa CO2 and 60% relative humidity Pecans are ofter
(Soderstrom et al., 1990). Such extended treatment times are not acceptable to processors, and aids invasion
who must quickly disinfest incoming product to meet market demands. To reduce treat- atrnospheres to di
ment times, high-temperature CA treatments were investigated as a methyl bromide atmosphere of 30
altemative for codling moth in inshell walnuts (Soderstrom et al., 1996a). Temperatures tions and comple
(39°C, 41°C, 43°C, and 45°C) selected were those suitable for walnut dehydration without elevated CO2 leve
adversely affecting quality. Treatment atmospheres were 98 kPa CO2 in air, 0.5 kPa O2 in Macadamia nut
N2, and a simulated combustion atmosphere of 0.5 kPa O2, 10 kPa CO2, and the balance N2. nut borer, Hypotht
Elevated temperatures dramatically reduced treatment times for all atmospheres, includ- moisture nuts on
ing normal air. The most effective treatment tested was 98 kPa CO2 and 60% RH, with may continue to
estimated probit 9 values of 3.6 and 6.6 h for 45°C and 43°C, respectively. including CA treé
Based on the results found in Soderstrom et al. (1996a), a prototype treatment chamber Treatment chamh
for rapid application of high temperature alone or with CA was designed and tested for with either N2 DI
disinfesting walnuts of diapausing codling moth larvae (Soderstrom et al., 1996b). The mortality was lo~
chamber was made of fiberglass insulated polyvinyl chloride pipe, and was designed to the gas by the hus
allow quick heating and controlled atmosphere recirculation under air tight conditions. mortality of adult
The chamber held a mass of about 30 kg of inshell walnuts that was 1.2 m deep and 0.3 m concentration Wh
in diameter. Air flow during the initial heating phase was 5.7 m3 jmin, which was reduced pest mortality, thl
to 1.4 m3 jmin during temperature maintenance. Target temperatures were reached in A 14 day treatme
about 1 h. Treatments evaluated were normal air, 0.5 kPa O2 (in nitrogen), or 98 kPa CO2 Holding nuts und
(balance air) at 43°C, and treatment exposures were based on estimated LT95 levels at the peak of the
derived from Soderstrom et al. (1996a) (45.2 h for air, 14.6 h for 0.5 kPa O2, and 5.2 h for
98 kPa CO2). All treatments exceeded 95% mortality, and any surviving larvae were
20.2.3 Combinat
moribund and subsequently died.
An early economic analysis of the use of ionizing radiation as an altemative to chemical Combining an ini
fumigants for dried fruit and nut disinfestation used scenarios that included GLOA treat- storage treatment
ments (Rhodes and Baritelle, 1986). Although considerably more expensive thanfumigants, altemative insect
GLOA treatments had a clear advantage over irradiation for almonds, walnuts, raisins, raisins (Johnson E
and prunes during long-term storage. A more current economic analysis was carried out brane gas separal
for commercially available methyl bromide altemative treatments for disinfestation of bags and sealed te
almonds and walnuts, including phosphine fumigation, ionizing irradiation, and CA stor- initial CA disinfes
age (Aegerter and Folwell, 2001). Costs for each altemative were estimated and compared to of in-shell nuts) w
benchmark methyl bromide fumigation costs. Irradiation costs ranged from 2x to 14x the Test insects for thl
benchmark, while CA storage ranged from 1.7 x to 2.5 x the benchmark costs. PH3 was used (Cadra figulilella),
only to treat almonds, and its costs were only slight1y higher than the benchmark. In all four bins of prod\
scenarios, CA was less expensive than irradiation. It was concluded that while these a preparation co
altemative treatments could effectively control insect populations in walnuts and almonds storage, or mainb
at a level comparable to methyl bromide, further research is needed to obtain approval for storage pest of dI
Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 517

their use as quarantine treatments. Again, rising fumigant prices since this analysis was
done have improved the competitiveness of CA treatments relative to methyl bromide.
Navarro et al. (2003) showed the effectiveness of increased temperatures at reducing
treatment times for both CO2 and vacuum, and demonstrated the utility of flexible plastic
treatment containers for the application of vacuum treatments for stored product insect
control in durable commodities. JoOOson and Valero (2005) showed that relatively short
exposures to low pressures of 6.66 kPa could control tree nut pests. Nave! orangeworm
eggs, diapausing Indianmeal moth, and diapausing codling moth larvae were found to be
the most tolerant at temperatures of 25°C and 30°C. Field trials treating almonds in flexible
plastic containers were done under both winter (nutmeats in wooden bins) and summer
(inshell almonds in 50 kg poly bags) conditions. Winter treatments at 6.3°C-10SC
required extended treatment times of more than 13 days to get complete control. Summer
treatments at 25°C-29SC provided complete control with a 48 h exposure.
Pecans are often infested with pecan weevil (Curculio caryae), which damages nutmeats
and aids invasion of mold (Wells and Payne, 1983). Wells and Payne (1980) used high CO2
atmospheres to disinfest pecans of this pest, and reduce the level of storage fungi. An
atmosphere of 30 kPa CO2 and 21 kPa O2 in N2 was effective at reducing fungal popula-
tions and completely killed weevils, but low O2 atmospheres (1 kPa) with or without
elevated CO2 levels was noto
Macadamia nuts produced on the island of Hawaii are often infested with the tropical
nut borer, Hypothenemus obscurus (F.) (Delate et al., 1994). The beetle prefers to attack low
moisture nuts on the ground or "sticktight" nuts remaining on the tree, and populations
may continue to increase in nuts waiting processing. Postharvest control techniques,
including CA treatments, were evaluated for control of this pest (Delate et al., 1994).
Treatment chambers containing infested nuts and held at 24°C-30°C were flushed daily
with either N2 or CO2 to maintain gas concentrations of 2':95 kPa. Tropical nut borer
mortality was lower in nuts with the husk than without, possibly due to absorption of
the gas by the husk. Unhusked nuts treated with 2':95kPa CO2 for 6 days resulted in 97.3%
mortality of adult beetles, while all adult insects were killed at this exposure time and
concentration when nuts were husked. Although CO2 treatments provided slightly higher
pest mortality, there were concerns over reduced nut quality after extended exposures.
A 14 day treatment of 2':95 kPa N2 was required for 100% mortality in unhusked nuts.
Holding nuts under CA storage was suggested as a means of alleviating processing loads
at the peak of the season without increasing damage due to the beetle.

20.2.3 Combinations with Other Treatments

Combining an initial, short-term CA disinfestation treatment with long-term protective

storage treatments in an integrated control program was shown to be promising as an
altemative insect control strategy for walnuts (JoOOson et al., 1998) and for almonds and
raisins (JoOOson et al., 2002). CA atmospheres were obtained with a hollow fiber mem-
brane gas separation system in treatment rooms equipped with standard air expansion
bags and sealed to a pressure half-life of 1 min after being pressurized to 0.245 kPa. For the
initial CA disinfestation treatment, 8 bins of product (3.6 MT of field-run raisins, or 1.8 MT
of in-shell nuts) were treated at 0.4 kPa O2 for 6 days at 25°C after a purge period of 2 days.
Test insects for the initial disinfestation treatment were navel orangeworm and raisin moth
(Cadra figulilella), both common field pests of these products. After initial disinfestation,
four bins of product were moved to protected storage environments, either treatment with
a preparation containing Indianmeal moth granulosis virus, low temperature (:S;10°C)
storage, or maintenance CA (5 kPa O2), Mated female Indianmeal moths, the most serious
storage pest of dried fruits and nuts, were added to the storage rooms each week.
518 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and In

TABLE 20.3
Survival of Target Insects after Disinfestation Treatment of 0.4 kPa O2 20.3 Effects on
for 6 Days at 25°C
Although most of t
Treabnent Number of Insects Treated Adults Emerged Survival ('Yo) are far short-terrn
Almonds (navel orangeworm as test insect)" suggested as mear
Untreated control 403 393.0 97.5 Because tree nuts
CA 800 40.0 5.0 rancidity (Watkins
Walnuts (navel orangeworm as test insect)b ment of rancidity. j
Untreated control 604 487.0 80.6 to improve the she
CA 1194 4.0 0.3 effects of controlled
Raisins (raisin moth as test insect)" necessary for insect
Untreated control 400 251.0 62.7 rancidity, MAs incl
CA 800 O O
a Johnson et al. (2002). 20.3.1 Almonds (1
b Johnson et al. (1998).
Kader (1996)state
storage, and that 1
The initial disinfestation treatment was effective in controlling both test insects growth. The effec
(Table 20.3), although there was some evidence that longer exposures might be necessary 86-89 kPa N2, anc
against raisin moth, or against diapausing navel orangeworm (JoOOson et al., 2002). All shelled and inshell
protective treatments were effective in controlling Indianmeal moth (Table 20.4) and (Guadagni et al., 1~
overall product quality was unaffected by any storage treatment. Storage under CA was stable than alrnond
the most efficacious in preventing infestation by Indianmeal moth, but the sealed storage low O2 atrnosphen
prevented ready access to the product and the low O2 atmosphere conditions present stability during sto
worker safety considerations that do not exist for the other methods. Extensive sealing of for both meats and
facilities and equipment for generating CA would be required to provide the needed The storage beha
storage conditions, and would result in considerable expense to processors. However, 'Nonpareil') was ir
use of new tecOOologies such as flexible plastic storage containers may help to bring spheres (air and N
these costs down. Pascual, 2003).N2
were observed bet
a-tocopherol conte
TABLE 20.4
the increase of the
Indianmeal Moth Incidence and Related Damage in Almonds, Walnuts, contents were alwa
and Raisins after Extended Storage at 5 kPa O2
Indianmeal Moth Damage
Live Indianmeal 20.3.2 Apricots ('
Treatment Moth Minor Serious
The effects of dryi
Almonds (samples taken after 16 weeks)"
Untreated control 482.5 4.4 28.0 fresh apricot tissue
eA O O O also monitored dl
apricots. Apricots\
Walnuts (samples taken after 16 weeks)b
Untreated control 81.0 12.6 35.1 Dehydrated aprica
CA O O O (100 kPa N2, 20 kl
40 kPa N2, 100 kP,
Raisins (samples taken after 40 weeks)a
Untreated control 3.2 13.2 during drying pret
CA O O In particular, acet
degradation of pe<
Note: Each week mated females (5 for almonds and walnuts, and 15 for raisins) were
added to the stored producto perature used. eA
a Johnson et al. (2002). air. The content of
b Johnson et al. (1998). losses were observ
i Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 519

20.3 Effects on Quality

Although most of the uses of controlled atmospheres on bulk-stored dried fruits and nuts
are for short-term insect disinfestation, modified or controlled atmospheres are often
suggested as means to improve shelf life in these products, particularly for tree nuts.
Because tree nuts are high in polyunsaturated lipids they are susceptible to oxidative
rancidity (Watkins, 2005). Storage under low O2 conditions may greatIy slow the develop-
ment of rancidity. As such, vacuum packaging or N2 flushed packaging is often suggested
to improve the shelf life of tree nuts. ConsequentIy, much of the research on the quality
effects of controlled atmospheres on tree nuts deals with exposures much longer than those
necessary for insect disinfestation treatments. A1though dried fruit quality is less affected by
rancidity, MAs including elevated CO2 may reduce fruit darkening and improve shelf life.

20.3.1 Almonds (Prunus dulcis)

Kader (1996) states that O2 is the most important atmospheric component in almond
storage, and that high O2 concentrations result in an increase in rancidity and mold
growth. The effect of insecticidal GLOA treatments (>1 kPa O2, 9-9.5 kPa CO2,
86-89 kPa N2, and 1 kPa Ar) on almond flavor quality was determined by exposing
shelled and inshell 'Nonpareil' almonds continuously to the atmosphere for 1-12 months
(Guadagni et al., 1978a). At normal atmospheres, inshell almonds were found to be more
stable than almond meats at both 18SC and 27°C, but no differences were detected under
low O2 atmospheres. Low O2 was as effective as low temperature (18°C) in maintaining
stability during storage, and caused less off-flavor development than normal atmosphere
for both meats and inshell almonds.
The storage behavior of four varieties of almond ('Marcona,' 'Planeta,' 'Desmayo,' and
'Nonpareil') was investigated at two temperatures (8°C and 36°C), two packaging atmo-
spheres (air and N2) and two treatments (raw and roasted) for up to 9 months (Garcia-
Pascual, 2003). N2 packaging resulted in O2 levels <0.25 kPa. No significant differences
were observed between air and N2 packaging for moisture, fat content, peroxide value,
u-tocopherol content, and level of aflatoxins. A significant relationship was found between
the increase of the peroxide value and the decrease of a-tocopherol contento The aflatoxin
contents were always lower than 0.5 µg/kg.

20.3.2 Apricots (Prunus armeniaca)

The effects of drying, dehydration, and storage under CA on cell wall components of
fresh apricot tissues were studied by Femenia et al. (1998). The degree of browning was
also monitored during storage by measuring color and S02 content of dehydrated
apricots. Apricots were treated with Na2S20S and acetic acid solutions before dehydration.
Dehydrated apricots were then stored at 25°C in air or in five different CA treatments
(100 kPa N2, 20 kPa CO2 and 80 kPa N2, 40 kPa CO2 and 60 kPa N2, 60 kPa CO2 and
40 kPa N2, 100 kPa CO2). The yield of apricot cell wall material decreased substantially
during drying pretreatments and also during dehydration, by 9.5% and 4.7%, respectively.
In particular, acetic acid solubilized a large amount of pectic polysaccharides. Further
degradation of pectic substances occurred during drying, probably due to the high tem-
perature used. CA storage retarded browning in comparison to the sample stored under
air. The content of S02 decreased markedly for the sample stored in air, whereas gradual
losses were observed for CA-stored samples. In general, samples stored in CA containing
520 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and T;

low e02 levels (20 and 40 kPa) showed minor disruption of cell wall components and 20.3.6 Hazelnuts
better initial characteristics of dehydrated apricots.
Hazelnut is chara
in unsaturated fa
20.3.3 Chestnuts (Castanea sativa) 2001). Storage con
help preserve qua
Anelli et al. (1982) reported that chestnuts stored in 2 kPa O2 plus 20 kPa e02 at ose
protective measU
had an increased rate of sugar metabolismo These chestnuts have also been reported to
1 year or more (E
have lower glutamine content as the CO2 level increased from 5 to 20 kPa. A prestorage
store 'Piemontese
treatment of 80 kPa CO2 for 10 days followed by 80-90 days of storage at O°Cwas the best
nitrogen (~99.5 kJ
method of reducing Sclerotinia rot in chestnuts (Bertolini and Tonini, 1983). Rouves and
able to that resul
Prunet (2002) examined various storage tecOOiques for chestnuts, including low tempera-
(3°C-6°C, 50%-60'
ture CA (2 kPa O2 plus 5 kPa CO2 at -1°C or 1°C). For the varieties 'Marigoule' and
CA conditions by
'Bouche de Betizac' water loss was prevented, mold reduced, and taste maintained.
stored with diffen
The varieties 'Comballe' and 'Marron de Goujonac' did not benefit from CA storage.
(7°C and 25°C),ar
ehestnuts kept under 20 kPa CO2 and 2 kPa O2 had lower rot and insect development
after 150 days of storage, while treatment with 2.5 kPa CO2 and 1.5 kPa O2 was less ing the peroxide "
acids and sensory
effective (Mignani and Vercesi, 2003).
caused significan
significantly redw
20.3.4 Dates (Phoenix dactylifera)
Rygg (1975) suggested inert gas or vacuum packing for storage of high-moisture dates. 20.3.7 Macadami
Mohsen et al. (2003) noted that vacuum packaging is a useful technique for reducing
darkening of the date for long-term storage. Mutlak and Mann (1984) reported that As with other nut!
browning can be inhibited at low oxygen potentials. CA (5, 10, or 20 kPa CO2) at ooe or nitrogen flush (
extended storage period and maintained quality of fully mature 'Bahri' date fruit
(AI-Redhaiman, 2005). The quality of fruit stored under 20 kPa COz was maintained 20.3.8 Pecan(ea
for up to 26 weeks compared to 17 weeks for fruit held under 5 and 10 kPa CO2 and
only 7 weeks for fruit kept in normal air. A 20 kPa CO2 maintained acceptable levels of fruit Shelf life of pecan
soluble solids, total sugar, total tannins, and caffeoylshikimic acid. using CO2 as the I
the development
packaging materia
20.3.5 Figs (Ficus carica) packaging can Off
The effect of insecticidal GLOA treatments on the quality of dried figs was studied by
Damarli et al. (1998). An exothermic generator that maintained 1 kPa O2 and 10-15 kPa e02
20.3.9 Pine Nuts
atmosphere composition at 35°e for 30 h was used to treat 8.6 MT of producto Under these
conditions, considered to be optimal for controlling insect populations, there were no Pine nuts (piñone
observed negative effects on fruit weight, moisture, color, total sugar content, or acidity. with volcanic dus
Similarly, the effect of e02 proposed for insecticidal treatments on dried fig quality was tained their mois
examined by Meyvaci et al. (2003a). Exposure to 100 kPa CO2 for 45 days caused color condition (Esteve
changes as measured on the Hunter color scale with a colorimeter. In the Hunter scale,
L measures lightness and varies from 100 for perfect white to zero for black, a measures
20.3.10 Pistachio
redness when positive, gray when zero, and greenness when negative, and b measures
yellowness when positive, gray when zero, and blueness when negative. In CA-treated A1though pistachi
figs, mean L values decreased from 57.9 to 51.7, a values increased from 9.8 to 11.7, and O2 «0.5 kPa), v
b values decreased from 30.6 to 27.7. In studies to improve shelf life of dried figs, Meyvaci stability {Labavit
et al. (2003b), packaging in 100 kPa N2, 20 kPa e02 in N2, or under vacuum was examined pistachio nuts we
for up to 7.5 months of storage. Figs stored under N2 were darker than figs stored in at the monolayer 1
normal air, while e02 storage reduced darkening slight1y. Figs stored under N2 also content for storag
had increased sugar formation. Vacuum packaging resulted in the darkest fruit, but ambient conditior
reduced sugar formation. Storage under either N2 or CO2 controlled mold growth in fatty acid loss at ]
rehydrated figs for 3 months more than storage at ambient conditions. prediction of the ri
Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 521

20.3.6 Hazelnuts, Filberts (Corylus spp,)

Hazelnut is characterized by high oil content (about 65% of its kernel weight) and is rich
in unsaturated fatty acids, and therefore highly sensitive to rancidity (San Martin et al.,
2001).Storage conditions that are capable of retarding lipid oxidation and hydrolysis will
help preserve quality. Reduced temperature may be effective in combination with other
protective measures such as vacuum packaging in extending roasted kernel shelf life to
1 year or more (Ebraheim et al., 1994). Keme et al. (1983) reported that it is possible to
store 'Piemonteses,' 'Roman,' and 'Ákcakoca' hazelnuts at ambient temperature under
nitrogen (:2:99.5kPa) for prolonged periods of time with a loss of quality that is compar-
able to that resulting from storage conditions at low temperatures and controlled RH
(3°C-6°C,50%-60% RH). Hazelnut ('Negret') quality was studied after storage in selected
CA conditions by San Martin et al. (2001). The shelled and unshelled hazelnuts were
stored with different oxygen levels (1, 5, 10, and 20 kPa O2) at two different temperatures
(7°Cand 25°C),and quality of the hazelnuts during storage was monitored by determin-
ing the peroxide value, acid value, K232 and K270 indices, percentage of unsaturated fatty
acids and sensory analysis. After 1 year in storage, none of the storage conditions tested
caused significant rancidity. Storage in atmospheres with O2 levels lower than 10 kPa
significantIy reduced autoxidation and the low temperature delayed lipid rancidity.

20.3.7 Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia)

As with other nuts, prolonged exposure to O2 results in rancidity, and vacuum packaging
or nitrogen flush offers protection from O2 (Cavaletto, 2004).

20.3.8 Pecan (Carya iIIinoinsis)

Shelf life of pecans may be increased by storage in 2-3 kPa O2 in N2, and less frequentIy
using CO2 as the balance gas (Maness, 2004). Storage in <2 kPa O2 for 52 days can cause
the development of a "fruity" flavor (Santerre et al., 1990). O2 transmission rates for
packaging materials should be >0.08 mL/IOOcm per 24 h (Dull and Kays, 1988).Vacuum
packaging can offer a further benefit of protection from breakage.

20.3.9 Pine Nuts (Araucaria spp.)

Pine nuts (piñones), Araucaria araucana, stored in different MA (polyethylene bags lined
with volcanic dust) and CA (10-5 kPa CO2-02, and 20-5 kPa COT02) conditions main-
tained their moisture and starch content, and 20-5 kPa COT02 was the optimum CA
condition (Estevez and Galletti, 1997).

20.3.10 Pistachio (Pistacia vera)

Although pistachios are fairly stable stored in normal air at 20°C, storage under reduced
O2 «0.5 kPa), vacuum packaging or N2 flushed packaging further improves flavor
stability (Labavitch, 2004a). Changes in fatty acid composition and peroxide value of
pistachio nuts were studied during storage at 10°C-30°Cunder either air or 98 kPa CO2
at the monolayer moisture content of pistachios (considered to be the most stable moisture
content for storage of dehydrated products), and were compared to those stored under
ambient conditions (Maskan and Karatas, 1998). Use of the Arrhenius model to predict
fatty acid loss at 10°C,20°C, and 30°C under both atmospheric conditions, together with
prediction of the rate and extent of oxidation during storage, was also investigated. Storage
 T --
I
522 Modified and Controlled Atmospheres Dried Fruits and 1

of pistachio nuts under CO2 provided the greatest stability in relation to fatty acid loss,
peroxide values, and free fatty acid formation, especially at 10°C. The Arrhenius model 20.5 Future RI
revealed that storage of nuts under CO2 was more temperature sensitive, and more
linolenic acid was lost by oxidation than linoleic acid. Comparison of samples stored at Much of the cost I
either building nI
ambient conditions with those stored at or near the monolayer moisture content and under
leaks in poorly se,
CO2 storage showed the latter samples to be more stable.
sive, flexible plas
Storage stability, oil characteristics, and chemical composition of whole-split pistachio
nuts (Pistachia vera L.) were determined on samples stored in CA (2 kPa air, 98 kPa CO2), the use of eA tre
air at the monolayer value at 10°C, 20°C, 30°C, and at ambient conditions (Medeni and reduced by more
Sukru, 1999). Most oxidation was observed under ambient storage conditions. CO2 espe- Further research i
An important dis
cial1y improved the storage stability at low temperatures. Using the reaction rate constants
of peroxide formation, it was revealed that as temperature increased, the ratio of rate for insect control.
constants (air /C02) approached 1, which means that no significant difference existed times, but may a
between air and CO2 storages at 30°C. The oxidation activation energies were 8.33 and Methods to cheaF
needed.
13.39 kcal/mol under air and CO2 storage, respectively.

20.3.11 Raisins (Vitus vinifera)

Guadagni et al. (1978b) examined the effect of long-term exposure to insecticidal GLOA References
treatments on flavor stability of field-run Thompson seedless raisins. After 12 month
Aegerter, A.F. and
storage under GLOA (>1 kPa O2, 9-9.5 kPa CO2, 86-89 kPa N2, and 1 kPa Ar) at 18SC and quarantin
and 27°C, raisin flavor, based on taste panel evaluations, was equal or superior to that of Processing and
raisins stored under normal air. Al-Redhaiman, K.N
The effect of a low O2 atmosphere generated by the addition of a commercial O2 phere eonditio
absorber on fruit color of golden-colored, sultana raisins stored in hermetically heat-sealed Anelli, G., F. Menea
gas barrier bags at 15°C, 22SC, and 30°C was assessed over a 28, 56, or 84 day storage l'impiego delll
period (Tarr and Clingeleffer, 2005). Fruit color changes were measured using the cm Annis, P.C, 1987. 1
tristimulus L, a, b measuring system. Low storage temperature (15°C) and low O2 atmos- knowledge. In
phere both maintained fruit color during the experimental storage regimes. There were Conference on
significant negative effects on fruit color at the higher temperature (30°C) and longer pp. 128-148.
Bell, CH. 2000. Fun
storage period without a low O2 atmosphere.
Bell, CH. and N. S
of the Medite:
20.3.12 Walnuts (Juglans regia) 233-247.
Benhalima, H., M.e
Shelf life can be extended by storage in <1 kPa O2, O2 <0.5 kPa (balance N2) or C02levels produet insec1
above 80 kPa in air can be effective in insect control (Labavitch, 2004b). Products Reseal
Bertolini, P. and G
Sclorotinia pset
of Refrigeration
Brandl, D.e., E.L.Si
20.4 Conc1usions
ing different
Low moisture dried fruits and tree nuts are relatively tolerant of many kinds of MA or CA, Amyelois tram
making their use for insecticidal treatments or for shelf life extension attractive. Although 828-830.
CA treatment times for bulk-stored product are usually much longer than those for methyl Campbell, B.C, R.J.
bromide, at temperatures ;::::30°C,they are often comparable to phosphine fumigation. harvest aflato
Toxin Reviews
For applications that do not require rapid tumaround of product, such as yard stacks of
Cavaletto, CG. 20Q
raisins, CA treatments may be appropriate. CurrentIy, the biggest barrier to widescale Nursery Stoc~
adoption of CA for disinfestation of bulk dried fruits and nuts is the increased costs, No. 66, http://
although for high-value organic product, the added cost is more acceptable. MA in Curtis, CE., R.K. C
packaging (N2 flushed or vacuum packed) as a means of improving shelf life is currentIy Pyralidae) infl
used, most often by processors of tree nut products. Environmental
Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts 523

20.5 Future Research Needs

Much of the cost of eA treatments for bulk-stored dried fruits and nuts is associated with
either building new gastight storage structures or retrofitting old storage facilities. Gas
leaks in poorly sealed storages also drive up the cost. The recent development of inexpen-
sive, flexible plastic containers capable of maintaining treatment gas levels should make
the use of CA treatments more affordable. Costs for bulk CA treatment may be further
reduced by more fully exploring the use of vacuum under these flexible plastic containers.
Further research is needed to integrate this tecOOology with existing processing methods.
An important disadvantage to CA bulk treatments is the lengthy treatment times needed
for insect control. Treatment at elevated temperatures is well known to decrease treatment
times, but may add considerably to the cost or result in product quality degradation.
Methods to cheaply apply CA at high temperatures and protect product quality are also
needed.

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Al-Redhaiman, KN. 2005.Chemical changes during storage of 'Barhi' dates under controlled atmos-
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21
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