POP QUIZ FOR BONUS POINTS

Name one of the five pillars of Islam.

Shahada, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, Hajj
Name one of the two main denominations of Islam.

Sunni and Shia

Iwan
Part of a mosque that is known as the prayer
niche and is the most decorated part of the
building.

Mihrab
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3

ARCHITECTURE OF
INDIA
Prepared by:
Ar. Roy John De Guzman

Edited by:
Ar. Irah Cruz (AY 23-24)
RELIGION plays an important role in
the everyday life than in the West …
RELIGION
• Basis of social structure
• Bound up with human behavior and conduct of public affairs.

1. Vedism and Brahmanism

2. Hinduism

• 6th c. two religions were born as a reaction against the

inflexible Brahmins:
3. Jainism
4. Buddhism
5. Islam
5. Islam
VEDISM AND BRAHMANISM

• POLYTHEISTIC religion(1500 B.C.E.)

by Aryan tribes who gradually
conquered the earlier Indus
civilization

• Veda (knowledge) - scripture

VEDISM
• Worship of trees, stones and water

• Service replaced sacrifice:

• Fire
• Soma (Drink of Strength) –
libation of liquor made of Sati, Hindu widow burning

vegetable matter.

• Hope for an afterlife in heaven and lacked

the concepts of karma and reincarnation
which would come to dominate Hinduism.
BRAHMANISM
• Towards the beginning of the Christian era, it
developed an increasingly pronounced theism and a
heroic tradition that reflected the military character of
India.
• Theory of Bhakti “trusting worship”
• Asceticism (yoga)
• Spiritual Knowledge (Jñana)
• Period of great epics:
• Ramayana
• Mahabharata which contains mystical poems, the
Bhagavad Gita or ‘Song of the Blessed’
 VEDIC
Philosophies

+ HINDUISM
BRAHMANICAL
Rituals
HINDUISM
Other mixture of:
• Yogic mysticism
• Tantrik occultism
• Fertility cults
• Monastic orders
• Pagan customs and
• Belief in one God who manifests
as innumerable divine beings
HINDUISM
• Emphasizes the necessity of escaping from material
life and of extinguishing desire.
• Ritualistic and includes extreme self-denial and
self-punishment.

• REINCARNATION - Belief in the transmigration of

souls where when a person dies, his soul enters
the body of a newborn child/new person or even
the body of an animal.
 HINDUISM
BRAHMA

• Has 4 heads, 3 of which

(representing their Trinity)
can be seen from any
point of view

http://www.friesian.com/gods.htm
 MULTIPLE GODS
Deities worshipped by Hindus:

1. Saktas - worship a Mother Goddess

2. Saivites - worship the god Siva

3. Vaishnavites - worship the god Vishnu.

Each devotee has his or her own “chosen deity,”

but will also honor other deities.

http://www.mitchellteachers.org/WorldHistory/IndiaUnit/CreatingMandalaHinduBeliefs.html
• Expressed as androgynous, with both masculine
and feminine physical traits.

• Tantric belief - incorporates an ideal of

balance of male and female qualities within
a person, hopefully leading to enlightenment,
bliss, and worldly success as well.

• Unity of male and female is often expressed

abstractly, as a lingam within a yoni, a symbol
of the female vulva.
HINDUISM

• CASTE SYSTEM originated from the

Aryans in order to maintain the purity
of their blood and to maintain white
supremacy.

http://www.indhistory.com/india-caste-system.html
CASTE SYSTEM
 HIGHEST CASTE
BRAHMANS PRIEST AND SCHOLARS

SOLDIERS AND WARRIORS

KSHATRYAS

MERCHANTS AND
VAISYAS PROFESSIONALS

LABOURERS AND
SUDRAS SERVANTS
CASTE SYSTEM

VAISYA BRAHMIN KSATRIYA SUDRA

• Vegetarians, lest by
eating meat they
become cannibals.
JAINISM
• Three jewels of Jainism - right faith, right knowledge and right
conduct.
• Ultimate goal - salvation through successive rebirths, the ideal being
rigid asceticism and the avoidance of injury to every living creature.
• Known for - charitable works, including building shelters for animals.
• Preaches universal tolerance.
• View karma - invisible material substance that interferes with
liberation and can only be dissolved through asceticism.
JAINISM

GUNASTHANAS
14 Stages of Spiritual Development /Journey

the soul gradually frees itself, firstly from the

worst, then from the less bad and finally from all
kinds of karma, and manifests the innate
qualities of knowledge, belief and conduct in a
more and more perfect form. advancement.
BUDDHISM

• Religion and philosophy founded

in NE India in the 5th c. BCE.
• Founded by Siddhartha
Gautama, called the Buddha
(Enlightened One), Sakya prince.
BUDDHISM

• PIPAL tree (Bodhi) in Bodh

Gaya, India

• Adopted some ideas from Hinduism,

doctrine of karma but rejected caste
system and all of its gods.

HareKrishna.... on Flic
BUDDHISM
At the age of 35, Siddhartha became the
Buddha, the Supreme Enlightened One.
 BUDDHISM
• Adopted some ideas from Hinduism, doctrine
of karma but rejected caste system and all
of its gods.
• Buddha's teachings - transmitted orally by his
disciples; during his lifetime he established the
Buddhist monastic order (sangha).
• One of major religions in the world.
• Preached charity to all creatures, equality of
all beings and practice of moderation in all
things
 BUDDHISM
• Buddhism's two major branches:
1. Theravada (the lesser vehicle) – remains faithful
to ancient rules Maha
2. Mahayana (the greater vehicle) – worship of
bodhisattvas or creatures of charity
• Emperor Ashoka 3rd most powerful Mauryan
emperor, who created the first pan-Indian empire.
(273 - 232 BCE)
• promoted Buddhism during the 3rd c. BCE, but it
declined in succeeding centuries and was
nearly extinct by the 13th c.
BUDDHISM

• Spread south and

flourished in Sri Lanka and
S.E. Asia, as well as
moving through Central
Asia and Tibet to China,
Korea, and Japan.

http://www.thebuddhistsociety.org/resources/Spread.html
 BUDDHISM ART AND
ARCHITECTURE

5. Islam
BUDDHISM
ART, ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE
• Monolithic
• Monumental
• Free standing construction
• Rock-cut buildings
Laid down by Brahmanism (Barabar) and by Jainism (Udayagiri
and Khandagiri).
Buddhist - magnificent development and artistic character
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

• Designed for congregational use.

• Monumental and sophisticated
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

1. Stambhas or Laths
• Monumental pillars standing free without
any structural function, with circular or
octagonal shafts.
• Inscriptions carved on the shaft.
• Polished sandstone or metal some as high as
60 or 70 ft. (18 or 21 m.)
• Pillar symbolizes the world axis.

Lion Capital of column erected by Emperor

Asoka (272-232 BC) 70 ft. (21 m.) high
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

1. Stambhas or Laths

• Columns crowned with bell-shaped capitals

based on Persepolis and decorated with
one or more animals joined together.
• Hellenistic Iran influence
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

1. Stambhas or Laths
• Symbolic forms:
1. Lotus – divinity/ man’s salvation
2. Wheel – cycle of life, death and rebirth/ teaching of
Buddha ( 8 path ) Right of View, Resolve, Speech,
Conduct, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness and Meditation
3. Four animals – 4 quarters of the compass / noble truth
4. Lion – Sakyamuni Buddha known as the Lion of the Sakya
Clan.
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

2. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/Cave Temples

• Plan of a rock-cut chamber - facilitate

religious services around the principal
symbol of worship, the stupa
 BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

2. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/Cave Temples

Chaitya hall consists of:
1. Ornamental façade,
2. Central hall divided by means of pillars into
a nave and aisles
3. Rock-cut stupa at the rear end of the hall
with enough space around it for performing
the rite of circumambulation (pradakshina
patha)
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE
CHAITYA HALL
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE
KAILASA TEMPLE
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

2. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/
Cave Temples

• First rock cut technique was

initiated by Asoka
• The Barabar and Nagarjuni
caves excavated were hewn
out of the granite rock
 2. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/
Cave Temples
• Other names given to the structure:
1. Chaityagrihas/Chaitya – place worship,
assembly halls
patterned after the shrines of Vishnu, with the
form of the fire altar being placed on the
raised platform in the apse of the hall.

2. Vihara – monasteries
Consisted of cell and one or more small
chapels
CHAITYA
• Sanctuary is a faithful
reproduction in stone of
the wooden structures
which are represented
on the relief of the
period.

• Façade is broken by a
large horseshoe-shape
bay and sanctuary is
apsidal in plan.

Façade of the Chaitya at Bhaja

(Western Ghat) 1st c BC.
Chaitya Hall, Karli, 100 AD STUPA

ELEVATION
Chaitya Hall, Karli, 100 AD STUPA

PLAN
CHAITYA

Chaitya Hall,
Karli, 100 AD STUPA
AJANTA CAVE
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

3. STUPA

• Funerary customs of the Vedic

age.
• Dome-shaped mound that
mimics the funerary mounds
used to mark the graves of
great kings.
BUDDHISM
ART and ARCHITECTURE

3. STUPA

• Contain holy relics to indicate the sacred character of the

place or commemorate an important event associated with
Buddha
• Free standing architecture built out of stone and bricks
Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India
reconstruction of the Sanchi complex
http://www2.palomar.edu/users/mhudelson/WorksofArt/31Buddhist/5508.html
STUPA Axis Mundi

• Hemispherical mound
• 3 main parts: C
D
A. Medhi – raised base in one or two
stages D

B. Anda – solid dome D B

C. Harmika – square pedestal crowned by
an apex (yatsi) adorned with a series of A
chatras (umbrella, sign of royalty). D

D. Torana – circular stone gateways

around the whole structure (on all four
sides)
Torana or Gateway
Stupa at Sanchi

• 34 ft. (10.2 m.)

in height with
2 pillars and
architraves
Other parts:
E. Vedika – railing composed
of a framework consisting
of vertical posts and cross
bar (resembles wooden
railings of the past).
F. Sopana – staircases going
to the terrace
F. Sopana – staircases going to the terrace
OTHER BUDDHIST ELEMENTS

5. Islam
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST ELEMENTS

1.TREE (Enlightenment): most

important of the four elements,
since this is what made him the
Buddha ("Enlightened One").
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST ELEMENTS

2. LOTUS - Indian
symbol of spiritual
growth.
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST ELEMENTS

3. ELEPHANT
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST ELEMENTS

4. WHEEL (PREACHING THE FIRST SERMON)

– symbolizes the 3rd great event in the
historical Buddha's life, in which he
"turned the wheel of dharma" by
preaching his first sermon.

represents his career as a teacher

BUDDHIST ORNAMENTS AND ART

5. Islam
 BUDDHIST ORNAMENTS

Frescoes in Vihara Cave 1,

Mahayana 5th c. AD

http://rolfgross.dreamhosters.com/India-
ArchitectureWeb/IndiaTheravada.htm
 http://www.shortbreakideas.com/ajanta-murals-ajanta-caves-india.html

BUDDHIST ORNAMENTS
• Painted wall decoration was widely used and ranged from purely
architectural forms to very elaborate genre paintings - cave walls at Ajanta.
Tower temples have a
variety of architectural
designs symbolizes Mount
Meru, the mythical sacred
mountain home of Hindu
gods at the center of the
universe, now symbolically
reproduced on Earth in the
mountainous homeland of
the Cham people.
Early HINDU building ART and ARCHITECTURE was the representation
of the existing religious perception of the people in a tangible form.
HINDU TEMPLES

• Sacred structure and ABODE of

their GOD
• CRADLE of Knowledge , Art and
Architecture
Ideology behind the design of Hindu
temples:

1. Link man with the gods.

2. Depiction of the macrocosm (the

universe) as well as the microcosm
(the inner space)
HINDU RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY

Man’s life is a summation of countless

individual life spans bound up in the
cycle of rebirth. One can achieve
enlightenment through pure deeds,
thoughts and dedication.

TEMPLE = Enlightenment
• Architecture (sthapatya) is
classified as one of the crafts
(silpa) - first passed down to
mankind by Visvakarman,
the famous demigod builder of
the universe.

• Influenced by foreign invaders

including Greeks, Bactrians,
Parthians, Kushans and Sakas.
MANDALA
• Visualized in the basic plan of a
Hindu temple

• Expression of sacred geometry.

• Accurate laying out of the temple

ground plan in relation to the
cardinal directions and the heavens.

• Meeting ground of heaven and

earth.
MANDALA
• Consists of intersection of:

• Circle - metaphor for heaven

without beginning or end, signifying
timelessness and eternity.
Perfection.

• Square shape – symbol of earth,

signifying the four directions which
bind and define it. (four castes; the
four Vedas etc.).
VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA

• Vastu shastra - constitutes

the mathematical and
diagrammatic basis for
generating design.

• Metaphysical plan of a building

that incorporates the course of
the heavenly bodies and
supernatural forces.
MANDIR (place of Worship)
Hindu Temple

• identified by several names in

different parts of India as koil
or kovil in Tamil, devasthana in
Kanada and devalaya, in
Telugu etc.

Tiruvanamalai Temple
TEMPLE COMPLEX
1. MAIN SHRINE - nucleus
Music and dance
2. School were the part of
daily rituals
3. Hospital

4. Courts for the community

5. Spacious halls of the temple - place for

the recitation and listening of folktales,
Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata and
debates.
TEMPLE is the hub of different
religious and cultural activities:

• Provided means of livelihood and greatly

influenced the economic life of the community.

• Owned cultivable land, was leased out and

revenues were earned. - sustain the
maintenance of the temple and also support
the needy during poverty and emergency.
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLES
Three Styles:
1. DRAVIDIAN (southern) style - found between the
Krishna river and Cape Comorin.

2. NAGARA (northern) style - found between the Vindhyas

and Himalayas.

3. VESARA or mixed style - found between the Krishna

and Vindhyas.
 DIFFERENT STYLES OF INDIAN TEMPLE

NAGARA DRAVIDIAN VESARA

• Square in their plan • Octagon in plan

• Apse or circle in plan
• Sikhara curvilinear, • Vimanam (Sikhara) - in the
or beehive tower form of truncated pyramids • Sikhara - combines both styles

(www.asia.msu.edu)
 DRAVIDIAN STYLE

5. Islam
DRAVIDIAN (Southern) Style

• Found between the Krishna river and Cape

Comorin.
• South-Indian Hindu temples are often like
miniature towns.
• Gopuram (sculptured gateway) is the
significant feature of this style of temple
• Vimana rises like a stepped pyramid, tier
upon tier.
The Tanjore temple
is undoubtedly the
grandest
achievement of
the age.
Vertically represents the
god’s body with the
sikhara as the head and
the garbagriha as the
neck, mandapa as the
body and gopura as the
feet
 NAGARA STYLE

5. Islam
NAGARA TEMPLES

• Found between the Vindhyas and Himalayas.

• Use of a square or cruciform plan but the
walls are sometimes so broken up that the
tower often gives the impression of being
circular.
• Prasada or vimana rises vertically from its
base in a curvilinear form.
Keshava Temple Somanathpura.
Towers are in 16 pointed star plan

• Characterized by a beehive
shaped tower made up of layer
upon layer of architectural
elements such as: kapotas and
gavaksas, topped by a large
round cushion-like element called
an amalaka.
Parts of an Orissan Temple
(after the Lingaraja Temple Bhuvaneswar)

Bada – foot
Lower portion of the human body,
composed of horizontal mouldings
ensuring stability of the structure.
Gandi – trunk
Main body of the human being,
decorated with the motifs of
miniature
Mastaka – apex
Corresponds to the head portion of
the human body.
Crown is decorated by a amalaka
Visvanatha Temple, Khajuraho
(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

• Built by the Chandela king , Dhanga in

1002 A.D. and has all the features of
the Khajuraho temple.

• Enshrines a Shiva Linga.

Khandariya Mahadev & Jagadambi Temple,
Khajuraho

• Largest monument of Khajuraho.

• 30.5 m in length and height and 20 m in
width, built between 1017 AD. – 1029 AD.
in the reign of Vidyadhara Chandela.
• Series of graded and ascending 84
shikharas.
• Sculptured friezes of elephants, horses,
hunters, dancers, musicians in the
basement Erotic figures on its outer walls
show the influence of Tantrism.
The temples of Bhubaneswar,
built of sandstone without the
use of cement.
 VESARA STYLE

5. Islam
VESARA (MIXED STYLE) TEMPLES

• Found between the Krishna and Vindhyas is

circular in plan.

• In its later evolution, adopted the square for

the sanctum, circular or stellar plan was
retained for the vimana.

• The vesara, which came to prevail mostly in

western Deccan and south Karnataka was a
derivation from the apsidal chapels of the
early Buddhist period which the Brahmanical
faith adopted and vastly improved.
PARTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE

5. Islam
ELEMENTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE

VIMANA – sanctuary as a whole and consist of two parts:

1. Sikhara - upper part

2. Garbhagriha - inner chamber, lower part
Other parts:

1. Pradakshina patha

2. Mandapa

3. Antarala

4. Ardhamandapa
1. SIKHARA
• Tower , spire or steeple of the dome
(summit).

• Pyramidal or tapering portion of the

temple - represents mythological
Meru or the highest mountain peak.

• Over inner chamber - most prominent

and visible part of North India.

• Shape and size vary from region to

region.

Parts of a Hindu Temple:

2. GARBHAGRIHA

• Womb chamber.

• Nucleus and the innermost

chamber- where the image or idol
of the deity (murti) is placed.

• Mostly square in plan and is

entered by a doorway on its
eastern side.

• Only the temple priests are allowed

inside to perform the rituals and
worship

Parts of a Hindu Temple:

Typical plan and the typical elevation of
a Hindu Temple
(www.art-and-archaeology.com)
 Kalasha

Amalaka

Mandapa

Sikhara

Pitha/platform
3. PRADAKSHINA PATHA

• Ambulatory passageway for

circumambulation.

• Consists of enclosed corridor around

the outside of garbhagriha.

• Devotees walk around the deity in

clockwise direction as a worship ritual
and symbol of respect to the temple
god or goddess.

Parts of a Hindu Temple:

4. MANDAPA
• Pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the
assembly of the devotees.

• Used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant,

meditate and watch the priests performing
the rituals.

• also known as ‘Natamandira’ - temple hall of

dancing, where in olden days ritual of music
and dance was performed.

• earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated

and separate structure from the sanctuary.
4. MANDAPA
5. ANTARALA - vestibule or the
intermediate chamber. It
unites the main sanctuary
and the pillared hall of the
temple.

6. ARDHAMANDAPA - front
porch or the main entrance
of the temple leading to the
mand.pa.
5. ANTARALA - vestibule or the
intermediate chamber. It
unites the main sanctuary
and the pillared hall of the
temple.

6. ARDHAMANDAPA - front
porch or the main entrance
of the temple leading to the
mand.pa.
Other essential elements found in the Hindu temples :

7. Gopurams

8. Pitha - the plinth or the platform of the temple.

9. Toranas - the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian
temple and

10. Amalaka

11. Reservoir - Water is used for rituals and also to keep the temple floor clean
or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy area.

12. Walkways
7. GOPURAMS
(Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)

• Principal features in the

quadrangular enclosures that
surround the more notable
temples.
• Monumental and ornate tower at
the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in south
India.
7. GOPURAMS
(Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)
7. GOPURAMS
(Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)

• Ornately decorated with

sculpture and carvings,
painted with themes derived
from the Hindu mythology
associated with the presiding
deity.

SRI MEENAKSHI TEMPLE

MADURAI, INDIA
7. GOPURAMS
(Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)

• Ornately decorated with

sculpture and carvings,
painted with themes derived
from the Hindu mythology
associated with the presiding
deity.

SRI MEENAKSHI TEMPLE

MADURAI, INDIA
7. GOPURAMS
(Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)
AMALAKA
• Flattened fluted melon shaped
massive stone member crowning
the top of sikhara
• Distinctive circular piece of stone
which is shaped like a clogged
wheel, with bead-like mouldings
along the periphery.
AMALAKA
Top of a gopuram at Madurai
MATERIALS
• Varies from timber to mud, plaster,
brick and stone (granite and
sandstone) during all periods and
throughout India.

• Played an important role in the

overall appearance, construction
techniques and monumental
character of these temples.
 ISLAMIC
Art and Architecture

• Impact of Islam since 8th c.

▪ Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals

• Great builders

• Excellence in paintings, miniatures,

music, dance, poetry
 MUGHAL

• Art took place during the reign of Shah

Jehan between 1628-1659

• Capitals of Agra, Delhi and Lahore -

display great buildings and structures.

• Use of white marble and the red

sandstone.
MUGHAL

• Taj Mahal ( Palace of the Crown), Agra also known as the pearl of India
represents absolute perfection.
Taj Mahal, Agra

• Erected by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved queen,

Arjumand Banu Begum, called Mumtaz Mahal (mausoleum)

• Year after her death in 1631, 22 years to complete,

• 20,000 workers, costing 32 million rupees

• Combines elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Islamic architecture.
 Architectural complex
Comprised of five main elements:

1. Darwaza (main gateway)

2. Bageecha (garden) - with water channels, lotus pools and colorful

flowerbeds and trees

3. Masjid (mosque)

4. Naqqar Khana (rest house)

5. Rauza (Taj Mahal mausoleum)

Secondary rooms on the diagonals

PLAN
MAUSOLEUM at platform level

7 Octagonal room containing

the cenotaph

8 Secondary rooms on the

diagonals
 ELEVATION

Bulbous dome
on drum

Mausoleum

40 m.
Minarets Iwan
Minarets

Platform
Chatris (smaller domed pavilions)

SECTION

Dome (Persian)

Chatris (Indian)
framing the
dome Void between Minarets
Minarets the shell

Crypt
• Impressive pietra dura artwork includes geometric elements, plants and flowers,
mostly common in Islamic architecture.

• High level of intricacy involved in artwork- decorative element contains more than
50 inlaid gemstones.
 Pietra dura

• Marble inlaid with design in precious and semi-precious

stone work.

• Integral part of Agra's art culture and traditions

MUGHAL

SHALIMAR
GARDEN
Lahore, Pakistan

• 1641-1642 AD

• Great Islamic gardens

• Best preserved garden built by Shah Jahan

• Ali Mardan Khan or Inayat Khan

Shalimar (Shalamar) Gardens,
Lahore, Pakistan

• Enclosed by a red sandstone over 457 meters long

• Contains 2 gardens with a narrow rectangular terrace in between them.
• Divided by canals and flowerbeds - Persian tradition of the charbagh, or
fourfold garden.
• White marble buildings in typical Shah Jahan style.
 Dhanyavad

END OF
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
WANT TO LEARN AND
UNDERSTAND MORE? READ BOOKS
 REFERENCES
1. Cruickshank(1996) Sir Fletcher Banister’s A History of Architecture 20th Edition, Architectural Press,
Oxford
2. Ching (1995) A visual Dictionary of Architecture, John Wiley & Sons, Canada
3. Fazio,Moffett,Wodehouse(2013) A world History of Architecture 3rd Edition, LaurenceKing
Publishing, London
4. Cole(2002) Architectural details: A visual guide to 5000 years of building styles
5. History Chanel(2012) Engineering An Empire: Persia

6. F:\Asian Architecture\India\History of Art The Indian Region and the Far East.mht
7. Early Development of Art, Symbol and Technology in the Indus Valley Tradition , Jonathan Mark
Kenoyer. This article was first published in INDO-KOKO-KENKYU, Indian Archaeological Studies
2000 Vol. 22 and is reprinted here with permission.]
8. http://www.religioustolerance.org/jainism.htm
9. Hindu temples http://www.templenet.com/Articles/hintemp.html
10. http://www.templenet.com/Articles/tempstyl.html HINDU TEMPLE STYLES
By
Anthony Batchelor
July 1997
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture
NEXT MEETING: GOOD LUCK!!