THE DESIGN OF A 7, 000KG PER-ANNUM LEMONGRASS OIL PRODUCTION PLANT

USING STEAM DISTILLATION

Presented to

The Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Science

(B.Sc.) in

Chemical Engineering

By

THE CEOs (Group 3)

MEMBERS:

ROY-LAYINDE BOSUN .A. 120401074

ANONYUO ANSELEM S. 120401020
OSINOWO DAMILOLA H. 120401070
ADEJUMO SEGUN O. 120401004
TAIWO OLUGBEMIRO D. 130401071
ADEDINSEWO FRANCIS A. 130401078
USMAN JUMAI D. 130401057
MATTHEW EMEKA COLLINS 100401042

DATE SUBMITTED: 10Q-2017

 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the research project entitled “THE DESIGN OF A 7000 KG PER ANNUM

LEMONGRASS OIL PRODUCTION PLANT USING STEAM DISTILLATION” is an

original work conducted by THE CEOs and submitted to the Department of Chemical and

Petroleum Engineering as a partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering, University of Lagos.

ROY-LAYINDE, BOSUN, A. ……………………………..

ANONYUO, ANSELEM S. ……………………………..

OSINOWO, OLUWADAMILOLA, H. ……………………………..

USMAN, JUMAI D. ……………………………..

ADEJUMO, OLUWASEGUN O. ……………………………..

ADEDINSEWO, FRANCIS A. ……………………………..

TAIWO, OLUGBEMIRO D. ……………………………..

MATTHEW, EMEKA C. ……………………………..

……………………………………..

Dr. Daniel Ayo

Project Co-ordinator
 The CEOs,

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Lagos

October, 2017

The Head,

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Lagos

CC: Dr. Daniel Ayo.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

In accordance with the regulations of the Faculty of Engineering, University of Lagos, THE

CEOs (Group 3) hereby presents her design project report which includes: process route and

equipment specification, mass balance, energy balance, process flow diagram, P & ID for the

plant and around the distillation unit, chemical engineering design for the distillation unit,

mechanical design of the distillation unit, material handling and HAZOP, plant layout, site layout

and costing and evaluation over a 15 year period for the design of a 7,000kg per annum

lemongrass oil production plant using steam distillation

This is a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Science degree in

Chemical Engineering at the University of Lagos.

Yours faithfully,

…………………………………

Roy-Layinde Olatubosun

Leader, The CEOs

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work is dedicated to the almighty God for seeing us through this design work.

We would like to express our deepest appreciation and gratitude to our project coordinator, Dr.

Daniel Ayo for his valuable guidance, advice, and encouragement throughout this experience.
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from

plant. Essential oils are very important as they have wide usage in the medical world as well as

the food, cosmetic and many other manufacturing industries.

The aim of this project is to produce quality essential oil (lemongrass oil) that would meet the

demand of consumers, to make profits and to increase foreign exchange by exporting the essential

oil produce.

Essential oils can be manufactured using different methods but in this project, the steam distillation

method is used. This is because old-time distillers favor this method for most oils, and say that none

of the newer methods produces better quality oils, and stem distillation is appropriate for

temperature sensitive materials like lemongrass whose boiling point is 240oC.

7000kg of lemongrass oil are to be produced per annum using lemongrass as the main raw

material. 1794kg of lemongrass is needed daily. It leaves the dryer, fed into the still tank and the

distillation process is carried out leaving the spent grass in as accumulation. This vapor mixture of

oil and steam is then condensed to liquid and the mixture is separated under gravity to the

hydrosol and 27kg of lemon grass oil daily. This project also contains a process flow diagram

showing the general arrangement of all the major equipments and general flow of materials.

The plant will be located in Igbesa, Ogun state because of its proximity to target market (Lagos

and Ibadan), availability large expanse of land for cultivation of lemongrass plant setup and office

space including many more factors.

The initial invested needed for this project is N45,000,000. The man power requirements for this

project are 50 people. The total envisaged profit for the 15 year project is at least N476,000,000

sales of lemongrass oil; with a payback period of 3 years and break-even point of 3271 unit of

lemongrass oil to be sold at N900 per 100g bottle. Profit will also be made from the sale of the by

product (hydrosol) to skin care industries and sale of spent lemongrass to farmers.
With unsatisfied demand of lemongrass oil being 1400 tons in 2017, and this figure expected to

grow to 2400 tons by 2024, there is a very large market available for this product. This project will

provide job opportunities for Nigerians, will make profit, and has the capability of increasing

foreign exchange by exporting. Hence this is a viable business an investor should be willing to

invest in.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................................ 2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL............................................................................................................ 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................... 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 11

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 11

1.1 AIM OF PROJECT ................................................................................................................. 12

CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................ 13

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 13

2.1 HISTORY OF ESSENTIAL OILS ......................................................................................... 13

2.2 USEFULNESS OF ESSENTIAL OILS. ................................................................................. 13

2.3 LEMON GRASS ESSENTIAL OIL ....................................................................................... 14

2.4 COMPOSITION OF LEMON GRASS ESSENTIAL OIL .................................................... 15

2.5 METHODS OF EXTRACTING ESSENTIAL OILS ............................................................. 17

2.5.1 SOLVENT EXTRACTION METHOD .............................................................................. 17

2.5.2 ENFLEURAGE ......................................................................................................................... 17

2.5.3 COLD PRESSED EXPRESSION ............................................................................................. 17

2.5.4 SUPER CRITICAL CO2 EXTRACTION: ............................................................................... 18

2.5.5 HYDRO-DISTILLATION .................................................................................................. 18

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 20

3.0. PROCESS ROUTE AND EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION ................................................. 20

3.1 PROCESS ROUTE SELECTION .......................................................................................... 20

3.2 STEAM DISTILLATION ....................................................................................................... 20

3.3 METHOD AND PROCEDURE ............................................................................................. 21

3.3.1 CUTTING............................................................................................................................ 21

3.3.2 DRYING ................................................................................................................................... 22

3.3.3 DISTILLATION .................................................................................................................. 22

3.3.4 CONDENSATION .............................................................................................................. 22

3.3.5 OIL AND WATER SEPERATION .................................................................................... 22

3.3.6 PACKAGING..................................................................................................................... 23

3.3.7 STORAGE ........................................................................................................................... 23

3.4 MODE OF OPERATION ....................................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................. 31

4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES .......................................................................... 31

4.1 MATERIAL BALANCE ............................................................................................................. 31

4.2 ENERGY BALANCE ............................................................................................................. 38

CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................ 44

5.0 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM .............................................................................................. 44

CHAPTER SIX .................................................................................................................................. 46

6.0 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM ............................................................... 46

CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................................ 48

7.0 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF THE MAIN PROCESS UNIT ......................... 48

7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 48

7.2 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................... 48

7.3 CALCULATION AND ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 49

7.4 PRESSURE DROP ................................................................................................................. 51

CHAPTER EIGHT ............................................................................................................................. 54

8.0 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE STILL TANK ................................................................ 54

8.1 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS ................................................................................... 54

8.2 THICKNESS OF THE STILL TANK WALL ....................................................................... 55

8.3 CLOSURE OF THE STILL TANK ....................................................................................... 56

8.4 LOADS.................................................................................................................................... 56

8.5 TEST FOR STABILITY ......................................................................................................... 58

CHAPTER NINE ............................................................................................................................... 60

9.0 STATEMENT ON MATERIALS HANDLING .................................................................... 60

9.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 60

9.2 MATERIALS HANDLING WITH CONVEYOR. ................................................................ 63

9.3 STORAGE OF ESSENTIAL OIL. ......................................................................................... 64

9.4 WORK STATION DESIGN ................................................................................................... 65

CHAPTER TEN ................................................................................................................................. 66

10.0 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET .................................................................................. 66

CHAPTER ELEVEN ......................................................................................................................... 71

11.0 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDIES SUMMARY (HAZOPs) .................................. 71

11.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................ 71

11..2 HAZOP STUDIES ON SELECTED EQUIPMENT .......................................................... 83

CHAPTER TWELVE ........................................................................................................................ 88

12.0 SITE LAYOUT AND PLANT LAYOUT .............................................................................. 88

12.1 `SITE LAYOUT ...................................................................................................................... 88

12.2 SITE SELECTION .................................................................................................................. 89

12.3 PLANT LAYOUT................................................................................................................... 90

12.4 FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR PLANT LAYOUT ............................................................ 90

CHAPTER THIRTEEN ..................................................................................................................... 92

13.0 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OVER FIFTEEN YEAR PERIOD ........................................ 92

13.1 PLANT CAPACIITY .............................................................................................................. 92

13.2 PRODUCTION PROGRAM .................................................................................................. 92

13.3 MANPOWER REQUIREMENT ............................................................................................ 92

13.4 RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT ................................................................................... 95

13.5 PLANT AND MACHINERIES .............................................................................................. 97

13.7 INITIAL INVESTMENT COST ......................................................................................... 100

13.8 FULL CAPACITY PRODUCTION COST (ANNUAL) ..................................................... 100

13.9 PROJECTED REVENUE ..................................................................................................... 101

13.10 ANNUAL PROFIT ........................................................................................................... 102

13.11 BREAKEVEN POINT ...................................................................................................... 104

13.12 PAY-BACK PERIOD ....................................................................................................... 104

13.13 ECONOMIC BENEFITS .................................................................................................. 105

 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from

plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil

of the plant from which they were extracted. An oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the

"essence of" the plant's fragrance— the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is

derived. Natural essential oils are volatile, fragrant and pleasant tasting oils obtained from leaves,

roots, flowers and fruits. They have wide applications in pharmaceutical, foods, perfumery and

cosmetics. A variety of plants have a high content of essential oils that are feasible for

commercial production. These plants mature fast, requiring little maintenance. The extraction of

oil from these varieties poses no special problems and the end product is marketable both locally

and abroad.

The origin of essential oil can be traced to an ancient concept – essential quintessence. About

300 essential oils have been identified, though only about 150 have been exploited for

commercial purposes of production. According to Menair, out of 225 plant families only 29.5%

are in tropical as well as temperate climate regions and 28% in all climates. Essential oils come

from the flowers (rose), fruits, leaves (lemon grass), roots (valerian), seeds (Nutmeg oil), and

bark (Cinnamon) of many plants. Oil of lavender, for example, is derived from a flower, oil of

patchouli from a leaf, and oil of orange from a fruit. The oils are formed in the green

(chlorophyll-bearing) parts of the plant, and with plant maturity are transported to other tissues,

particularly to the flowering shoots. The exact function of an essential oil in a plant is unknown;

it may be to attract insects for pollination, or to repel harmful insects, or it may be simply a

metabolic intermediate.
There are various methods which could be used for the extraction of essential oils from plant.

The method used in extraction of oil from its plants depends on the type of botanical material

that makes up the plant and also, the method of extraction affects the quality of oil being

extracted. Some methods used in the extraction of essential oils from plants include:

1. Distillation; Water distillation, steam distillation, and water and steam distillation

2. Expression; Sponge expression, and machine abrasion.

3. Solvent extraction; Maceration, Enfleurage, supercritical extraction.

Currently the most popular method of extraction is steam distillation, but as technological

advances are made, more efficient and economical methods are being developed. These include

methods such as solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, cold pressing, and microwave

extraction (Kabuba & Robert, 2009). The suitability of extraction method varies from plant to

plant and there are significant differences in the capital and operational costs associated

(Sheridan, 2000).

1.1 AIM OF PROJECT

1. To provide quality essential oil that would meet the demand of consumers.

2. To produce 7000kg of oil per annum

3. To make profit

4. To increase foreign exchange by exporting the essential oil produced

5. To create employment opportunities

6. To minimize project expense and cost of production.

7. To contribute in economic growth and development.

 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORY OF ESSENTIAL OILS

Going far back as 425 BC, documentation on the use of essential oils could be found written by

the great Greek historian Herodotus. He made mention of the Oil of Turpentine, and gave partial

information on the ways of producing it.The first authentic description of real essential oils has

been ascribed to Catalan Physician, Arnald de Villanova (1240-1311) who, by including products

of distillation other than oil of turpentine, may be said to have introduced the art of distillation

(Guenther, 1948). Since then, there has been advancement in the field of essential oil exploration,

Evidence being that in 1607 Joseph Du Chesne in his famous book “Pharmacopoea

Dogmaticorum Restituta” could state that “the preparations of essential oils is well known to

everybody, even to the apprentices” .

Today, development of new ways to extract oils, and improvement on the existing ways of

extracting oils form plants are being made.

2.2 USEFULNESS OF ESSENTIAL OILS.

Essential oils have variety of uses as seen in the society today, some industries which make use

of this oils include;

1. Pharmaceutical Industry: As expectorant, antifungal, analgesic, antiseptic, for muscular ache

etc. Here they are seen to have pharmacological effects through skin absorption and inhalation

that medicinally benefits physical and psychological health.

2. Consumer-Care industry: Here it is used in shampoos, soap and detergents, hair cream,

deodorants and other beauty products.

3. Food and Beverage industry: Here it is used as natural flavours and in the Agric-Food sector as

pesticides.
Other uses are as fragrance, in brain waves measurement (Lavender Oil) and in hedonics

(Kabuba, 2009).

4. Aromatheraphy: Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant

materials, known as essential oils, and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a

person's mood, cognitive function or health. Science has discovered that our sense of smell plays

a significant role in our overall health. Since ancient times Essential Oils have been used in

medicine because of their medicinal properties, for example some oils have antiseptic properties.

In addition, many have an uplifting effect on the mind, though different essential oils have

different properties.

2.3 LEMON GRASS ESSENTIAL OIL

Lemon grass (Cymbopogon Citratus) is a perennial plant with long, thin leaves which can be

found in various parts of the world such as Asia, Africa, Australia and other tropical regions.

The popularity of the plant is due to its use for various purposes such as a culinary herb in Asian

cuisine and a medicinal herb in India. In several countries, lemon grass is used as a tea, it is also

used as a preservative and pesticide. The oil extract of the lemon grass plant can be referred to as

its essential oil. This oil has been investigated and has been found to have various properties

which has rendered it useful for in various fields.

As the lemon grass plant is seen to have variety of uses, so also is the lemon grass essential oil.

The usefulness of the lemon grass essential oil is seen in various fields such as pharmacology (to

treat various health ailments such as acne, athlete’s foot, flatulence, muscle aches and scabies),

agriculture (as pesticides) and also in consumer care products such as perfumes, soaps, creams

and flavouring agents for tea.

Gagan, et al., (2011) investigated the scientific basis for the therapeutic use of Cymbopogon

Citratus (lemon grass). In this research, lemongrass essential oil was subjected to various activity

test such as an Antifungal activity test, where the essential oil was seen to be active against

dermatophytes such as Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypseum of

Cymbopogon Citratus. In conclusion to their research, Gagan et al., (2011) said that Cymbopogon

citratus contains various phytoconstituents such as flavonoids and phenolic compounds,

terpenoids and essential oils, which may be responsible for the different biological activities, they

also urged for further studies to be done to confirm their results. Boukhatem, et al., (2014)

researched the use of lemon grass essential oil as a potent anti-inflammatory and antifungal drug.

The antifungal activity of lemon grass essential oil was evaluated against several pathogenic yeast

and filamentous fungi using disc diffusion and vapour diffusion method.

Bankole & Joda, (2004) investigated the effect of lemon grass powder and essential oil on mould

deterioration and aflatoxin contamination of melon seeds. I was seen that melon seeds mixed with

lemon grass powder and essential oil showed almost no deterioration compared to the control

melon seeds to which herbicides were not applied. The various work carried out by these various

researcher’s show the usefulness of lemon grass essential oil in different fields.

2.4 COMPOSITION OF LEMON GRASS ESSENTIAL OIL

Lemon grass plant is one which has a wide variety of species. The specie of the plant depends

greatly on the region in which it is found. The lemon grass plant contains 1-2% of essential oil on

dry basis (Ranitha, et al., 2014) and the chemical composition of the oil varies widely upon specie

of the plant and agronomic treatment of the culture.

A breakdown of the Chemical composition of lemon grass is given in the table below

CHEMICAL FAMILY SPECIFIC COMPONENT

Monoterpenes myrcene (10.2-18%), limonene (0.4%)

Aldehydes
geranial (45.2%), neral (32.4%), citronellal

(0.2%)

Alcohols a-terpineol (0.9%), citronellol (0.3%), geraniol

(5.5-40%

Esters geranyl acetate (1.2%)

Trace materials camphene, camphor, α-camphorene, Δ-3-

carene,caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide,

1,8-cineole, citronellal, citronellol,

ndecyldehyde, α,β-dihydropseudoionone,

dipentene, β-elemene, elemol, farnesal,

farnesol, fenchone, furfural,iso-pulegol,

isovaleraldehyde, limonene, linalyl acetate,

menthol, menthone, methyl heptenol,

Source: East-West school of Aromatic studies

Lemon grass essential oil has high content of Citral (composed of geranial and neral isomers)

which is used as a raw material for the production of ionone, vitamin A and beta-carotene
 2.5 METHODS OF EXTRACTING ESSENTIAL OILS

There are various ways through which essential oils can be extracted from plants; the method

employed depends greatly on the plant material from which the oil is to be extracted and the desired

end product i.e. the final use of the oil (Kabuba, 2009)

2.5.1 SOLVENT EXTRACTION METHOD

Solvent extraction (solid-liquid extraction) works based on the principle that a solid brought in

contact with a solvent is bound to lose its soluble content to the solvent. Thus, considering the

removal of essential oil from plants material, the plant material is submerged in a vessel which

contains a solvent (usually petroleum, ether or hexane) that the solute within the plant material

would have a special affinity for. After leaving the solid-liquid mixture for a while, the solid is then

separated from the liquid. The liquid which now is a mixture of essential oil and the solvent used

for extraction are separated by evaporation and the simultaneous condensation of the vapour.

2.5.2 ENFLEURAGE

This is a traditional method of extraction of oil from plants materials. It is an extraction method that

is usually used for plant material which has low content of essential oil and heating them would

more likely destroy the blossom before releasing the essential oil from the plant material. The

enfluerage method has been said to be a “labour intensive way of extraction and an expensive

process”. To describe the method, flowers are placed on a tray and immersed in a container of

odourless vegetable or animal fat (usually cold) this is usually allowed to seat for some hours while

the fat absorbs the essential oil from within the flowers. The flowers could be switched until the fat

becomes saturated with essential oil. At this point, the flowers are removed from the fat and alcohol

is then added to the fat in order to separate the essential oil from the fat. The essential oil is then

recovered by evaporation of the alcohol.

2.5.3 COLD PRESSED EXPRESSION

This is a method of extraction of essential oils at ambient temperature without the application of
extraneous heat. This method was practiced long before the process of distillation probably because

the necessary tools were readily available for it (Hüsnü & Buchbauer, 2010). This method is used

almost entirely for the extraction of citrus fruit oils, such as the oils from bergamot, lemon, lime,

mandarin, orange, grapefruit etc. It is also known as the Sacrificial method. The process occurs

thus; the fruit is furled on a surface with sharp projections that penetrate their peels thereby piercing

the pouches containing the essential oil and causing the oil to be released. Mechanical pressure is

then applied to the fruit to squeeze the juice from the pulp and the essential oil from the pouches.

Seeing as the essential oil and the fruit juice are immiscible, the separate into different layers which

is made more obvious by centrifugation after which separation is accomplished. A major drawback

that the essential oil gotten with the use of the Cold Pressed Expression method have a relatively

short shell life compared to oils gotten by other methods.

2.5.4 SUPER CRITICAL CO2 EXTRACTION:

Supercritical CO2 extraction (SCO2) involves carbon dioxide heated to 87 degrees F and pumped

through the plant material at around 8,000 psi, under these conditions; the carbon dioxide is likened

to a 'dense fog' or vapor. With release of the pressure in either process, the carbon dioxide escapes

in its gaseous form, leaving the Essential Oil behind. The usual method of extraction is through

steam distillation. After extraction, the properties of a good quality essential oil should be as close

as possible to the "essence" of the original plant. The key to a 'good' essential oil is through low

pressure and low temperature processing. High temperatures, rapid processing and the use of

solvents alter the molecular structure, will destroy the therapeutic value and alter the fragrance.

2.5.5 HYDRO-DISTILLATION

Distillation is unquestionably the most popular and the most frequently used method for the

extraction of essential oil from plants (Hüsnü & Buchbauer, 2010). The process of distillation is

seen to be applied in various ways depending on economic, technological and some internal design

constraints such as raw material and time. Regardless of the distillation process being used, the
basic procedure remains the same. It begins by heating water to its boiling point and the steam

produced is then brought in contact with the plant material from which the essential oil is to be

extracted from. When the plant material is subjected to heat in the presence of moisture from the

steam, the essential oil is liberated from the plant. The liberated essential oil and steam mixture are

then passed through a condenser, where they are cooled to liquid form and separated based on the

immiscibility of the two liquids.

There are four various techniques of hydro-distillation which are used in the removal of essential oil

from plants these techniques are;

1. Water distillation

2. Water and steam distillation

3. Direct steam distillation

4. Distillation with cohobation

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. PROCESS ROUTE AND EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

3.1 PROCESS ROUTE SELECTION

Essential oils can be extracted using a variety of methods, although some are not commonly used today.

Nowadays, a reputable distiller will try to preserve the original qualities of the plant, but the final

therapeutic result is often not formed until after the extraction process. During extraction, the qualities of

the oil change to give it more value - for example, chamazulene (characteristic of the pure blue colour of

German Chamomile) is formed during the steam distillation process. Currently, the most popular method

for extraction is steam distillation . For the production of lemongrass oil, the technology that will be

used is STEAM DISTILLATION. Many old-time distillers favor this method for most oils, and say that

none of the newer methods produces better quality oils.

3.2 STEAM DISTILLATION

Steam distillation is a special type of distillation or a separation process for temperature sensitive materials

like oils, resins, hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and may decompose at their boiling point.

The fundamental nature of steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be

distilled at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s).

Essential oils contain substances with boiling points up to 200°C. In the presence of steam or boiling water,

however, these substances are volatilized at a temperature close to 100°C at atmospheric pressure.

In this method of distillation, the steam used in the extraction of the essential oil from within the plant

material is produced via a steam generator or boiler and channeled via pipes into the still which holds the

plant material. The plant material is held in the still tank above the steam inlet and the steam is channeled

through. The temperature of the steam must be high enough to vaporize the oil present, yet not so high that

it destroys the plants or burns the essential oils. As they are released, the tiny droplets of essential oil
evaporate and, together with the steam molecules, travel through a tube into the condenser. The steam used

in distillation is usually saturated or superheated, and frequently at atmospheric pressure. As the steam

cools, it condenses into water. The essential oil forms a film on the surface of the water. To separate the

essential oil from the water, the film is then decanted or skimmed off the top. The remaining water, a

byproduct of distillation, is called floral water, distillate, or hydrosol. It retains many of the therapeutic

properties of the plant, making it valuable in skin care for facial mists and toners. Steam distillation unit is

usually preferred when large volume of plant material is being distilled to extract the oil.

Some major advantage of the direct-steam distillation technique includes;

1) Increased efficiency of oil extraction.

2) The amount and quality of steam can be regulated

3) Most widely used process of extraction of essential oil for large scale extraction.

4) Throughout the flavor and fragrance supply industry it is the standard method of extraction.

5) Lower risk of thermal degradation as temperature generally will not be above 1100C. Hence, it is

suitable for temperature sensitive material like lemongrass.

6) It is less labour intensive than other methods such as solvent extraction.

3.3 METHOD AND PROCEDURE

3.3.1 CUTTING

This is the chopping of lemon grass into smaller diameter size before drying to enable proper reduction of

moisture content in lemon grass and to give better drying result. Cutting process helps

the lemon grass retain its colour, odour even after drying. Cutting of leaves enhance and help catalyze the

production of the oil during the process. It is an advantage also because cutting can increase the quantity of

the grass fed during the operation. Cutting also helps to increase the surface area that comes in contact with

steam during distillation. Whole or uncut leaves occupy more space because of uneven distribution in the
still and it leads to lower yield of oil. The leaves will be cut in 2 cm lengths and the drying air temperature

kept at 65 °C, because essential oil content and active principle concentration are high at this length and

temperature, as described by Martinazzo et al. (2010).

3.3.2 DRYING

The aim of drying is to reduce the moisture content of the lemongrass from 15% to 6%. This will increase

the quality of essential oil produced. Dry leaves require less steam and fuel to distill Drying will be done at

65 °C for 30 minutes.

Drying is a two stage process: firstly the transfer of heat to the wet lemongrass to vaporize the water in the

product and secondly mass transfer of moisture from the interior to the surface where it evaporates.

3.3.3 DISTILLATION

The dried and cut lemongrass leaves are placed in the plant chamber of the still and the steam from the

boiler is allowed to pass through the leaves under pressure which softens the cells and allows the essential

oil to escape in vapor form. The temperature of the steam must be high enough to vaporize the oil present,

yet not so high that it destroys the plants or burns the essential oils (the temperature is set at 110 0C). As

they are released, the tiny droplets of essential oil evaporate and, together with the steam molecules, travel

through a tube into the condenser.

3.3.4 CONDENSATION

The vapor that is produced by the still is liquefied using a condenser. Oil is adhering because it is more

volatile than the steam. Condensation is done at 70 0C, at this temperature, the oil and water become

immiscible and separation can be done. The liquid condensate forms a film or continuous layer of liquid

that flows over the surface of the tube under the action of gravity.

3.3.5 OIL AND WATER SEPERATION

This separates the oil from the water. It is usually done by letting the mixture settle in a large container.

Since the oil is denser than water (hydrosol), it is collected at the top of the container. Separation is based
on gravity

3.3.6 PACKAGING

Dark glass bottles will be used as packaging material because essential oil can easily react to sunlight,

which may cause some changes in the quality of the product.

3.3.7 STORAGE

Finished products are then kept in cool warehouses as to prevent the oil from deteriorating and loose its

quality.

3.4 MODE OF OPERATION

The plant will be run using the SEMI-BATCH process. Semi-batch (semiflow) process operates much like

batch process in that the lemongrass will be charged into the still tank in batches. However it is modified to

allow continuous addition of steam. A normal batch reactor is filled with reactants in a single stirred tank at

time t=0 and the reaction proceeds. A semi-batch reactor, however, allows partial filling of reactants with

the flexibility of adding more as time progresses (here, the steam is added continuously to the still tank.

3.5 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS

They include:

1. Cutter

2. Dryer

3. Boiler
 4. Still tank

5. Condenser

6. Separator

7. Packaging Machine

1. CHOICE OF DRYER

Rotary dryer (single shell dryer)

DESCRIPTION:

The dryer is made up of a large, rotating cylindrical tube, usually supported by concrete columns. The dryer

slopes slightly so that the discharge end is lower than the material feed end in order to convey the

lemongrass through the dryer under gravity. The lemongrass to be dried enters the dryer, and as the dryer

rotates, it is lifted up by a series the fins, it falls back down to the bottom of the dryer, passing through the

hot gas stream as it falls.

The dryer has advantage of reasonable structure, high efficiency and low energy consumption.

The reason for this dryer choice is because the use of hot gas is very suitable and there is no loss of lemon

grass to decomposition.. Rotary dryers also offer the option to cool, clean, shred, and/or separate the dried

material.

DRYER SPECIFICATION

Inclination – 3-5%
Capacity- 0.5- 1.5 tons/hr

Motor power – 3Kw

Weight of dryer – 2.4 tons

Drying temperature – 65 oC
2. BOILER:

The boiler will supply the steam required to evaporate the oil from the leaves of the lemongrass. It

is designed to operate under specific conditions of pressure and steam rates considering efficiency

and reliability.

CHOICE OF BOILER:

Fire tube boiler

DESCRIPTION:

In firetube boilers, the combustion gases pass inside boiler tubes, and heat is transferred to water on

the shell side. The hot gas tubes are immersed into water, in a closed vessel. The fire tube heats up

the water and converts the water into steam, and the steam remains in the vessel. It is capable of

producing 17.5 kg/m3 and with a capacity of 9 metric tons of steam per hour. Firetube boilers are

often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times the combustion (or

flue) gases flow the length of the pressure vessel as they transfer heat to the water.

Firetube boilers are compact in size, they have low cost and the fluctuation of steam demand can be

met easily. They are used to produce steam at low pressure. The opeating pressure is low (1 atm),

therefore firetube boilers are sufficient.

BOILER SPECIFICATION

Evaporation capacity- 125 kg/hr

Maximum operating pressure – 4 bar

Area of heating surface – 6.2 m2

Water capacity – 0.56m3

Efficiency – 80%

Steam temperature – 151 oC

3. STILL TANK:

The plant material is placed in the still and then required steam is supplied from the boiler to extract

the oil. Some materials like Iron and copper react with essential oils and should therefore not be

used for the construction of the tank. Stainless steel of grade 304 is the material of construction for

the still tank. Stainless still will not react with the lemongrass oil, it is widely available, it is stable

and it is the most widely used material for making still tank.

4. CONDENSER:

The condenser converts the steam and oil vapour to liquid. This is very important and the rate of

distillation depends on it. The condenser should be made from stainless steel.

.It should be kept cool at all times to enhance its efficiency.

CHOICE OF CONDENSER:

Surface condenser (shell and tube type)

DESCRIPTION:

This is the most important type of condenser used in the present day. Its main function is to

condense low pressure steam. It has the advantage that the condensate (lemongrass oil and

hydrosol) and the cooling water are entirely separate, rather they are separated by heat transfer wall.

Hence condensate is pure and can be reused. This type of condenser has a large area of cooling sure

compared to the systems volume. The steam passes through the condenser and condenser on contact

with the cooling surfaces. The condensate collects in the bottom of the condenser from where it is

pumped into the separator.

CONDENSER SPECIFICATION

Shell: 0.20 m ID: 2.44 m long

Tubes: 1 1/4 in. OD: 0.81 m long

Single pass, cold-water-cooling element

5. OIL WATER SEPARATOR:

This separates the oil from the water. It is usually done by letting the mixture settle in a large

container. Since the water is denser than the oil, it is collected at the top of the container. We are

using gravity separator.

CHOICE OF SEPARATOR:

Baffled type

DESCRIPTION:

The oil are separated forms a film of oil that is automatically skimmed off

SEPARATOR SPECIFICATION:

Height: 1 m
Pipe size: 1.4 gpm (Capacity)

.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES

4.1 MATERIAL BALANCE

Wv Mco

SEPARATION
F1 F2
CUTTER CONDENSER
STILL
DRYER
Fo TANK

St

Mci P

Mass Balance From Law for mass conservation:

{Accumulation within the system}= {input through system boundaries} – {output through

system boundaries} + {generation within the system} – {consumption within the system} (1)

Assumptions:

 Semi batch process

 No reaction

 There’s Perfect Mixing in the Tank

 The Density of oil and water is constant

 Wet lemon grass contained 15% moisture

 The water lemon grass will be dried to 6%

Equation (1) becomes

{Input through system boundaries} = {output through system boundaries} (2)

Hence material balance will be taken for every process

The processes involved are:

1. Cutting

2. Drying

3. Distillation

4. Condensation

5. Oil-water separator

Taking material balance around the still tank, condenser and separator

Oil to be produced = 7000kg/year

No of work days in a week = 5 days (Monday to Friday)

No of days in a year = 52 x 5 = 260 days

Hence, Producing 7000kg/year is equivalent to producing 26.9kg/day

Basis: 1 day

Yield: 1.5 %

𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎
F1 = = 466,667.67 kg/yr = 1794.87 kg/day
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟓

From experimental data gotten from “modification of an improved steam distillator for the

extraction of essential oil in lemon grass” by Sulaiman Ifeloluwa i.

1 kg of lemon grass used 16L of water to produce the steam for steam distillation.

Assumption: volume of water = volume of steam.

If 1kg = 16 L

Hence 27 kg = 432L

1000 𝑘𝑔
Hence, Mass of steam = x 432 dm3 x (1m3 / 1000 dm3) = 432 kg
𝑚3

Fst = 432kg

TERMINOLOGIES SPECIFICATION

Fo= Mass of the moist lemon grass

Wv= Mass of vapor leaving the moist lemon grass

F1= Mass of the dried lemon grass coming from the dryer= Input to the still tank

F2 = Mass of the lemon oil and the hydrosol mixture leaving the still tank hot

St= Mass of the steam coming in from the Boiler

W= Mass of the hydrosol

F3 = Mass of the condensed lemon oil and hydrosol mixture

P= Mass of the pure lemon oil

The lemon grass contains 3% lemon grass oil

4.1.1 For the dryer

Based on dried lemon (6% of the moist grass) = 1794.87kg/day

The amount of lemon grass without water

0.85 x Lg = 0.94 x 1794.87

Lg = 1984.92kg/day

Water vapour = 1984.92 – 1794.87 = 190.05 kg/day

4.1.2 For the still tank and condenser

Still tank

CONDENSER

BALANCE AROUND THE STILL TANK

F2 = 432 + 1794.87(0.06) + 1794.87(0.03)

F2 = 432 + 107.69 + 53.85

F2 = 593.54

Accumulation = F1+ FSt -F2

Accumulation= 1794.87 + 432 -593.52

Accumulation = 1633.35kg

BALANCE AROUND THE CONDESER

The mass of the cooling water in= The mass of the cooling water out

Mco=Mci

Balance for the oil mixture:

F2 = F3

F3 = 593.54Kg

4.1.3 For the separator

F3 = P + W

W = F3 – P

W = 593.52 -26.9 = 566.62kg

To find the quantity of water vapour removed from the fresh Lemon grass during drying, an overall

balance is carried out around the whole system.

Input = Output

4.1.4 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR THE BOILER

Feedwater = Steam/( 1 - % BD)

MASS OF STEAM=St = 432 kg

Blow down= Assuming the blow down concentration is 10% as a result of the amount of solid and

the maximum permissible concentration of solid inside the boiler drum

Blowdown= 0.10

Fw= Mass of feed water

Fw= 432/(1-0.10)= 432/0.90

Fw= 480kg
4.2 ENERGY BALANCE

A=

still tank B= condenser C=Separator

For the dryer

F1 = mass rate of lemon grass with 15% moisture content

F2 = mass rate of dried lemon grass 6% moisture content.

Qdrier = Qsensible + Qevaporation = ML CpL (dT) + MW

LW

MW = mass of water evaporated = 0.15 F1 – 0.06 F2

= 0.15 (1984.92) – 0.06 (1794.87) = 190.05kg

Lw = 2260kJ/kg

Qdrier = (190.05 x 2260) + (1794.87 x 2 (65 -25)) = 5.75 x 105 KJ/day

Qdryer = 6.633 Kw
For the cutter : energy is assumed negligible compared to the other requirements.

BALANCE AROUND THE STILL TANK

Heat provided by the steam from the boiler = heat needed to raise oil-water mixture to T1 +

latent heat of oil-water mixture.

Note:

 Water is entering the boiler at 25℃

 Basis = 1day

 Boiling point of water = 100℃

 Boiling point of lemon grass oil = 224℃

 The boiler is assumed to heat the water to 110 ℃ ( superheated steam)

 Content of the still tank is raised to 110℃

 The condenser is going to condense the oil water mixture to a temperature well

below 100℃ to enable the oil and water to be in liquid form. Hence it is assumed

that we are condensing the oil-water mixture to 70℃

 Steam heating steam leaves the still tank at 50℃

 Adiabatic operation

Major components of lemon grass oil

Constituents Molar mass (g/gmol) Latent heat of Mole fraction (n)

Citral( C ) 152.2334 vaporization

62.50 (kj/mol) 0.9923
Nerol(N) 154.2493 62.90 0.0391
Beta-mycerene(M) 136.23 50.60 0.0386
CPO of water = 4.2 KJ/Kg.K
CPL of lemon grass oil = 2KJ/Kg.K

CALCULATION FOR LATENT HEAT

 Latent heat of water = 2266 KJ/Kg

 Specific Latent heat of oil (Loil)= nNLN +nCLC + nM LM

= [(0.0391 x 62.9) + (0.9223 x 62.5) + (0.0386 x 50.60) ] = 62.05 KJ/mol

 Molar mass of lemon grass is approximately = molar mass of Citral + molar mass of

Nerol + molar mass of beta-mycerene = 152.2334 + 154.2493 + 136.23 =

442.71 g/gmol.

 specific Latent heat of oil (KJ/kg) is now gotten as = 140.16 KJ/kg

 Hence latent heat of lemon grass oil = Moil Loil= 26.9 x 140.16 = 3770.3 KJ

 Specific latent heat of water (Lw) = 2266.0 K J / k g

Q = energy lost by steam + energy gained by lemon grass oil and water

Energy to raise temp of lemon grass oil and water =

Mass of lemon grass and water = 107.69 + 26.92 = F3 = 134.61 kg/hr

Mass accumulation = mass of spent lemon grass + oil left

= 163.33 + (53.85 + 26.92) = 1660.26 kg/hr

QLgO = ML Cp dT = 134.61 x 2 x (110-65) = 12114.9 KJ/hr

Energy to change the phase of oil water mixture

Qvapour = Mw Lw + Mo Lo = (107.69 x 2260) + (26.92 x3770.29) =3.49 x 105 kJ/day

Heat lost by steam

Qsteam = 432 x 4.2 (70 - 110) = -72576 KJ/day

Energy to heat lemongrass

Qlg = 1633.35 x 2 x (110-25) = 2.78 x 105 kJ/day

Overall Energy Balance of still tank

Qstill-tank = 3.49 x 105 – 72576 + 2.78 x 105

Qstill-tank = 619424KJ/day

Qstill-tank = 7.17KW

CALCULATION FOR HEAT REQUIRED GENERATED BY THE BOILER,.

Assumptions:

1. Water is entering the boiler at 25℃

2. Lemon grass is entering the still tank at 25℃

3. Still tank and boiler are properly lagged

4. Water is heated to 110 ℃

5. Mass of water = mass of steam

Mw = mass of water = 432kg

 Qboiler = Qsensible + Qvapour

Qvapour = Latent heat of water = Mw x Lw = 432 x 2266 = 978,912 KJ

Qsensible = MwCPw(T2 – T1)= MwCPw(Tb– T0) = 432 x 4.2 x 85 = 154224 KJ Qb

= 1133136 KJ/day

In a day it will be 13.115KW

ENERGY BALANCE AROUND THE CONDENSER

Assumption(s)

1. The cooling water is at 25 ℃

2. The condenser is cooling to 70℃

So, heat removed by the condenser = heat lost by the oil water mixture + heat gained by cooling

water

Heat gained by using 432 kg of water = 432 x 4.2 x (70-25) = 81648 kJ/hr

Heat lost by lemon grass oil (temperature change):

Qsensible = 134.61 x 2.0 x (70 – 110) = - 10768 KJ/hr

Heat lost by water (temperature change)

Latent heat of vaporization = - latent heat of condensation

= MwCPw (T2 – T1) + MwL + MOCO (T2 – T1) + MOL(T2 – T1)

= 539.69 x 4.2 x (70-110) +539.69 x -2266.05 + 59.38 x 2 x (70-110) + 59.38 x -3770.29 + 432 x

4.2 x (70-25)

Qcondenser =-90667.92 – 1222964.53 -4750.4 – 223879.82 + 81648

Qcondenser = -1.459 x 106 KJ/day =-16.89KW

 No energy balance for the separator as inlet temperature = outlet temperature

OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE

The total energy required (overall) = Qdryer + Qboiler + Qcondenser + Qstilltank

= 13.115 – 16.89 +7.17 + 6.633

= 10.028 KW
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

This is a diagram used in chemical engineering to indicate general flow of plant processes and

equipment. It displays the relationship between major equipment of a plant facility, it doesn’t show

minor details such as piping details and designations.

The process flow diagram includes:

 Process piping

 Major equipment items

 Control valves and other major valves

 Connections with other systems

 Recycle streams
STREAM MEANING FLOWRATE(kg/day) Temperature
1 Mass of wet lemon grass with 15% moisture 1984.92 25℃
n) bh))r)
content
2 Mass of Water vapor leaving the dryer 190.05 65℃
3 Mass of Dried lemon grass with 6% 1794.87 65℃

moisture
4 Mass of Cut lemon grass 1794.87 65℃
content
5 Mass of water entering the storage 432 25℃
6 Mass of water leaving the storage 432 25℃
7 Mass of Pumped water(increased pressure) 432 25℃
8 Mass of steam going to the still tank 432 110℃
9 Mass of Water for condensation 432 25℃
10 Mass of condensed oil-water mixture 593.54 70℃
11 Mass of water leaving the condenser 432 70℃
12 Mass of Oil 26.92 70℃
13 Mass of Hydrosol 566.62 70℃
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM

Stream Description Temp. Pressure (atm) Mass flow

(◦C) (kg/hr)

1a Water leaving the storage 25 1 480

1b Water leaving the boiler (going to still tank) 110 1 432

2 lemon grass dried from 15% to 6% moisture 65 1 1794.87

content

3a Water from storage to condenser 25 1 432

3b Pumped water (increased pressure) to the 25 1.5 432

condenser

4a Steam plus lemon grass oil 110 1 566.61

4b Condensed oil plus water 70 1 566.61

5 Lemon grass oil from seperator 70 1 26.92

6a Hydrosol from separator 70 1 539.69

 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF THE MAIN PROCESS UNIT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The still tank is needed to contain the lemon grass for which the oil will be extracted from it

through steam distillation. Steam distillation is the process of passing steam through a closely

packed bed of plant material placed in the tank still. The steam is obtained from an external

boiler. Emerging vapor from the packed bed of plant of material containing the volatile essential

oil is led to condenser for condensation. The condensed water is then separated from the

immiscible oil in a vessel called separator. Crude essential oil obtained from the separator may

be further redistill, dried, filtered or centrifuged to improve its appearance and keeping quality.

This still tank contains two incoming streams, the first is the dried and cut lemon grass with a

flow rate of 1734kg/day and the second stream is the steam coming from the boiler at 1100C and

1atm with a flow rate of 432kg/day.

In the still tank is a Packed Bed, this is important because it offers a low pressure drop and it

gives a continuous contact between the steam and the surface of the lemon grass which contains

the lemon grass oil. This packed bed is also important because of the use of steam which is

corrosive to trays.

7.2 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

Stainless steel is the material of construction. It is widely available.

1. Resistance to corrosion
Stainless steel has been shown to be resistant to corrosion and other chemical deterioration.

.Stainless steel, with its superior anti-corrosive properties, can be a good choice in industrial

environments that experience high temperatures. It will not react with the lemongrass oil

2. Good for the environment

70 percent of all steel in North America is recycled each year, and approximately 50% of steel is

produced in facilities that use recycled materials or don’t emit CO2.

It is a great choice for projects when it’s a priority to minimize environmental impacts. This

environmental consciousness is becoming a greater and greater concern across all industries.

3. Cost-Effectiveness

Stainless steel has high tensile strength, meaning they can withstand the same amount of pressure

as other metals while being thinner in construction. This gives it a greater carrying capacity and

makes it more cost-effective

7.3 CALCULATION AND ANALYSIS

1 Batch= 4hrs

1794.87𝑘𝑔 1𝑘𝑔 4ℎ𝑟𝑠

Mass of lemon grass= x 8ℎ𝑟𝑠 x 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Mass of lemon grass = 897.435 kg/batch

Basis= 1 batch

Packing Density =300 kg/m3

For a cylindrical shaped vessel, the vessel is given by the equation

Volume = 𝜋D2H/4

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Volume = 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
 897.435
Volume = = 2.992m3\
300

For this design, a height to diameter ratio is assumed based on literature (Design of essential oil
plant from eucalyptus leaves) which is 2.5 i.e. H : D is 2.5, then

D= Diameter of the tank = 1.151m

H= Height of the tank = 2.877m

Heat loss in the still tank

Qsupplied = Qrecieved + UA∆Tcm

UA∆Tcm = Qsupplied - Qrecieved

UA∆Tcm = 7.17Kw {=Kj/s}

∆Tcm = 110 – 70 = 40oC

U = 1⁄(𝛿⁄𝛾 + 1⁄𝛼) where

γ =Heat transfer coefficient of insulator (fiber with binder) = 0.55Kw/mK

δ = Thickness of the insulating material = 30mm

α = Heat transfer coefficient of the constructing material (Stainless steel) = 0.016Kw/mK

U= 0.01599 Kw/m2K

7.17
Therefore A = 0.01599 𝑋 45 == 9.967m2

A=𝜋𝐷𝐻

D= diameter of the still tank = 1.127m

H= Overall height of the tank = 2.818m

An inner holding shall be provided to ensure easy transfer of heat and removal of the

spent lemon grass. This shall be constructed from the same material as the outside carbon steel
casings. An allowance of 0.005m between the two casings shall be provided. Total area of the

the inner casing is 0.01 x 16 = 0.16m2. Therefore,

L= (9.967 – 0.16)/(3.142 x 1.127)

L=2.77m

To find the voidage in the tank

M=V(1-e)ῤ

Where ῤ= Density of Lemon grass

V=Volume of the still tank= 𝜋D2H/4 = 2.811m3

From literature, density of lemon grass is between 887-889 kg/m3

So solving for voidage, we have

e = 0.64

7.4 PRESSURE DROP

It is important to be able to predict the drop in pressure for the flow of fluid streams through a

packed column. The flow through beds composed of stationary granular particle is a frequent

occurrence and are needed to predict the pressure drop across the beds due to resistance caused

by the presence of the particles.

In this chapter, Ergun’s equation will be used to predict the pressure drop in the packed column
fp is the packed bed friction factor
∆p is the pressure drop across the bed,
L is the length of the bed (not the column),
Dp is the equivalent spherical diameter of the packing,
ῤ is the density of fluid,
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,
Vs is the superficial velocity (i.e. the velocity that the fluid would have through the empty tube at
the same volumetric flow rate), and
e is the void fraction of the bed (bed porosity at any time).

μ = 1.3 x 10-5 L=3.379m

ῤ= 0.6kg/m3 Dp=25mm

𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
Vs = = 0.1614m/s
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Grp = 66.47 fp= 4.007

∆p = 1158.3N/m2
∆p = 0.01146atm

The pressure drop is 0.01146atm

The final dimension of the still tank is

Diameter: 1.13m

Thick Plate: 50mm

Capacity: 1000kg

Height: 2.82m
 CHAPTER EIGHT

8.0 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE STILL TANK

Vessel function: the still tank is used for the removal of the lemongrass oil from the lemon grass

using steam.

Operating temperature and pressure the still tank will be subjected to are 110℃ and 1 atm

respectively.

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure

This is taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be 5 to 10%

above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets.

The normal working pressure of the still tank is 1atm. The maximum allowable working

pressure is taken to be 1.1 atm

Maximum Design Temperature

This is taken as the maximum working temperature of the stainless steel tank, with due

allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures.

The temperature the tank will be subjected to is 110℃ , the maximum working temperature is

set at 160℃ .

8.1 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS

Considering maximum design temperature to be 160℃ , the corresponding maximum allowable

stress using stainless steel of grade 304 is 101.97 N/mm2 .

8.2 THICKNESS OF THE STILL TANK WALL

𝑃 𝐷
𝑖 𝑖
t = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃
𝑖

where Pi is design pressure

Di is the diameter of the vessel

S is the max allowable stress

E is the welding efficiency

Pi = 1.1 atm = 0.1114575 N/mm2

Di = 1.151m

S = 101.97 N/mm2

E=1

0.1114575 × 1151
t = (2×101.97 = 0.629mm
×1)−(1.2 ×0.1114575)

Adding corrosion allowance of 6.371mm = 7mm

Thickness of the wall is 7mm

For the given diameter of the tank, (1.151m) the specified corresponding thickness should be

taken to be 7mm
 8.3 CLOSURE OF THE STILL TANK

This will be done using a torispherical head because it’s the most commonly used for cylindrical

shells and for when operating pressure is below 15 bar. It is also very cost effective.

Thickness of the closure is given by:

0.885 Pi 𝑅𝑖
t= 𝑆𝐸−0.1𝑃𝑖

Where Ri is the crown radius = Di

0.885 ×0..1114575 ×1151

T = (101.97 )−(0.1 ×0.1114575) = 1.11mm

the thickness of the closure is 1.11mm

8.4 LOADS

The still tank will be subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be designed to

withstand the worst combination of loading without failure. the maximum tensile stress.

The main sources of load to consider are

1. Pressure

2. Dead weight of vessel and contents

3. External loads imposed by piping and attached equipment

The longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure (internal or external), given by;
 𝑃𝐷 0.1114575 ×1151
Longitudinal stress = = = 4.58 N/mm2
4𝑡 7 ×4

𝑃𝐷 0.1114575 ×1151
Circumferential stress = = = 9.16 N/mm2
2𝑡 7 ×2

Weight Loads

The major sources of dead weight loads are

1. The vessel shell;

2. The vessel fittings: manways, nozzles;

3. Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils;

4. External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping;

5. Auxiliary equipment that is not self-supported; condensers, agitators;

6. Insulation;

Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates,

Cw = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports, etc., which can

be taken as 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings; 1.15 for distillation columns, or

similar vessels, with several manways, and with plate support rings, or equivalent fittings;
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (the length of the cylindrical

section), m;

t = wall thickness, mm

Dm = mean diameter of vessel (Di + t × 10-3) ,m

Wv = 240 Cw × Dm ( Hv + 0.8Dm)t

Wv= 240 × 1.15 × 1.152722 (2.877 + 0.8×1.152722) 7= 8459 N = 8.5KN

To calculate dead weight stress

𝑤𝑣 8459
= 𝜋 (1151+7)7 = 0.332 N/mm2
𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 +𝑡)𝑡

8.5 TEST FOR STABILITY

For the structure to be stable, the dead weight stress should be lower than the buckling stress.

𝑡 7
𝜎𝑐 = 2 × 104 ( ) = 2 × 104 = 121.63𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐷𝑂 1151

Since the dead weight stress is significantly below the buckling stress therefore the structure is

stable.
 CHAPTER NINE

9.0 STATEMENT ON MATERIALS HANDLING

9.1 INTRODUCTION

American Materials Handling Society definition: Materials handling is the art and science

involving the moving, packaging and storing of substances in any form.

Functional scope of materials handling within an industry covers the following:

(i) Bulk materials as well as unit materials handling. Bulk handling is particularly relevant in the

processing, mining and construction industries. Unit materials handling covers handling of

formed materials in the initial, intermediate and final stages of manufacture.

(ii) Industrial packaging of in-process materials, semi-finished or finished goods, primarily from

the point of view of ease and safety of handling, storage and transportation. However, consumer

packaging is not directly related to materials handling.

(iii) Handling of materials for storage or warehousing from raw materials to finished product
stage.

A well designed materials handling system attempts to achieve the following:

i. Improve efficiency of a production system by ensuring the right quantity of materials

delivered at the right place at the right time most economically.

 ii. Cut down indirect labor cost.

iii. Reduce damage of materials during storage and movement.

iv. Maximize space utilization by proper storage of materials and thereby reduce storage

and handling cost.

v. Minimize accident during materials handling.

vi. Reduce overall cost by improving materials handling.

vii. Improve customer services by supplying materials in a manner convenient for

handlings.

Lemon grass would be handled as a bulk load. The lemon grass will be fed into the still tank in 2

batches of 4 hours each. To obtain maximum yield of oil and to facilitate release of oil, the grass

is chopped into shorter lengths. Chopping the grass will also be an advantage as more grass can

be charged into the still and even packing is facilitated. The lemon grass will be stored in units of

20 kg in a wooden box (reason is for easy feeding in to the still tank since its going be handled

mechanically). There will also be conveyor and conveyor belt to move the containers of lemon

grass oil to the storage room.

9.2 LIFTING, TRANSPORTATION AND STORING MATERIALS

For an effective materials handling and storage program, safe lifting is only one aspect of

material handling; transporting the load and safe storage is another.

When manually moving materials, employees should seek help when a load is so bulky that it

cannot be properly grasped or lifted, when they cannot see around or over it, or when they cannot

safely handle the load.

Handles or holders should be attached to loads to reduce the chances of getting fingers pinched

or smashed. Workers also should use appropriate protective equipment. For loads with sharp or

rough edges, wear gloves or other hand and forearm protection. In addition, to avoid injuries to

the eyes, use eye protection. When the loads are heavy or bulky, the mover also should wear

steel-toed safety shoes or boots to prevent foot injuries if he or she slips or accidentally drops a

load.

All stacked loads must be correctly piled and cross-tiered, where possible. Precautions also

should be taken when stacking and storing material. Stored materials must not create a hazard.

Storage areas must be kept free from accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or

explosions, or that may contribute to the harbouring of rats and other pests.

When stacking materials, height limitations should be observed. For example, lumber must be

stacked no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually; 20 feet is the maximum stacking

height if a forklift is used. For quick reference, walls or posts may be painted with stripes to

indicate maximum stacking heights.

Boxed materials must be banded or held in place using cross-ties or shrink plastic fibre.

Drums, barrels, and kegs must be stacked symmetrically. If stored on their sides, the bottom tiers

must be blocked to keep them from rolling. When stacked on end, put planks, sheets of plywood

dunnage, or pallets between each tier to make a firm, flat, stacking surface. When stacking

materials two or more tiers high, the bottom tier must be chocked on each side to prevent shifting

in either direction. When stacking, consider the need for availability of the material. Material that

cannot be stacked due to size, shape, or fragility can be safely stored on shelves or in bins.

9.2 MATERIALS HANDLING WITH CONVEYOR.

When using conveyors, workers’ hands may be caught in nip points where the conveyor medium

runs near the frame or over support members or rollers; workers may be struck by material

falling off the conveyor; or they may become caught on or in the conveyor, being drawn into the

conveyor path as a result.

To reduce the severity of an injury, an emergency button or pull cord designed to stop the

conveyor must be installed at the employee’s workstation. Continuously accessible conveyor

belts should have an emergency stop cable that extends the entire length of the conveyor belt so

that the cable can be accessed from any location along the belt. The emergency stop switch must

be designed to be reset before the conveyor can be restarted. Before restarting a conveyor that

has stopped due to an overload, appropriate personnel must inspect the conveyor and clear the

stoppage before restarting. Employees must never ride on a materials handling conveyor. Where

a conveyor passes over work areas or aisles, guards must be provided to keep employees from
being struck by falling material. If the crossover is low enough for workers to run into it, the

guard must be either marked with a warning sign or painted a bright colour to protect employees.

Screw conveyors must be completely covered except at loading and discharging points. At those

points, guards must protect employees against contacting the moving screw; the guards are

movable, and they must be interlocked to prevent conveyor movement when not in place.

9.3 STORAGE OF ESSENTIAL OIL.

 Store in dark glass bottles: exposure to light can cause essential oil to oxidize rather

quickly and lose their fragrance and any therapeutic qualities they may have had.

 Note: plastics, no matter the colour, should generally be avoided. PET and HDPE plastics

will not deteriorate from oil storage, but most other plastics are easily broken down to oil.

 Use airtight solid caps for the containers to prevent air from entering and also the oil

from getting out as it is volatile. Rubber lids may disintegrate after a relatively short

period.

 Storing essential oil in a refrigerator will protect them from sunlight and reduce chances

of air exposure. Also refrigerators help keep the oil stable in cooler temperature. The

temperature is 5◦C to 10◦C for optimal oil storage.

 If oil congeal or solidifies at normal refrigerator temperature, the quality will not be

adversely affected. The oil will return to its liquid state after being removed from the
 refrigerator.

 Do not put oils in the freezer, as freezing may damage the oil and diminish its quality.

 Avoid heat sources as most essential oils are flammable.

 Disposal: the spent lemon grass will be sold off as fodder animal feeding

 The hydrosol will be sold to cosmetic industries.

9.4 WORK STATION DESIGN

 The distance over which the load has to be moved should be reduced by relocating

production and storage areas.

Work stations should be designed so that workers:

 Can store and handle all material between knuckle and shoulder height; waist height

is most desirable

 Can begin and end handling material at the same height

 Can face the load and handle materials as close to the body as possible

 Do not have to handle loads using awkward postures or an extended reach, and
  Do not handle loads in confined spaces that prevent them from using good

body mechanics

CHAPTER TEN

10.0 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

1. PRODUCT INFORMATION

Product name: Lemongrass essential oil

Chemical name: Not available

Chemical formula: Not available

Manufacturer: The CEOs

Emergency telephone:

2. INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Lemongrass oil: 100% by weight

3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION

Concentrated product. Do not ingest. Observe good housekeeping

May cause skin irritation. May cause eye damage.

Carcinogenic effect: Not available

Mutagenic effect: Not available

Developmental toxicity: Not available

 4. PHYSICAL DATA

Physical state and appearance: non-viscous liquid

Colour: brownish-yellow

Odour: Citrus, lemon-like odour

Density: 0.896g/mL at 25°C

Refractive index: 1.479-1.491 at 20°C

Boiling point: 224°C at 760mmHg

Solubility: Soluble in alcohol, paraffin oil at 25°C

pH: Not available

Storage temperature: 2-8°C

Shelf life: 24 months or longer if stored properly

Storage: Store in a cool, dry place in tightly sealed containers, protected from heat and light

5. FIRE OR EXPLOSIVE HAZARD DATA

Flammability of material: Combustible

Flashpoint: 71°C

Auto-ignition temperature: Not available

Flammability limits: Not available

Extinguishing media: Carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder or foam type extinguishers. Do not

use water jets

Special measures: Avoid inhalation of generated fumes. Use appropriate respiratory equipment
 6. STABILTY AND REACTIVITY DATA

Stability: The product is stable under recommended handling and storage conditions

Incompatible materials: Strong acids, alkalis and oxidising agents

Conditions of reactivity: When heated

Decomposition: In the case of fire, dangerous decomposition products can be generated such as

carbon monoxide and dioxide and nitrogen fumes.

7. TOXOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Routes of entry: Inhalation, ingestion, eye contact

Toxicity to humans: Substance is toxic to lungs, mucous membranes. Repeated or prolonged

exposure can cause target organs damage

Toxicity to animals: Not available

Photo-toxicity: No additional data available

Other information: Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long term adverse effects in the

aquatic environment.

8. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Protective equipment: Wear protective clothing. Handle the product using protective gloves.

Avoid contact with skin and inhalation of its vapours.

Environment precautions: Do not discharge into drains, water courses or onto soil

Method for cleaning up: For small spill, absorb with an inert material and dispose of in an

appropriate waste disposal. For large spill, keep away from heat and sources of ignition.

Ventilate area and wash spill site after material pickup is complete.
 9. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION

BOD and COD: Not available

Products of biodegradation: Possible hazardous short term degradation are unlikely. However,

long term degradation products may arise

Precautions: Prevent surface contamination of soil and surface water.

10. EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION

Engineering controls: Provide exhaust ventilation. Ensure eyewash stations and safety showers

are proximal to the work-station location

Respiratory equipment: Avoid breathing product vapour. For dealing with high concentration,

use an approved respirator or equivalent when ventilation is inadequate

Skin protection: Wear apron or protective clothing to avoid skin contact

Hand protection: Wear chemical resistant gloves (PVC) to avoid skin contact

Eye protection: Wear approved safety goggles

Hygiene measures: Wash hands with soap and water after handling

11. FIRST AID MEASURES

Inhalation: Remove victim from exposure site to ventilated area. Seek medical attention

Eye contact: Remove any contact lenses. Rinse eyes with plenty of water. Do not use an eye

ointment. Seek medical attention. Continue to rinse

Skin contact: Remove contaminated clothing. Wash skin with soap and water. Seek medical

attention if discomfort persists. Wash contaminated clothing before reuse

Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Rinse the mouth with water. Loosen tight clothing such as

collar, belt, tie or waistband and move to a ventilated place

12. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS

Waste disposal: Avoid discharging into drainage water. Only eliminate by authorised companies.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

11.0 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDIES SUMMARY (HAZOPs)

11.1 OVERVIEW

A HAZOP study identifies hazards and operability problems. The concept involves investigating

how the plant might deviate from the design intent. If, in the process of identifying problems

during a HAZOP study, a solution becomes apparent, it is recorded as part of the HAZOP result;

however, care must be taken to avoid trying to find solutions which are not so apparent, because

the prime objective for the HAZOP is problem identification. Although the HAZOP study was

developed to supplement experience based practices when a new design or technology is

involved, its use has expanded to almost all phases of a plant's life. HAZOP is based on the

principle that several experts with different backgrounds can interact and identify more problems

when working together than when working separately and combining their results. The "Guide-

Word" HAZOP is the most well-known of the HAZOPs; however, several specialisations of this

basic method have been developed.

WHAT IS A HAZOP?

A hazard and operability study (or HAZOP) is a systematic, critical examination by a team of the

engineering and operating intentions of a process to assess the hazard potential of mal-operation

or mal-function of individual items of equipment and the consequential effects on the facility as

a whole.
It is quite normal to carry out safety reviews. These may take different forms. Experts may be

consulted in isolation, without reference to each other. They may instead be gathered in lengthy

meetings to discuss the particular topic. Hazops are meetings with a distinct structure, the

structure imposing a certain organization, to enhance effectiveness. They are a generalized study

technique, equally applicable to microchip manufacture, pharmaceutical synthesis, effluent plant

operation or any process.

They should not be seen, however, as a solution to all ills, the ultimate review. The procedure is

only anther tool in the safety locker and should be seen as complementary to other techniques.

Indeed it is best applied as one stage of a multi-stage procedure, applying different techniques as

relevant to each stage. It does not replace, but rather supplements, existing Codes of Practice.

Neither can it totally substitute for experience. But, both Codes of Practice and experience are

evolved from existing situations. Innovative developments require a review which investigates

the unknown. Hazops are a systematic, logical approach to determining problems.

Why is a HAZOP Carried Out?

The reasons for carrying out hazard and operability studies, are:

i. Primarily, to identify hazards, and

ii. To a lesser extent, to resolve these hazards.

In saying this, hazards are very generally defined. They are understood to be events, which:-
i. Lead to injury of people, either inside or outside the plant.

ii. Injure the environment.

iii. Insult the environment. Harmful effects may not occur, but disturbance itself is unacceptable.

iv. Damage the plant, an obvious hazard.

v. Result in loss of production quantity, quality or schedule.

In practice, some resolution of hazards is normally accepted. However a careful balance must be

maintained to ensure that the primary purpose of hazard identification is not compromised.

When is a HAZOP Carried Out?

The timing of a hazard and operability study is determined by the objectives of a study, and in

turn determines the benefits that may be gained. The outline concept of a process may be

examined to highlight any major omissions or significant features. As further detailing is carried

out, e.g. when the process design is complete, the full study procedure may best be applied.

Operating procedures may be examined to ensure that all eventualities have been considered.

Modifications including so-called “minor modifications”, generally benefit from a rigorous

study. Often an apparently simple, uncomplicated modification can give rise to a greater problem

than it was intended to solve. Existing plant and new equipment are other examples of topics that

may benefit from study.

Therefore a project may be studied several times in its life-time.

Despite these comments there is quite a distinct benefit from carrying out a proper HAZOP

Study in terms of the correct timing and to obtain the maximum cost benefit. Therefore, a hazop

cannot be carried out before the line diagrams (or process instrumentation diagrams as they are

often called) are complete. It should be carried out as soon as possible thereafter.

If an existing plant is being studied the first step is to bring the line diagrams up to date or check

that they are up-to-date. Carrying out a hazop on an incorrect line diagram is the most useless

occupation in the world. It is as effective as setting out on a journey with railway timetable ten

years out of date.

A hazop takes 1.5-3 hours per main plant item (still, furnace, reactor, heater, etc.). If the plant is

similar to an existing one it will take 1.5 hours per item but if the process is new it may take 3

hours per item.

Meetings are usually restricted to 3 hours, twice per day, 2 or 3 or even 4 days per week, to give

the team time to attend to their other duties and because the imagination tires after 3 hours at a

stretch.

The hazop on a large project may take several months, even with 2 or 3 teams working in

parallel on different sections of the plant. It is thus necessary to either:

a) Hold up detailed design and construction until the hazop is complete, or

b) Allow detailed design and construction to go ahead and risk having to modify the detailed

design or even alter the plant when the results of the hazop are known.
Ideally, the design should be planned to allow time for (a) but if completion is urgent (b) may

have to accept - but this is not a widely accepted option due to the cost implications.

A preliminary hazop may be carried out on the flowsheet before detailed design starts. This will

take much less time than the hazop of the line diagrams and will identify ‘area’ of the process of

a particular hazardous nature. It provides a more “structured” and “systematic” approach than a

preliminary design review - but NOT the detailed analytical data of a true P&ID HAZOP.

CONCEPT

The HAZOP concept is to review the plant in a series of meetings, during which a

multidisciplinary team methodically "brainstorms" the plant design, following the structure

provided by the guide words and the team leader's experience.

The primary advantage of this brainstorming is that it stimulates creativity and generates ideas.

This creativity results from the interaction of the team and their diverse backgrounds.

Consequently the process requires that all team members participate (quantity breeds quality in

this case), and team members must refrain from criticizing each other to the point that members

hesitate to suggest ideas. The team focuses on specific points of the design (called "study

nodes"), one at a time. At each of these study nodes, deviations in the process parameters are

examined using the guide words. The guide words are used to ensure that the design is explored

in every conceivable way. Thus the team must identify a fairly large number of deviations, each

of which must then be considered so that their potential causes and consequences can be

identified. The best time to conduct a HAZOP is when the design is fairly firm. At this point, the

design is well enough defined to allow meaningful answers to the questions raised in the HAZOP
process. Also, at this point it is still possible to change the design without a major cost. However,

HAZOPs can be done at any stage after the design is nearly firm. For example, many older plants

are upgrading their control and instrumentation systems.

The success or failure of the HAZOP depends on several factors:

 The completeness and accuracy of drawings and other data used as a basis for the study

 The technical skills and insights of the team

 The ability of the team to use the approach as an aid to their imagination in visualizing

deviations, causes, and consequences

 The ability of the team to concentrate on the more serious hazards which are identified.

The process is systematic and it is helpful to define the terms that are used:

a. STUDY NODES - The locations (on piping and instrumentation drawings and procedures) at

which the process parameters are investigated for deviations.

b. INTENTION - The intention defines how the plant is expected to operate in the absence of

deviations at the study nodes. This can take a number of forms and can either be descriptive or

diagrammatic; e.g., flow sheets, line diagrams, P&IDS.

c. DEVIATIONS - These are departures from the intention which are discovered by

systematically applying the guide words (e.g., "more pressure").

d. CAUSES - These are the reasons why deviations might occur. Once a deviation has been

shown to have a credible cause, it can be treated as a meaningful deviation. These causes can be
hardware failures, human errors, an unanticipated process state (e.g., change of composition),

external disruptions (e.g., loss of power), etc.

e. CONSEQUENCES - These are the results of the deviations should they occur (e.g., release of

toxic materials).

Trivial consequences, relative to the study objective, are dropped.

f. GUIDE WORDS - These are simple words which are used to qualify or quantify the intention

in order to guide and stimulate the brainstorming process and so discover deviations. The guide

words shown in the following table are the ones most often used in a HAZOP; some

organisations have made this list specific to their operations, to guide the team more quickly to

the areas where they have previously found problems. Each guide word is applied to the process

variables at the point in the plant (study node) which is being examined.

OVERALL PROCEDURAL STEPS IN AN HAZOP STUDY

1. Company PHA/Safety/PSMP Team Meet

2. Identify the Project for the HAZOP Study

3. Identify the Lead Process Engineer

4. Select the HAZOP Team Leader

5. Define Purpose and Scope of HAZOP

6. Select the Team/Define Roles

7. Pre-HAZOP Meeting

 Lead Process Engineer and HAZOP Study Leader

 Identify and Obtain Required Information

 Plan the Study Sequence

 Plan the Schedule

8. Inform Everyone Concerned

9. HAZOP Study Review and Documenting the Results (Minutes)

10. Preparing and Submitting the HAZOP Study Report

11. Taking the Actions

12. Close-Out Meeting and Signing Off.

HAZOP STUDY PROCEDURE

The outline steps for the overall HAZOP Study methodology are shown in the table. A potential

HAZOP Study Leader or HAZOP Study Chairperson must be aware of all of these.

However, many people - engineers, chemists, project managers, process operators, maintenance

staff, services engineers, contractors, equipment suppliers, control systems staff etc. etc. - will be

required to attend and participate in HAZOP Studies. Consequently, as part of introducing

HAZOP it is worthwhile early on in this course for us to look at two aspects of the study method

relating to Blocks 7 and 9 in the Table.

Two methods of importance in the “practical side” of performing a HAZOP Study are:
- Defining each Pipe section to be studied. This should have been agreed previous to the actual

HAZOP Study Meeting between the HAZOP Study Chairman and the Lead Process Engineer

- Application of the Guide Words

 Process Section

The section to be studied is usually a section of pipeline between two main process items on a

P&ID (piping and instrumentation diagram) - for continuous process operations. Usually the

analysis is carried out on final P&ID’s, that is, prior to “Issue for Construction”.

Frequently the section of line undergoing a HAZOP Study may go through several other items of

equipment which must be considered but providing there is no chemical change it is acceptable

and normal to HAZOP in this way. Sometimes an additional chemical may even be added into

the line (via a branch line, e.g. T junction on Y junction) and these “in-line” additions are usually

included as part of the HAZOP of this particular section - but NOT always the branch line.

When the Pipe section has been followed through to the equipment item it is usual to assess the

equipment item as part of the “same section” by applying a number of equipment guidewords.

The same method, of course, applies to the equipment item at the beginning of the process.

The whole HAZOP process usually starts with the engineering drawing(s) at the BEGINNING of

the process, the feeds being the raw materials. Often as many as 3 or 4 P&ID’s may be tabled at

one session to enable the HAZOP team to identify where streams are coming from on one or

more P&ID’s and where they are going to on the next one or two P&ID’s.

HOW ARE HAZOPs DONE?

Earlier, these studies were defined as examinations of engineering and operating intentions. An

intention is the expected behaviour of a process and its associated hardware, under normal and

abnormal conditions. It may be defined diagrammatically or descriptively; diagrammatically in

terms of flowsheets, P&ID’s. Etc. or descriptively with operating instructions or design

specifications.

A very important assumption is that no hazard can arise from an intention that behaves as

expected, i.e. no one deliberately builds in a hazard. Therefore, a hazard can arise only if there is

a deviation from the expected behaviour. Hypothetical deviations are prompted by applying

guide words, which will be explained shortly, to each intention. Consequently the design basis is

not explicitly challenged and process alternatives may not be recognized.

For example, it is proposed that excess pressure may exist in a line. Firstly, it must be established

if there is a realistic cause of this deviation. If there is, the consequences must be considered.

They may be trivial or significant. If significant, they must be evaluated to see if they constitute a

hazard. In the example of line over-pressure, the excess may be within the line rating. This

consequence is trivial. If the rating is exceeded, however, rupture may result. This is obviously a

hazardous occurrence.

The study procedure may be broken into several distinct steps and is shown in the Table. We

must define the scope of the study, select a team to carry it out, and make the necessary

preparations before the examination itself can be carried out. Arising from the examination will

be a number of follow-up activities. Finally a detailed record of the study is also necessary; but

now we will consider the “Application of the Guidewords” to a particular “Section” or “Study

Node”. The other steps can be chosen to be elaborated on.

HAZOP GUIDE WORDS AND MEANINGS

Guide Word Meaning

No Negation of the Design Intent

Less Quantitative Decrease

More Quantitative Increase

Part Of Qualitative Decrease

As Well As Qualitative Increase

Reverse Logical Opposite of the Intent

Other Than ` Complete Substitution

These guide words are applicable to both the more general parameters (e.g. react, transfer) and to

the more specific parameters (e.g. pressure, temperature, flow). With the general parameters,

meaningful deviations are usually generated for each guide word. Moreover, it is not unusual to

have more than one deviation from the application of one guide word. For example, "more

reaction" could mean either that a reaction takes place at a faster rate, or that a greater quantity of

product results.

With the specific parameters, some modification of the guide words may be necessary. In

addition, it is not unusual to find that some potential deviations are eliminated by physical
limitation. For example, if the design intention of a pressure or temperature is being considered,

the guide words “more” or "less" may be the only possibilities.

Finally, when dealing with a design intention involving a complex set of interrelated plant

parameters (e.g., temperatures, reaction rates, composition, or pressure), it may be better to apply

the whole sequence of guide words to each parameter individually than to apply each guide word

across all of the parameters as a group. Also, when applying the guide words to a sentence it may

be more useful to apply the sequence of guide words to each word or phrase separately, starting

with the key part which describes the activity (usually the verbs or adverbs). These parts of the

sentence usually are related to some impact on the process parameters.

TABLE Creating Deviations

Guide Words Parameter Deviation

NO + FLOW = NO FLOW

MORE + PRESSURE = HIGH

PRESSURE

AS WELL + ONE PHASE = TWO PHASE

AS

Guide words are applied to both the more general parameters (e.g. react, mix) and the more

specific parameters (e.g. pressure, temperature). With the general parameters, it is not unusual to
have more than one deviation from the application of one guide word. For example, “more

reaction” could mean either that a reaction takes place at a faster rate, or that a greater quantity of

product results. On the other hand, some combinations of guide words and parameter will yield

no sensible deviation (e.g. “as well as” with “pressure”).

With the specific parameters, some modification of the guide words may be necessary. In

addition, we often find that some potential deviations are irrelevant because of a physical

limitation. For example, if temperature parameters are being considered, the guide words “more”

or “less” may be the only possibilities.

The following are other useful alternative interpretations of the original guide words:

 Sooner or later of “other than” when considering time

 Where else for “other than” when considering position, sources, or destination

 Higher and lower for “more” and “less” when considering levels, temperature, or

pressure

11..2 HAZOP STUDIES ON SELECTED EQUIPMENT

In this section, the detail discussion on HAZOP studies will cover the still tank, the heat
exchangers (heater, cooler).

HAZOP STUDIES ON THE HEAT EXCHANGERS (BOILER AND CONDENSER) AND

STILL TANK
Guide Deviatio Possible Consequence Existing Action
Action taken
Word n Cause s Safeguards Required

NO NO 1. Faulty Level Flow Shutdown

FLOW pump decrease in indicator system Operators and
still tank, loss provided. Technicians
of steam in
2. Broken
still tank, Low
pipe or
output of
plugging
vapor mixture

MORE MORE 1. High flooding in pressure Reduce flow

FLOW pressure the still tank indicator of water
from provided into the Mechanical
boiler boiler Engineers

2. Early filling of Flow

Discharge still tank indicator set the
valve provided. discharge
fully open valve back
than to the
required required
set value. value

3. Failure Low/high Pipe by- shutdown of

of the pressure of pass from the pump
process water into the the tank and opening
water boiler, provided, up the by-
pump to exceeded flow pass
the boiler boiler indicator
capacity, poor provided
steam quality

MORE 1. Same as Check the

PRESSUR Same as above, High control
E no. 3 in pressure valve and
Fire and
more alarm shutdown if Operators and
explosions,
flow. necessary. technicians
tube rupture
2. Fa
Pressure Replace the
 ilure of indicator tube
control and
valve controller

3. Hi
gh
tempera
Install high
ture in
pressure
the still
alarm
tank

MORE 1. Desired Temperatu Allow flow

TEMPER Poor/No separation re of cooling
ATURE cooling in not achieved indicator/c water into
the ontroller the
condense condenser
provided
MORE r.
TEMPER Flow
ATURE indicator
provided.

LESS LESS Pipe 1. Level Shutdown

FLOW partial decrease in system Technicians
plugged distillation
or column
leakage 2. No flow of same as
vapour more flow
mixture out of
the still tank

LESS same as same as more same as

PRESSUR no. 3 in flow, more flow Technicians
E more production
Replace the
flow loss, decrease
leaking pipe,
in production
 changes rate Temperatu
in action, re Install new
valve indicator/c pump and
fully ontroller low
opened, provided pressure
pipeline alarm.
leakage

LESS Damaged loss of Install low

TEMPER insulation temperature temperature Quality
ATURE in the still in the still warning Assurance
tank. tank device Team

No heat
provided/
supply
failure

REVE REVERSE Pipe flow decrease scheduling Quality

RSE FLOW partial in the still maintenanc Assurance and
plugged tank e Operators
or
leakage
1. moisture
separator
for the gas
2. Pre-
treating of
the water

OTHE Utility 1. 1. No shutdown of

R failure, Routine production of plant
THAN Mainten maintena lemon grass
ance, nce 2. oil
Leak, very high 2. Explosion
Safety, pressure of pipes 3. Quality
Corrosio in the Explosion in Assurance
n, pipes the plant 4. Team
Instrume 3. High corrosion and
ntation moisture leakage of the
 etc content pipelines
in the
natural
gas
4.
Pipelines
conveyin
g oxygen,
moisture
and
chemical
salt.

Environ Incomple emission of Install

mental te carbon oxygen
impact combusti monoxide trims to Chemical
on control fuel- Engineers and
air ratio Operators

HAZOP STUDIES ON STORAGE TANK:

The HAZOP study for storage tank involves storage flow parameters

Guide Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action required

word

NO Level tank Loading more from Tank overfills Install relief valve in
(no flow) the feed line. possible cause of the storage tank.
fire and explosion
Reverse flow from Install high-level
hazards.
the process pump. alarm.

Control valve failure Install flow high

 Line fracture shut down.

Line blockage Regular check on

the pipeline valve
and pump

MORE Pressure Control valve fails. Tank burst if Regular check on

Failure overfills in valve continue the pipeline than the
(more
the tank. failing. valve
flow)
Pump failure Explosion hazards Install pressure
might occur. relief valve in the
Temperature of inlet
tank
is hotter than normal
volatile impurities in Install pressure high
the feed. shutdown alarm.

Avoid any direct

heat to the tank.

Prepare for fire.

CHAPTER TWELVE

12.0 SITE LAYOUT AND PLANT LAYOUT

12.1 `SITE LAYOUT

 12.2 SITE SELECTION

The location of the lemongrass producing plant is Igbesa, Ogun state. The reasons for choosing

this location are:

 Location, with respect to the marketing area : Igbesa is close to commercial areas like

Lagos and Ibadan, where the target market is located

 Raw material supply and suitable land: The Lemongrass will be grown on a farmland,

there is large expanse of land in Igbesa for cultivation of Lemongrass

 Transport facilities

 Availability of labor

 Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power

 Environmental impact, including effluent disposal

  Local community considerations

 Climate

 Political and strategic considerations.

12.3 PLANT LAYOUT

12.4 FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR PLANT LAYOUT

 Economic considerations: construction and operating costs

 The process requirements

 Convenience of operation
 Convenience of maintenance

 Safety

 Future expansion

 Modular construction.
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

13.0 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OVER FIFTEEN YEAR PERIOD

13.1 PLANT CAPACIITY

The market study of Lemongrass oil indicates that the unsatisfied demand for the year 2017 is

1400 tonnes, while this figure would grow to 2700 tonnes by the year 2024, the envisaged plant

will, therefore, have an annual production capacity of 7,000kg of Lemongrass oil. The plant will

operate single shift of 8 hours a day and for 260 days a year.

13.2 PRODUCTION PROGRAM

The Lemongrass oil plant will start operation at a lower production capacity to allow time for

market penetration and skill development of production workers. Thus, production will start at

65% of installed capacity during the first year of operation, and then will grow to 80% in the

second year, 90% in the third year, and run at its full capacity from the fourth year

PRODUCTION YEAR
DESCRIPTION 1 2 3 4 5 TO 15
Lemon Grass Oil produced
(kg) 4550 5600 6300 7000 7000
Percentage of capacity
65%
utilized 80% 90% 100% 100%

13.3 MANPOWER REQUIREMENT

Manpower required for the plant is both for administrative activities and production. The total

manpower required is 40 persons. Of this production workers are 20 while the rest are

administrative and supervisory staff. Details of manpower requirement and annual cost,

including workers benefit is given in the table below

Job title Number Required Monthly Salary Annual Salary (N)

ADMINISTRATIVE

Plant Manager 1 150,000 1,800,000

Secretary 1 80,000 960,000

Administrator 1 120,000 1,440,000

Accountant 1 70,000 840,000

Clerk 1 70,000 840,000

Commercial head 1 80,000 960,000

Store Keeper 2 30,000 720,000

Purchaser 2 30,000 720,000

Cashier 1 30,000 360,000

Accounts clerk 1 30,000 360,000

Office boy 1 10,000 120,000

Driver 3 20,000 240,000

Guards 4 20,000 240,000

Bonus 400,000

Sub-Total 20 10,000,000

PRODUCTION

Production and 1 100,000 1,200,00

technical head

Production foreman 1 50,000 600,000

Operator 7 40,000 3,360,000

Boiler operator 4 25,000 1,200,000

Laborers 5 15,000 900,000

Electrician 1 15,000 180,000

Mechanic help 1 15,000 180,000

Bonus 200,000

Sub-Total 20 7,010,000

Total 40 17,010,000
13.4 RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT

The lemongrass will be grown in Igbesa, Ogun state, Nigeria. Growing the lemongrass is more

economical than buying. 1kg of lemongrass costs ₦500 (price gotten from local farmers in Ogun

state).

According to the of Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery in Republic of South

Africa, an average of 50 metric tons of lemongrass can be harvested per hectare per annum.

Production capacity is 7,000kg of lemon grass oil per annum;

Number of working days per year: 260 (Mon - Fri).

Yield: 1.5 %
7000
Feed = 0.015 = 466,667.67 kg/yr = 1794.87 kg/day

Mass of dry lemongrass needed per day (6% moisture): 1794.87kg

Mass of wet lemongrass purchased (15% moisture) : 1984.92kg

Mass of lemongrass needed per year: 1984.92 x 260 = 516.08 tons

10 hectares of land will be purchased to carry out this project.

1 hectare of land in Igbesa, Ogun state costs ₦650,000 (according to Nigerian property centre).

Therefore 10 hectares of land costs ₦6,500,000

RAW MATERIALS

The raw materials needed to start up the cultivation of lemon grass include:

 Seedlings
  Soil nutrients

 Tools

 Drums for storage

Cost of cultivation for 10 hectares of land

S/N ITEM 1YR 2YR 3YR 4YR 5 YR -15

YR

1 Land 6,500,000

2 Land leveling, 100,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000

ploughing etc.

3 Seeds/planting 450,000 - - - -

material

4 Soil nutrients 400,000 400,000 400,000 400,000 400,000

5 Weeding and irrigation 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000

6 Nursery maintenance 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000

7 Drums for storage 1,000,000 - - - -

8 Wages of farm 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000

workers

Sub Total 9,500,000 600,000 600,000 600,000 600,000

Contingency 10% 350,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000

Total 9,850,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,800,000

13.5 PLANT AND MACHINERIES

S/N EQUIPMENTS SPECIFICATIONS QTY COST (N)

1 BOILER water tube boiler 1 421,200

Evaporation capacity- 125 kg/hr

Maximum operating pressure – 4 bar

Area of heating surface – 6.2 m2

Water capacity – 0.56m3

Efficiency – 80%

Steam temperature – 151 oC

2 ROTARY DRYER Inclination – 3-5% 1 1,650,000

Capacity- 0.5- 1.5 tons/hr

Motor power – 3Kw

 Weight of dryer – 2.4 tons

3 STILL TANK Diameter: 1.16m 1 1,000,000

Height: 3.58m

Thick plate: 50mm

Capacity: 7000 kg

4 CONDENSER Shell and Tube condenser 1 1,000,000

Shell: 0.20 m ID: 2.44 m long

Tubes: 1 1/4 in. OD: 0.81 m long

Single pass, cold-water-cooling element

5 OIL AND WATER Baffled type 1 1,250,000

SEPARATOR
Height: 1 m

Pipe size: 1.4 gpm (Capacity)

6 COOLING TOWER Type: induced draft 1 700,000

Function: provide cooling water to the

condenser

Pressure: atmospheric

-Corrosion resistance of polyethylene and

PVC plastic construction in critical contact
areas.

- 97% return of process water to the heat

load for reuse.

Diameter: 0.9 m

Height: 6 m
7 WATER TANK Capacity: 24.54 m3 (cylinder) 2 1,500,000

Diameter: 2.5 m

Height: 5 m

Materials of Construction: SS 304

8 WASHING TANK Capacity: 5.30 m3 (cylinder) 1 500, 000

Diameter: 1.5 m

Height: 3 m

Materials of Construction: S-2 Steel plate

Grade B

9 PUMP 2 stage deep well pump 2 1,400,000

Performance: Flows to 3,785 L/min

Heads to 3,658 m

Pressure: 4,500 psia

10 WEIGHING 2 200,000
MACHINES

11 LEMON GRASS 10 1,000,000

DRUMS

12 STORAGE TANKS 2 2,500,000

13 CONVEYOR BELT Width: 14 in. 500,000

Capacity: 60 kg/hr

Belt Speed: 200 ft/min

Power: 0.2186 Hp = 0.1630 Kw

14 MISCELLENOUS 1, 000,000

TOTAL 13,621,000

13.6 COST OF UTILITIES

 UTILITY SOURCE QUANTITY COST (₦)

1. Electricity KWh 45,000 958,500

2. Fuel Lt 13,000 1,950,00

TOTAL 2,908,500

13.7 INITIAL INVESTMENT COST

ITEMS COST (₦)

1 Raw material procurement 9,850,000

2 Land, Building and Constructions 10,000,000

3 Plant and machineries 13,261,000

4 Plant setup 3,000,000

5 Office Setup 2,500,000

6 Generator (30kVa) 1,200,000

7 Borehole installation 300,000

8 Vehicle 2,500,000

9 Pre-production Expenditure 2,500,000

TOTAL 45,211,000

13.8 FULL CAPACITY PRODUCTION COST (ANNUAL)

ITEMS COST(₦) NATURE OF COST

(Fixed/Variable)

Raw Materials 1,800,000 Fixed

Utilities 2,908,500 Variable

Manpower 17,010,000 Fixed

Maintenance 1,000,000 Variable

Operating costs 4,000,000 Variable

Packaging 1,000,000 Variable

Sales promotion and 1,500,000 Variable

advertisement

Depreciation 4,000,000 Fixed

Transportation 400,000 Variable

Finance 1,600,000 Fixed

Total 35,213,000

13.9 PROJECTED REVENUE

Based on a price of ₦9,000 per kg of lemongrass oil, and a price increase of 10% every 5 years,

the following projections may be made:

YEAR REVENUE (₦)

First year 40,950,000

Second year 50,400,000

Third year 56,700,000

Fourth year 63,000,000

Fifth year 63,000,000

Sixth year 70,000,000

Seventh year 70,000,000

Eighth year 70,000,000

Ninth year 70,000,000

Tenth year 70,000,000

Eleventh year 77,000,000

Twelfth year 77,000,000

Thirteenth year 77,000,000

Fourteenth year 77,000,000

Fifteenth year 77,000,000

90,000,000
80,000,000
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0

Fig4.1 graph showing projected revenue

13.10 ANNUAL PROFIT

This was also estimated assuming a 10% increase in cost of production every 5 years.
 YEAR Profit (N)
First year
5,737,000
Second year
15,187,000
Third year
21,487,000
Fourth year
27,787,000
Fifth year
27,787,000
Sixth year
34,787,000
Seventh year
34,787,000
Eighth year
34,787,000
Ninth year
34,787,000
Tenth year
34,787,000
Eleventh year
41,787,000
Twelfth year
41,787,000
Thirteenth year
41,787,000
Fourteenth year
41,787,000
Fifteenth year
41,787,000
 45,000,000
40,000,000
35,000,000
30,000,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0

Figure 4.2: graph showing profit

Profitability According to the projected income statement, the project will start generating profit

in the first year of operation.

13.11 BREAKEVEN POINT

The break-even point of the project including cost of finance when it starts to operate at full

capacity (year ) is estimated by using income statement projection.

24,410,000
BEP = Fixed Cost / (price per unit- Variable Cost per unit) = 9000−1544.07 = 3273.87 units

3273.87 kg of lemongrass oil has to be sold for the revenues of the business to equal its total

costs.

13.12 PAY-BACK PERIOD

The investment cost and income statement projection are used to project the pay-back period.

The project’s initial investment will be fully recovered within 3 years.

13.13 ECONOMIC BENEFITS

The project can create employment for 50 persons. In addition to supply of the domestic needs,

the project will generate up to N 77,000,000 in revenue. The establishment of such factory will

have a foreign exchange saving effect to Nigeria by substituting the current imports.