Ancient Indian History

PREHISTORIC PERIOD [200,000 to 3500-2500]

• Civilization
• 5 period
• Palaeolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic
• Chalcolithic
• Iron Age
STONE AGE (LITHIC PERIODS):
Stone Age cultures - Human species used stone (‘lithos’ in Greek) tools.
Broadly divided into three periods
• Paleolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic period
LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AGE [700,000 BC–100,000
BC]
• EVOLUTION - Control fire - roasting meat and warding off animals. Hunting and
food gathering.
• TOOLS - crude and rough tools prepared out of pebbles.
• SITES – Bhimbetaka, Nagarjunkonda, etc.
MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC AGE [100,000 – 40,000 BC]
• EVOLUTION - Language invented + hunters and food gatherers.
• TOOLS - Refined and lighter tools - flint
• SITES - Nevasa, Bhimbetaka, Belan Valley in UP etc.
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC AGE [40,000 – 10,000 BC]
• TOOLS - more refine and light tools.
• SITES - Belan Valley in UP, Patna and etc.
MESOLITHIC AGE [10,000 BC – 8000 BC]
• EVOLUTION – First use bow and arrow. First burials
• Domestication of animals: Sheep and Goats
• TOOLS - Microlith tools
• SITES - Bhimbetaka, Adamgarh etc.
• Earliest cave paintings at Bhimbetaka (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
NEOLITHIC AGE [8000 BC – 4000 BC]
• EVOLUTION - developed agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton, rice) -
earthenware
• TOOLS - Sharper, symmetrical and polished stone tools
• SITES - Mehargarh (Pakistan), Burzaom, Koldihwa and Maski etc
CHALCOLITHIC AGE [4000 BC – 1500 BC]
• CRAFTS AND POTS:
1. Copper and stone tools
2. Coppersmiths and weavers.
3. Used Black and Red Ware

• SITES: Navdatoli, Jorwe, Daimabad, Ahar Banas, Malwa, Inamgaon,

etc
LIMITATIONS :
1. Could not fully utilized the-domesticated animals.
2. Unaware of - Iron, horse and script.
3. Burnt brick was generally absent.
4. High Child Mortality - large number of child burial.
IRON AGE
• Aryans - Rigvedic Period.
• TOOLS: made up of iron
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION (INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION)
Excavated in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni
Larger than ancient Egypt &
Mesopotamia
• Northern-most site -> Manda
• Southern-most site -> Daimabad
• Eastern-most site -> Alamgirpur
• Western-most site -> Sutkagendor
TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES
• Rectangular grid pattern.
• Burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar.
• City - Upper citadel and lower citadel.
• Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces.
• Advanced drainage system.
AGRICULTURE
• Wheat and Barley - Rice in Lothal and Rangpur
• First to produce cotton in the world - Sindon.
• Animal drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles.
• Taxes from peasants and storage in granaries.
TECHNOLOGY AND CRAFT
• Bronze (occasionally mixed arsenic with copper instead of tin).
• Iron was not known
• Important crafts: spinning, bricklaying, boat-making, seal making,
terracotta, potter’s wheel, goldsmiths, bead making.
TRADE AND COMMERCE
• Seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures.
• Dilmun (Bahrain) & Magan (Makran coast).
• Used boats and bullock-carts.
• Barter system.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
• Hierarchy - Merchants and priests were important.
• Fashion conscious.
• Necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings - men and women
• Bangles, girdles, anklets, ear-rings - women only.
• Beads - gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli etc
• Fishing, hunting and bull fighting.
POLITY
• No clear idea of an organized force or standing army.
• Priests did not rule in Harappa as they did in the cities of lower
Mesopotamia.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
• Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva)-three-horned heads.
• Phallus (lingam) and Yoni worship.
• Chief female deity mother Goddess.
• Worshiped fire.
• Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces - amulets against them.
SCRIPT
• Oldest script in Indian sub-continent - (yet to be deciphered).
• Writing was boustrophedon
POTTERY
• Red and Black Pottery - red colour to paint the background - glossy black paint
was used to draw designs and figures.
• Rare polychrome pottery has also been found.
SEALS
• Square plaque (2x2 square inches) -Steatite.
• Animal (not Cow) or human figure on one side - an inscription on the
opposite side or inscriptions on both the sides.
• Commercial purposes - as form of identification - for educational
purposes
BRONZE CASTING - ‘lost wax’ technique or Cire Perdue:
• ‘Dancing Girl’. She stands in a ‘tribhanga’ dancing posture.

STONE STATUES:
• Bearded man- (found in Mohenjo-daro and made of Steatite),
• Red sandstone - figure of a male torso (found in Harappa and made of Red sandstone).

TERRACOTTA FIGURES :
• Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc.
DECLINE
• Possible reasons – declined soil fertility, depression in land, Aryans
invasion, decline of trade, Floods, Earthquake etc.
VEDIC TEXTS
• SHRUTI
• Shrutis’ are the texts ‘that is heard’ - ‘Godly revelation’ to the great sages
(rishis) while in meditation (‘dhyaan’).
• SMRITI
• ‘Smritis’ on the other hand are those that are recollected by normal humans.
• Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, 6 Vedangas and 4 Upavedas make the
smritis.
EARLY VEDIC AGE
POLITY
• Monarchy
• No standing army
• No doctrine of divinity associated with the kingship
• Important functionaries:
• Purohit (priest)
• Senani (leader of the army)
• Gramini (leader of a village)
EARLY VEDIC AGE
ASSEMBLIES
• Sabhas (exclusive body for elites)
• Samiti (folk assembly, presided by the Rajan)
• Vidatha (Tribal assembly with diverse functions)

WOMEN’s CONDITION
• Important positions - educated and had access to the assembly
• Right to choose husband.
• No incidence of Sati or Purdah
EARLY VEDIC AGE
RELIGION
• No temple or idol worship
• Primitive animism - worshipped forces of nature such as wind, rain, water
LATER VEDIC AGE
POLITY
• Kingship became hereditary.
• Various sacrifices to enhance his position -
• Rajasuya ( royal consecration and king conferred supreme power )
• Vajapeya (chariot race to win against all kinsmen)
• Ashwamedha (control over the area in which royal horse ran uninterrupted)
• Kings still had no standing army
LATER VEDIC AGE
ASSEMBLIES
• Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance
• Vidhatha disappeared

WOMEN’S CONDITIONS
• Household chores and subordinate position
• Not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis.
• Instances of Sati and Purdah
• Examples of women scholars in this period such as Gargi, Maitreyi, and Katyayani
LATER VEDIC AGE
RELIGION
• Idolatry
• Sacrifices became important
• Brahmans maintained their supremacy
• Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, etc. to establish their authority over the chiefs and their
territory
• Indra and Agni lost importance and Prajapati emerged supreme.
• Vishnu, Rudra became prominent
UPANISHADS:
• Knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher.
• Vedantas - truth about human life and path to ’moksha’.
• Mundaka Upanishada contains the famous phrase ‘Satyameva Jayate’.
VEDIC PERIOD OFFICIALS
Vrajapati: Officer-in-charge of pasture land
Senani: Supreme commander-in-chief
Gramani: Head of the village;
Bhagadugha: Revenue collector
Kulapati: Head of the family
Spasas: Spies & Messengers;
Sanghrahriti: Treasurer
Purohita: Priest of highest order.
SANGAM AGE - SOUTH INDIA (Tamilkam)
• 3 main Kingdoms - Chola. Pandya & Chera
• Assemblies of Tamil poets under royal patronage -
1st Sangam- Old Madurai (Lemurai)
2nd Sangam- Kapatpuram (Alovai)
3rd Sangam- New Madurai
• Sangam Literature 2 groups – Narrative & Didactic.
SANGAM AGE
• Heroic poetry in which heroes and wars are glorified - idea of state formation in
South India.
• Works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar.
• Code of conduct for kings & society - social groups, occupations.
• 2nd and 13th rock edicts of Ashoka - Cholas, Cheras (Keralputras of Malabar) and
Pandyas.
Other Sangam Literature
1. Silappadikaram – written by Ilango Adigal - love affair of Kovalan, Kanaggi and
Madhavi.
2. Manimegalai – Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of
Silappadikaram in next generation in which Manimegalai is the daughter of
Madhavi and Kovalan.
3. Tolkappiyam – written by Tolkappiyar and it is basically a work on Tamil
grammar & poetics.
4. Tirrukural – Deals with philosophy and wise maxims & was written by Tiruvallur
ADMINISTRATION
• Kingdom - Mandalam, Nadu (province), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small village)
Amaichar (ministers)
Anthanar (priests)
Dutar (envoys)
Senapatiyar (military commanders)
Orrar (spies)
Variyar – (Tax collector)
MAURYAN AGE
• It was the phase during which ‘janapadas’ became greater in size -
‘Mahajanapadas’.
• Development of philosophical movements like ‘Jainism’ and ‘Buddhism’.
• Urban centers and first use of coins - punch-mark coins.
Vajji
Republic state with many clans e.g. Lichchavis (capital Vaishali) and
Jnatrikas (Mahavira belonged to this clan)
ECONOMY:
• Merchants and artisans (organized into a ‘sartha’ guild).
• Most important cities of the time were settled on the banks of the rivers and
trade routes.
• Use of money called ‘nishka’ and ‘satamana’
• Agriculture was made easier with use of iron tools
• 1/6th of the farm produce - tax to King - no intermediate landlords.
HARYANKAS
BIMBISARA (542-493 BC):
• The first important ruler of Magadha, Bimbisara was a patron of Buddhism, yet
his lineage is not discussed in Buddhist sources.
• Bimbisara’s capital was Rajgriha or Girivraja.
• Bimbisara sent his personal physician Jivaka to Ujjain to win the friendship of
Pradyota, the king of Avanti.
AJATASHATRU (492 BC - 460 BC):

• Ajatshatru killed his father- Bimbisara and ascended to thrown.

• Adopted expansionist policy & defeated Koshala and Vaishali.
• Both, Bimbisar and Ajatshatru were contemporaries of the Buddha.
Udayin (460 BC - 444 BC)
• Ajatashatru's son Udayabhadra (Udayin) succeeded Ajatasattu
• He moved his capital to the bank of Ganges which was known as
Pataliputra and built a fort near the confluence of the Ganga and Son at
Patna.
NANDAS
• Mahapadma Nanada, who was from a ‘shudra’ lineage, laid the
foundation of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha.
• Controlled entire area between river Beas in the west and Bay of
Bengal in the east.
• Puranas refer to him as “destroyer of all Kshatriyas” i.e.,
Sarvaksatrantaka and Ekarat.
FOREIGN INVASIONS:
• Cyrus 2nd invaded the region west of river Indus, during reign in Magadha, and
succeeded in establishing control over Gandhara and Kamboja
• His grandson Darius 1st conquered Punjab and Sindh.
• As a result, Indo-Iranian trade, influences of language,
art and architecture increased.
ALEXANDER’S INVASION (327 BC – 325 BC)
• After defeating, Darius III, the last Achaemenid emperor, Alexander crossed the
Hindukush and entered north-western India which was an Achaemenid province in
327 BC.
• Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Takshashila, submitted to Alexander.
• Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Porus vs Alexander
Impact
1. Direct contact between Indian and Greece.
2. Greek influences on the Gandhara School of Art and Architecture.
3. New land & sea routes were discovered by Alexander.
MAURYAN EMPIRE
LITERARY EVIDENCE
• Megasthenes' ‘Indika’,
• Kautilya's ‘Arthashastra’,
• Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’
• Dharmashastra texts, Puranas
• Buddhist Text (Jatak Stories, Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
• Punch marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
• Wooden Palace of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra
• Ashokan inscriptions and Edicts
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 BC – 298 BC)
1. Chandragupta / Sandrokottos vs Dhananand.
2. He laid the foundation of Mauryan empire in 322 BC with help of Chanakya
(Kautilya).
3. After conquering the region between Beas and Bay of Bengal, Chandragupta
launched expeditions throughout the country and included territories of
Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Central regions to Mauryan
empire.
4. The credit of first unification of North India is attributed to Chandragupta
Maurya.
ASHOKA THE GREAT (273 BC – 237 BC)
• Kalinga War
• Bherighosha was replaced with Dhammaghosha.
• Later on, he became Buddhist under the guidance of Mogaliputta Tissa.
MAURYAN ECONOMY
• Use of iron tools, diversified agriculture production, immense increase in
agriculture land and irrigation facilities – 1/6th Tax
• Sohgaura copper plate inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted
during a famine.
• Strict legal and penal system (civil and criminal)
• Punch-marked coins (mostly silver)
• Hired labourers were called ‘karmakaras’.
• State monopoly of mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms and
metallurgy.
MAURYAN SOCIETY
• Four-fold Varna system - slavery (dasas) existed in the society.
• Women’s position in society deteriorated severly
• Forced labour (vishti).
DHAMMA OF ASHOKA
• Principles of morality known as ‘Dhamma’.
• The 4-cardinal points of Dhamma included:
• Tolerance,
• Non-violence,
• Good Conduct &
• Welfare.
• ‘Dhammamahamatra’ - promotion of ‘Dhamma’.
ASHOKAN EDICTS AND INSCRIPTIONS
1. Meerut, Topara, Kaushambi, Sanchi, Sarnath, Lauriya Nandgarh, Lauriya Araraj,
Rampur and Lumbini (Nepal) in and around the Ganga Valley.
2. The national emblem - Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar.
3. Name of Ashoka occurs only on minor rock edicts (Kanganahalli, Maski, Nettur).
4. First king to speak people directly through inscriptions
5. Prakrit Language and Brahmi script.
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
Mantri Chief Minister
Purohita Chief priest
Senapati Commander-In-Chief
Samaharta Revenue Collector
Shulkadhyaksha Officer-In-Charge of Royal Income
Gudhapurushas Spies
DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE:
• Over-centralisation
• Neglect of North-West frontier
• Financial Crisis
• Over-tolerant and non-violent attitude.
• Pushyamitra Shunga
• Brahmins, annoyed by Ashoka for banning rituals, supported
Pushyamitra Shunga who was a Brahmin.
BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
ORIGIN
• Expensive & complicated Vedic rituals - Superstitious beliefs
• The rigid caste system prevalent
• Desire of Vaishya to improve their social position due to the increase in trade and
economic prosperity.
• Unrest in society due to supremacy Brahmins.
• Practice of killing cows became hindrance to new Agri economy.
GAUTAMA BUDDHA (563 BC-483 BC)

• Sakya Clan
• Father: Siddhodhana
• Mother: Mayadevi
Life of the Buddha
1. Birth: Gautam Buddha – Lumbini
2. Renunciation: departure of Buddha from all worldly pleasures.
3. Enlightenment: enlightenment near Bodhgaya - Peepal tree.
4. Dhammachakrapravartana: first sermon of Buddha - Sarnath.
5. Mahaparinibbana (death): Kusinagara
5 TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA [PANCHSHILA]
1. No killing Respect for life.
2. Abstention from theft.
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct.
4. Abstention from falsehood.
5. Abstention from intoxication.
4 NOBLE TRUTHS: ‘ARYA SATYAS’
1. World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)
2. Desire is a root cause of sorrow (Pratitya Samputpada)
3. Desire can be conquered (DukhaNirodha)
4. Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga.
EIGHT-FOLD PATHS (ASTANGIKA MARGA)
• The path consists of various interconnected activities related to
knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
Literature -
• The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the
monastic life of the monks and nuns.

• The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha

• The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the

teaching and the scholarly activity of the monks.

• Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa,

Milind Panha
BUDDHISTS PERSONALITIES
• ASVAGOSHA- wrote BUDDHACHARITA

• NAGARJUNA - Founded madhyamik school - gave theory of SUNYAVAD’

EMPTINESS’ - ‘MULAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA’

• BUDDHAGOSH - VISUDDIMAGGA.

• DHARMAKIRTI - Teacher at Nalanda, called as ‘kant of india’.

BODDHISATTVAS:
• In Mahayana, Boddhisatva is a person who can reach nirvana but delays doing so
through compassion for suffering beings
• It is similar to the concept of Incarnations in Hindu Mythology.
• Common figures in Buddhist literature and art.
Ads by Jagran.TV
Avalokitesvara
He is described as holding a lotus flower.
Manjusri
He is described as a male Bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand. He is
known as Wenshu in China and Jampelyang in Tibet.
Samantabhadra
It means Universal Worthy and he is associated with meditation. He is manifested through
action and he is a major figure in Flower Garland Sutra.
Ksitigarbha
He is described as a Buddhist monk in the Orient/ East Asia. It means Earth Womb. He is
revered as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children. He carries a staff.
Maitreya
He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. It is believed that he will arrive when oceans will
decrease in size. He keeps a Kumbha or phililal in his hand and is destined to rule Varanasi
(Pure Land). Future Buddha.
Vajrapani
He is described as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri and
Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani manifests Buddha’s power while Buddha’s wisdom is manifested
Buddha’s wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha’s compassion.
Sadaparibhuta
He is a Bodhisattva which manifests never disparaging spirit.
Akasagarbha
He is boundless as space. He was the twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He manifests wisdom
 Mahayana Hinayana
Gautama Buddha to be a divine being who Gautama Buddha as an ordinary human
will help his followers to attain nirvana. being who attained Nirvana.

China, (South) Korea, Japan and Tibet. Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and
Laos.

Scriptures were written Sanskrit. Scriptures were written in Pali.

Idol Worship. Does not believe in idol worship.

Worships Buddha in symbols.
Mahayana - Great Vehicle
• It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia,
East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia.
• Believed that Buddha will be born again.
• Worship Buddha in idol form.
• Language- Sanskrit.
• Sub-schools Chittmatra, Madhyamaka, Zen (china, Korea )
• Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the
Mahayana tradition
Hinayana - Lesser vehicle
• Abandoned Vehicle or Defective vehicle.
• Followed original teachings of Buddha.
• Sought individual salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
• Buddha will never be reborn.
• Did not believe in Idol worship.
• Language- Pali language.
• Buddha was an intellectual, not a god.
• Most important – Sarvastivada, Theravadin & Sautantrika.
Vajrayana
• “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt” - tantric Buddhism.
• Believed in acquiring magical power for liberation.
• Developed in Tibet and believes in the worship of female deities -
Taras.
• It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
Jainism
• Jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.
• 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabhanath or
Rishabhadev.
• The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi.
• The 24th Tirthkara was Vardhaman Mahavira.
• The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
• Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali.
• Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries.
• Parents - Siddhartha and Trisala
• He attained Kaivalya-highest spiritual knowledge, at the age of 42
under Sal tree.
• First sermon - At Pava
• Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.
• A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s
symbol was a lion.
Basic Tenets
• Rejected authority of the Vedas
• Did not belive in the existance of God.
• Believed in Karma & Transmission of Soul.
• Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
• Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed
them lower than Jina
• It did not condemn the varna system.
FIVE DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
• AHIMSA: Non-injury to a living being
• SATYA: Do not speak a lie
• ASTEYA: Do not steal
• APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
• BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence
THREE JEWELS / TRIRATNA
• It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is
required. It can be attained through three principles called Three
Jewels or Triratna i.e.
1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
3. Right Action (Samyakcharita)
SPREAD OF JAINISM
• Through Sangha, consists of women & Men.
• Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya and Kharaveli of
Kalinga
• When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya) left for South
India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
• After Bhadrabahu returned with his follower, Jainism spilt into two
sects:
1. SWETAMBARAS: White-clad; Northerners
2. DIGAMBARAS: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners.
DIGAMBARA -
• Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity.
• Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
• Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
• Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
• Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapantha, Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.

SHVETAMBARA -
• Monks wear white clothes.
• Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
• Believe women can achieve liberation.
• Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi
• ASRAV- Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
• SAMVARA - Stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul
consciousness.
• NIRJARA - It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain
philosophy.
• SALLEKHANA- It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by
gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids. Also Called Santhara.
• KAIVALYA means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as complete
understanding or supreme wisdom.
• BASADIS: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
• AGAM (AGAM SUTRAS): sacred books of the Jain religion + written in the Ardha-
magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.
• NON-AGAM LITERATURE: Non-agam literature consists of commentary and
explanation of Agam literature
CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM -
• Preached Non-violence
• Growth of Pakrit & kannada.
• Art & architecture - statue of Gometeshwar (Shravanbelgola),
temples of Khajuraho and Abu.
• Jainism contributed for the growth of trading community.
Comparison
• Jainism recognised the existence of god while Buddhism did not.
• Jainism does not condemn the varna system while Buddhism does.
• Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul i.e. reincarnation while
Buddhism does not.
• Buddhism prescribes a middle path while Jainism advocates its
followers to live the life of complete austerity
The Satavahanas
POLITY
• “Andhras” in the Puranas. Simuka was the founder.
• Primary capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra) on Godavari
river & second Capital was Amravati.
• Nanaghat inscription, Nasik Inscription, Hatigumpa inscription of Kharavela
• Satvahana graves - encircled by big pieces of stone - megalithic people.
ADMINISTRATION
• ‘Amatyas’ and ‘Mahamatras’ were district officers at the during Satvahana rule
which was called as ‘Ahara’.
• Kings donated land in favour of Brahmins and administrative officers
• Gaulmika administered the rural areas - Katakas and Skandhvaras military camps.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• Caves were cut in Ajanta, Nasik, Karle, Bhaja, Kondane, Kanheri.
• Chaityas (Buddhist cave-temple) and Viharas (Buddhist rest houses).
• Nagarjunkonda and Amravati were important centres of trade and art. Stupas of
white marble.
• Ajanta school of painting which is known for beautiful colour combinations,
drawings, expression of emotions, and spirtuality.
• Buddha’s entire life is pictured - Saptashati.
ECONOMY
• Coins (Karshapanas) in a number of metals like Silver, Gold, Copper, Lead
• First to issue own coins with the portraits of the rulers.
• Paddy transplantation, cotton production and exploitation of iron ores

SOCIETY AND RELIGION

• Brahmanism.
• Matrilineal most of the kings are named after their mother- Gautamiputra
Satakarni, Vasisthiputra Pulumayi, Yagnasri Satakarni.
• Worship of Krishna and Vasudeva was also
common.
LITERATURE
• Prakrit Language - official language.
• Satvahana ruler Hala - composed Gathasaptasati.
The Guptas
• The Gupta Rule for witnessing all round progress i.e., in spheres of art,
architecture, literature, science and technology, metallurgy and philosophy,
regarded as Golden Age of Ancient India.
• Sri Gupta was the first ruler of the dynasty followed by his son Ghatotkachchh.
• Bhitari pillar inscription dates to his reign gives the chronology of Guptas and his
conflict with Pushyamitra and Huns.
CHANDRAGUPTA-I
• ‘Maharajadhiraj’.
• Beginning of the Gupta Samvat (era).
• Gold Coins bearing the figures of Kumardevi and Chandragupta 1st
known as Kumardevi Coins were issued.
SAMUDRAGUPTA

• Samudragupta - Prayaga Prashasti (Eulogy) - Harishena in classical

Sanskrit.
• Samudragupta captured and then liberated and reinstated 12 kings of
Dakshinapatha (South India).
• Ashwamedh Yajna (sacrifice) post these achievements.
• He issued Ashwamedh coins, Tiger-slayer coin, Battle-axe coin and
Veena-Coin.
• Great poet, musician and patron of learning.
• ‘Napoleon of India’.
CHANDRAGUPTA-II
• ‘Vikramaditya’ and ruled from Ujjain.
• Udaigiri Cave Inscription and Sanchi inscription
• Chandragupta-II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins bearing lion figure
• Mehrauli iron pillar inscription (Delhi's Qurub-minar complex) of Chandragupta-II
records that Chandragupta-II defeated Valhikas of Bactria crossing the
Saptsindhu.
• Kalidasa and Amarsinha lived in his court.
• Fa-hsien visited his court.
ADMINISTRATION

• Council of minister.
• Bhukti (province) and Vishaya (province division)
• Vishaya was further divided into Vithi & village was the smallest unit.
• Bureaucracy was not elaborated as that of Maurya.
ECONOMY

• Irrigation, ensured measurement and categorization of land

• Craftsmen produced both utility and luxury items; particular
craftsmanship became the basis 'jaati'-formation i.e., caste.
• Shreni continued to govern the trader’s affairs.
• Common people traded in cowrie shells.
• Issued less pure gold coins than Kushana.
SOCIETY AND RELIGION
• Society became clearly feudalistic
• Position of women and Shudras improved Both were allowed listen the Ramayana
& Mahabharata
• Bhanugupta’s Airana (Eran) inscription gives the first evidence of Sati and Child
marriage too existed.
• Vishti was forced labour to serve royal army & officials.
• Vaishnavite or Shaivite Kings got temples constructed for their respective deity.
• Bhagvatism centered around Vishnu emerged
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• Ajanta School (Theme: Buddha’s life)
• Sculpture- making made considerable growth with evidences of various
stone images.
• Metal and stone images of Buddha (bronze, Bhagalpur)
• Stupa and cave construction reduced and temple construction (Shikhara)
picked up:
• Dashavatar Temple, Jhansi, U.P.
• Vishnu Temple, Jabalpur, M.P.
• Bagh cave Paintings belongs to this period.
Kalidasa
• He was a Classical Sanskrit writer, extensively considered as the greatest poet and dramatist of
Gupta Period.
• The six major works of Kalidasa are
• Abhijnanashakuntala
• Vikramorvashi
• Malavikagnimitra
• The epic poems Raghuvamsha
• Kumarasambhava
• Meghaduta

Vishakhadatta
• Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon” and it recites the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to
Shudraka
• The famous three Sanskrit plays contributed by him are
• Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
• Vinavasavadatta
• A bhana (short one-act monologue)
• Padmaprabhritaka

Harisena
• Harisena was a Sanskrit poetHe wrote poems praising the bravery of SamudraGupta, which is engraved on
Allahabad pillar.

Bhasa
• He wrote 13 plays which echo the lifestyle of the Gupta Era along with its prevalent beliefs and culture.
HARSHAVARDHAN
• Kannauj was conquered and united with Thaneswar.
• Harshavardhana attacked Shashank of Gauda Kingdom and established his control
over regions of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha
• Uttarapathanatha or Uttarapathapati (Lord of the North).
• While marching southwards, Harshavardhan conquered regions of Malawa and
after crossing Narmada he was defeated by Pulkeshin II in the Battle of Narmada.
• Harshavardhana was greatly influenced by the personality of Hieun Tsang and
organized a Buddhist assembly at Kannauj under his chairmanship.
• Died without heir and is regarded as the last Hindu King to have ruled large part
of North India.
ECONOMY
• One-sixth of the produce was collected - main source of revenue.
• Taxes imposed on ports, income from mines and tributes from vassals
• Trade and commerce are said to have declined
SOCIETY
• Forced labour was absent.
• The position of women declined
• Widow remarriage was not allowed and Sati & dowry system were prevalent.

RELIGION
• Secular king - all sects of religion peacefully coexisted but Brahmanism grew more
than others.
• Harshvardhan was Shiva devotee – later Mahayana Buddhism.
• According to Hieun Tsang, Harsha held Allahabad (Prayag) conference once in 5
yrs.
ART AND CULTURE
• Banabhatta, Mayura, Matanga Divakara
• Banabhatta wrote – Harshacharita, Kadambari & Parvatiparinay.
• Harsha - Sanskrit plays - Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika.
• Brick temple of Laxmana at Sirpur was built during Harsha rule.
PULAKESIN II
• Aihole inscription
• Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II and composer of Aihole inscription - Jain.
• Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhan and limited his southward expansion till
Narmada.
• He also defeated Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
• Pulakesin II emerged victorious against first struggle with Pallavas but he was
defeated by Narasimhavarman I (Vatapikonda) of Pallavas (Kanchi) who
captured the capital Vatapi (Badami).
• Xuan Zang, the Buddhist pilgrim from China, visited Chalukyas’ Kingdom during
his reign.
ADMINISTRATION
• Chalukyas was highly - Units (villages) were in direct control of central authorities.
• Chalukyas maintained great naval force.

ECONOMY
• Rocky and infertile land limited the income from land for Chalukyas.
• Chalukyas conducted invasions and plunder of the neighbouring regions.
• Arab traders were given patronage at the west coast under Chalukyas.