Religious

Revolution
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Indian History
Ancient India
Religious Revolution
• The society was clearly divided into four Varnas:
brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, in the Vedic
period. Each Varna was allowed well-defined jobs,
although it was emphasized that Varna was based on birth
and two higher varnas were given some privileges.
• Clearly the Varna seems to have created tension in the
society. The Kshatriyas, who acted as rulers, reacted
against the domination of priestly class called brahmins,
who enjoyed various privileges, was one of the causes of
the origin of new religions.
• Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism and Gautama
Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the Kshatriya
clan, and both disputed the authority of the Brahmins.
• The trade of money-lending was established in the Vedic
age. The practice of interest on loans was also legal
but the trade was generally looked down upon by the
brahmins. The vaisyas who practiced this trade wanted
to raise their social position in the eyes of religion.
• The vaisyas gave their support to both Mahavira and
Gautama Buddha. The merchants, called the setthis,
offered precious gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples.
• The Vedic practice of killing cattles in sacrificial rituals
was inimical to the emerging agricultural economy
• Besides, the Sanskrit language was the language of a
chosen few while the common masses spoke Prakrit.
The elaborate Vedic rituals were heavily felt even by
the rich.
• The interior position of women also facilitated the
growth of new religions which had actually started off
the reform of the Hinduism.
Socio Economic Developments
• Emergence of a trading class.
• Agrarian economy was strengthened.
• A large number of craftsmen and merchants dominated the
urban economy. Sea voyages were undertaken to Tamluk,
Srilanka, Burma, etc. Towns became the centres of
production wherein long distance trade was also undertaken.
• Copper and silver coins called ‘Kahapana’ was used as
medium of exchange.
• Surplus money was converted into ornaments or hoarded in
jars. Banks did not exist.
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• Several small scale industries emerged such as carpentary,
clay working, glass industry, etc. which led to the formation
of professional groups.
• The local occupational divisions gave rise to sub-castes or jatis.
• Agriculture was the chief occupation. Cattle rearing and
small craft production was carried out which was connected
with land, forest and animals.
Jainism
• Jainism has a unique place in the history of India and Jain
tradition claim that theirs is the oldest of all the religions
in India.
• The founder of Jain tradition is Risabhdeva.
• Last Jain Tirthankara - Mahavir.
• Tirthankaras mentioned in Rig veda are -
- Risabhdeva
- Aristanemi
• Risabhdeva’s name occurs in Vishnu and Bhagwat Puranas
also which indicates that Jain traditions existed in early
vedic period itself.
• Of the 24 tirthankaras, Parsvanath, the 23rd Tirthankara was
a historical figure. His time is 250 years before Mahavir’s.
• Parsvanath was the son of Asvasena, the king of Kashi and
became ascetic at the age of 30.
• His followers were called as ‘Nigrantha’. His main
teachings were:
- Satya (truth)
- Ahimsa (Non-violence)
- Asteya (Non-stealing)
- Aparigraha (Non-accumulation)
• Parsvanath was a critic of Vedic culture and the caste
system.
• According to him, door of salvation was open to all. So he
admitted women to his faith.
• He organised his faith in 4 ‘Ganas’ (Sangha-pali, Samghas-
Sanskrit). Each gana was headed by a ‘Ganadhar’.
Teachings of Mahavir/ Doctrines of Jainism
• Jainism was based on 5 doctrines -
(a) Ahimsa - Non violence
(b) Satya - Do not speak a lie
(c) Asteya - Do not steal
(d) Aparigraha - Non accumulation
(e) Brahmacharya - Observe celibacy
The fifth doctrine was added by Mahavir. The first 4 were taken
over by him from previous teachers.
• Jainism believed that the whole world is animated, even the
non-living world.

• The cycle of birth and rebirth was shaped through Karma.
Hence to be free from this cycle one should follow the
path of:
- asceticism
- penance
• Monastic existence was a necessary condition to attain
salvation.
• Jainism believed in the dualistic principle of:
(a) Jiva - It is eternal soul. It acts and is affected by
acts. It is a knowing self.
(b) Ajiva - It is the eternal element. It is unconscious and
atomic.
• As every object is an agglomeration of Ajiva, with atleast
one jiva present in it. Animals were believed to have 3 or
more jivas.
• Jainas were forbidden to eat anything which have 3 jivas.
Only things with 2 jivas were permitted to be eaten.
• A code of conduct was prescribed for both householders
and the monks. A householder was supposed to follow the
following code of conduct (Anuvratas):
- Non injury
- Non possession
- Non adultery
- Non stealing
- Speaking the truth
• A Jaina monk was supposed to observe strict rules and to
abandon all the worldly possession.
• Jainism recognised the existence of gods but regarded them
to be lower than the jinas.
• It did not condemn the varna system. According to
Mahavira, a person is born in a high caste or a lower varna
is the consequence of the sins or the virtues acquired by him
in the previous birth.
• In Mahavir’s opinion, through pure and meritorious life,
members of the lower caste can attain liberation.
• Full knowledge, action and liberation are considered to be
the 3 gems or the ratnas of Jainism.
Development of Sects in Jainism
• Mahavira had 10 ardent disciples called ‘Ganadharas’. 10
of them died during his lifetime except one called ‘Arya
Sudharaman’. He survived and became the 1st there after
the death of Mahavir.
• Ujjain was the centre for Jainism. Saints like Kalkacharya
and Gardhilla lived here.
• The greatest exponent of Jaina philosophy was ‘Bhadrabahu’
who was born in 300 B.C. He composed kalpasutra which
gives a detailed account of rise and development of Jainism.
• Chandragupta Maurya was also an ardent follower of
Jainism. He accompanied Bhadrabahu and reached
Shravanabelagola on the Chandra Hills in Karnataka. Here
he performed his fast unto death and attained Kaivalya.
• Followers of Bhadrabahu who accompanied him to South
were known as ‘Digambaras’ who believed in the retention
of nudity.
• Followers of ‘Sthulabhadra’, who had remained in the
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north, came to be known as ‘Svetambaras’ who wore white
clothes or garments.
Jaina Philosophy
1. Syadvada: All our judgements are necessarily relative,
conditional and limited. According to Syadvada (the theory
of may be) seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are
possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both
are wrong. All judgements are conditional.
2. Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and
relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekantavada or the doctrine
of the ‘manyness of reality’. Matter (Pudgala) and Spirit
(Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.
3. Nayavada: Includes the understanding of reality arriving at
something by letting go the irrelevant facts.
Important Terms
Ajnanevada: Ajnanevada refers to the jain doctrine agnosticism
or scepticim. In the Jaina text, there is mention of 67 kinds of
Ajnanevada.
Anuvratas: Anuvratas refer to first five vows in Jainism. These
are more moderate version of Mahavrate. These vows include
abstinence from gross violence, gross falsehood, gross stealing,
contentment with one’s own wife and limitation of one’s
possessions.
Avasarpini: In Jainism time is divided into infinite equal time
cyeles or ‘Kalchakras’. Every time cycle is further divided into
two equal halves. The first half is the progressive cycle or ascending
order, called ‘Utsarpini’ where as the second half is the regressive
cycle or descending order, called ‘Avasavpini’.
Samavasarana: The term samavasarana refers to a place where all
have a common opportunity of acquiring the window the theme of
Samavasarana has been popular in Jain art.
Samayasara: Samaysara is a famous Jain text written by Acharya
Kundakunda. In this text, Acharya describes about ‘Ratnatraya’
which includes Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gyan, Samyak Charitra.
Samachari: It refers in a part of Kalpsutra. Which deals with Jain
monks.
Jaina Literature
• Followers of Jainism made immense contribution to
literature.
1. KALPASUTRA
• It is a Sanskrit work and has 3 parts. It was composed by
Bhadrabahu.
- 1st part: Describes the life stories of 1st 23 Tirthankaras.
- 2nd part: Describes rules to be followed by monks.
- 3rd part: Deals with Jain Gandharas.
2. AGAM
• It is the main religious literature.
• Of these 12 angas are most important.
• Angas explain the Jain docrines with the help of legends
and theories.
• They prescribe the rules of conduct for the monks.
• The 12 Angas are:
- The Achara Anga
- The Sutrakrita Anga
- The Sthana Anga

- The Samavaya Anga
- The Vyakhya Prajnapati Anga
- The Jantridharma Katha Anga
- The Upasakadhyayna Anga
- The Antakrit Dasa Anga
- The Anuttaropapadaka - Dasa - Anga
- The Prasna Vyakarna Anga
- The Vipaka Sutra Anga
- The Dhristi Pravada Anga
3. UPANGAS
• These 12 angas have their upangas or sub parts which are
again 12 in number.
• The several commentaries of these works are known as
- Niryukti
- Churni
- Tika
4. Other prominent sacred writings of Jaina
- 10 Parikarnas
- 2 Sutragranthas
- 6 Chhedasutras
- 4 Mulasutras
5. Jivaka Chintamani
Prominent Jain Tamil literature in the form of poem.
6. Also present an old Tamil Dictionary and an old Tamil
grammar by Jain writers.
Buddhism
• Gautam Budha belonged to 6th Century B.C. This period
has special significance in the history of ancient India.
• It witnessed the growth of a strong dissent against
brahmanic faith based on sacrifice and it was the period of
full of philosophical ferment.
• By the age of Gautam Buddha the use of iron weapons and
tools had become quite common.
• It resulted in the expansion of agricultural economy.
• The growing agrarian economy created need for animal
husbandary which demanded that animals instead of being
sacrificed in the name of religion be protected.
• These developments were taking place at a time when
people were tired of traditional religion because of
complex ritualism.
• Buddhist literature speaks about the existence of 62
religious sects in 6th century B.C. One thing is evident
that people were earnestly searching for an alternative
religion.
• Ajivakas made important contribution to the philosophy
of that age. They believe in fate (niyati) and in view the
human efforts bear no fruit, i.e. are ineffective.
• Pakudha Kachchayan speaks non-perishable (Abadhya
- one that can’t be killed or destroyed) seven element -
Prithvi, Jal, Tej, Vayu, Sukh, Dukh and Jeevan (Earth,
Water, Glow, Air, Happiness, Sorrow and Life).
Teachings of Buddha
• Buddha never engaged himself in meaningless debates on
abstract issues such as Brahma, soul or existence of god.
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• His main motive was to seek permanent remedy to the
sorrows of life and spiritual solace.
• So, he pronounced the “four noble truths”:
(1) Sorrow - The world is full of sorrow. Everything
from birth till death brings nothing but pain and
sorrow to the individual.
(2) Cause of Sorrow (Dukha-Karana) - It is not without
reason that the world is full of sorrow. The cause of
sorrow is thirst (Trishna-desires). It is the unfulfilment
of human desires which causes sorrow and forces the
person to undergo the cycle of rebirth.
(3) Prevention of sorrow (Dukh Nirodh) - Sorrow is
not inevitable. A man can get rid of it by removing
the cause of sorrow. He has to overcome the desires.
(4) Path of prevention of sorrow (Dukh Nirodh Marg)-
A man can get rid of sorrows by avoiding the
extremes of life. He should follow the ‘Middle-path’
(Madhyam-Pratipada) in order to live a moderate and
self controlled life.
• In order to achieve the eternal truth one has to follow the 8
fold path also called as “Ashtangika Marg”:
(1) Right Vision - Samyaka Drishti
(2) Right Aim - Samyaka Sankalpa
(3) Right Speech - Samyaka Vak
(4) Right Action - Samyaka Karma
(5) Right Livlihood - Samyaka Ajiva
(6) Right Exercise - Samyaka Vyayama
(7) Right Memory - Samyaka Smriti
(8) Right Meditation - Samyaka Samadhi
• It rejected the transmigration of soul.
• Buddha laid down certain silas or code of conduct, i.e.
- non injury (ahimsa)
- no destruction of life
- no stealing (astiya)
- no use of intoxicants
- no lying (asatya)
- no magic, ritual or worhsip, etc.
The Concept of Nirvana
The concept of ‘Nirvana’ was originally explained by Lord
Buddha. The word ‘Nirvana’ literally means to ‘blow out’ and
refers to extinguishing of fires of greed, hatred and delusion.
The term ‘Nirvana’ has been explained as extinction of three
fires- namely, passion or ‘raga’, aversion or ‘dwesha’ and
ignorance ‘moha’. According to Buddhist philosophy, when
these fires are extinguished, one gets freedom from the cycle of
birth and death and thus ‘Nirvana’ is attained by the individual.
Jatakas: The stories of different births of Buddha are called
Jatakas. It is a collection of over 500 poems briefly outlining folk
tales and stories, attributed to Buddhaghosa.
Sects in Buddhism
Jainism was divided into three sects:
Hinayana
(i) The followers of Hinyana believed in the original teachings
of Buddha.

(ii) They sought individual salvation through self-disciplined
meditation.
(iii) They did not believe in idol-worship
(iv) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma
taking the place of God. Nirvana is regarded as the
annihilation of all.
(v) The oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the
Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the ‘Doctrine of the
Elders’.
(vi) Gradually, Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branch of another
school called Sautantrika, which was more critical in
outlook.
Mahayana
(i) The followers of Mahayana believed in the heavenliness
of Budha and sought the salvation of all through the grace
and help of Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
(ii) Believes in idol-worship.
(iii) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery
but a positive state of bliss.
(iv) Mahanaya had two chief philosophical schools: the
Madhyamika and the Yogachara.
Vajrayana
(i) The followers of vajrayana believed that salvation could
be best attained by achieving the magical power, which
they called Vajra.
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(ii) The chief divinites of this new sect were the Taras.
(iii) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal
and Bihar. It was a form of Buddhism, which appeared in
eastern India in the 8th century and was finally established
in Tibet in 11th century, as a result of mission sent from
the great Vajranaya monastery of Vikramshila.
Buddhist Philosophy
• Buddha did not believe in god or in the existence of soul.
• He had no faith in Vedas and did not consider them as a
source of true knowledge.
• Basic idea of Buddha’s philosophy is “Pratitya
Samutpada”. This means that everything owes it origin
to some cause or reason.
• ‘Pratitya’ i.e. because of this, and Samutpada i.e. it so
happened. Thus everything is bound with some other thing
by the cycle of cause-effect.
• The Buddhist concept of Karmavad and rebirth springs from
this doctrine of Pratitya Samutpad. Every action produces
a result.
• A man cannot escape the consequences of his actions. This
is the doctrine of ‘Karmaphal’.
• He asked the people to be self “illuminated” (Atm-deep)
and believe in only that of which their hearts and logic are
convinced.