Art and Culture Class 01

Art and culture (9:09 AM)

• Art-
• It is a manifestation of aesthetic expression.
• Culture -
• It is an identity.
• Many examples and events such as SC judgments,
Bhuj EQ, aid from the US, etc. as references given to
highlight the importance of Art and culture and related
aspects.
• Examples of China and Taiwan
Topics to be covered under Art & Culture: (09.40 PM)
• Architecture & Sculpture
• Religion & Philosophy 
• Indian Classical forms
• a. Classical Dance 
• b. Indian Classical music
• Language & Literature
• Indian Painting
• Bhakti & Sufi tradition 
• Theatre
• Reference reading- An introduction to Indian art Part I
&Part II
Architecture & Sculpture: (10.02 AM)
• 1)Ancient period:
• IVC
• Maurya Art
• Post-Maurya Art
• Gupta Art
• South Indian Art
• 2)Medieval period:
• Delhi Sultanate:
• A. Imperial Art:
• Slave period 
• Khilji period
• Tughlaq
• Sayyad
• Lodi
• B. Provincial Art
• Bengal Art
• Jaunpur Art
• Malwa Art
• Bijapur Art
• Gujarat
• 3. Mughal Period
• A.Mughal architecture-
• Akbar
• Jahangir
• Shah Jahan
• Aurangzeb
• B.Provincial Architecture-
• Sikh 
• Rajput
• Awadh
• 4. Colonial Architecture-
• A.Portugues
• B.French
• C.British Architecture-
• i)Indo-Gothic style of Architecture
• ii)Neo-Roman style of Architecture
Indus Valley civilization: (10:21 AM)
• With the discovery of IVC, it was proved that it was the most advanced civilization in the world
• The two important sites discovered that is, in 1921, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa and R D
Banerji excavated Mohanjodaro in 1922.
• The decision to excavate was taken by ASI head, J H Marshall, in 1920.
• With this, we also came to know about the most advanced feature of IVC, which is the use of burn brick
that is the same size and shape and very advanced town planning.
• The architectural aspects of IVC: (at 2.25 PM)  
• Seals-
• It is a geometrically shaped object mainly created from soft river stone steatite. (There were instances of
seals made from copper, bronze, terracotta, silver, and even gold).
• Seals were pictographic in nature which means it includes various pictures and symbols.
• Seals are considered one of the most important artifacts found in IVC.
• Many practices of IVC can be inferred from the seals which are as follows:
• Pashupati seal-
• It is a depiction of a person sitting in Yogic processes surrounded by four wild animals: an elephant and
a tiger on one side, and a water buffalo and an Indian rhinoceros on the other.
• It is considered an image of proto-Shiva.
• It also indicates that meditative processes were known to the Indus valley people
• Example-
• Seal with Peepal leaf:
• It indicates nature worship.
• Unicorn seal:
• It is a mythical one-horned animal and also the most represented seal found at sites of IVC.
• Some of the seals have symbols of pie which point out that seals were used as educational tools.
• Seals were also used as Indus valley authority and it facilitated trade.
• The sculpture 
• of  IVC was created from soft river stone steatite.
• The most important image was the bearded priest which is the portrayal of a person who has a finely
groomed beard and wearing a headband and hand band.
• on his shoulders, there is a depiction of trefoil-patterned shawls.
• Terracotta sculpture-
• Creation of sculpture from clay baked on fire known as terracotta.
• The imagery of the terracotta was vivid. For example-clay carts, birds, animals, etc.
• The most important terracotta image was the mother goddess and it is the most reported image in IVC,
almost all towns had images of the mother goddess.
• Though there is a variety in its portrayal, there is a common running theme in all the images.
• For example- she is often depicted with many ornaments and jewelry like necklaces, bangles, waistbands,
and anklets.
• In many images she is depicted as a pregnant lady and plant emerging from her naval point, on the basis
of this she is considered a goddess of fertility.
• Lost-wax technique:
• IVC also came to be known as the bronze civilization. Copper is easily available in India but for the creation
of bronze tin was to be added and this was imported from Afghanistan.
• Bronze sculptures were created from the Lost wax technique.
• In the final stage, the sculpture was polished and refined.
• Example- a dancing girl of Mohenjodaro's.
• Note-tradition of creating bronze culture was continued even after the extension of IVC.
• Daimabad emerged as an important center for the production of bronze sculpture.
Pottery(09:07AM)
• The general ware pottery was red in color and was mainly used for storage of grains, water, and as utensils.
• Miniature vessels were meant for decoration.
• They were elongated and narrow.
• Moreover, beautiful designs were created with either black or deep red color.
• Faience was mainly decorative pottery mainly found in Lothal, and Dholavira. It had a different appearance
with luster.
• Another category of pottery was perforated which was used for straining liquor.
Ornaments, Jewelry, and Cosmetics (09:18 AM)
• IVC people mainly used necklaces, bangles, finger rings, waistbands, and anklets. Though there are
instances of jewelry made from bronze and in a few cases gold also but the majority of ornaments were
created from semi-precious stones like-
• Carnelian, amethyst, and Lapis-lazuli
• Colored marbles were also used.
• Cosmetics-
• It means that IVC people had a very good fashion sense which is reflected in the usage of cosmetics-
• Lipstick, soap, sindoor, kajal etc.
• Apart from it they also used mercury tincture for cleaning and healing wounds.
Town Planning(09:39 AM)
• Generally, the Indus towns were divided into two parts that are an upper town also known as a citadel
created on the upraised platform, and a lower town meant for the habitation of commoners.
• Citadel-
• It was created on an upraised platform sometimes also referred to as Acropolis.
• In this part mainly administrative buildings were created. It also included the utility structures-
• i)Granary-
• It was a storehouse of grains created on a scientific pattern so that grains can be stored for a longer
period of time.
• ii)Common bath-
• The stepped water tank and stair of it were created from burnt brick. Perhaps the tank was meant for
religious ablutions.
• The great bath of Mohanjodaro is the best example.
• In this tank, stairs were created in the north and south directions, and on the eastern flank, rooms were
created including the provisions for washrooms.
• Lower town-
• It was the largest part of the town meant for the habitation of commoners.
• This part of the town was divided into many sectors. There was a very good network of roads cutting each
other at a right angle. On both, sides of roads drains were created and covered with a stone slab.
• On doing the internal analysis of drains we find provisions of the cesspit/manhole. These were strategic
openings for cleaning the drains. On the deeper side of the manhole, gypsum coating was done to filter
the wastewater and discharge the filtered water into the ground.
• Houses-
• Almost all houses were created from burnet bricks of the same shame and size.
• Created facing the main road moreover on walls of groundfloor windows were not created.
• perhaps these strategies were adopted to safeguard their privacy.
• We have come across instances of single-story, double-story, and triple-story.
• Inside the houses, one can find an open courtyard along with bedrooms on the sides and a separate
kitchen washroom.
• In some houses, there were provisions for private wells, but it was also available for passersby.
Maurya dynasty (10:31 AM)
• It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the active support of Chanakya.
• Chandragupta accepted Jainism, his son Bindusar was a follower of Ajivika and the great Maurya
emperor Ashoka was also an Ajivika follower but later he accepted Buddhism
• In the 6th century BCE, there was firm consolidation of Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivika.
• In the beginning, they were three reform movements that are considered 3 branches of the Shravan
tradition.
• Note-Shravan tradition was a movement against discriminatory practices of ancient India, they contented
varna system, caste system, complex rituals indiscriminate animal sacrifice, and also degrading position of
women and backward.
• Mahavir and Buddhism were the ones who believed in this and went on to form two religions.
• Mauryans later started to patronize all 3 traditions of Shravana traditions.
• Mauryan Caves-
• Perhaps these were the first man-made caves in India.
• Mainly created by emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dasrath.
• Caves were dedicated to Ajivika monks for their shelter during the rainy season.
 • A most important feature was its semi-circular facade which is intricately decorated with sculptures of
elephants and other designs.
• Moreover, caves from inside were highly polished and had big chambers for prayer and meditation along
with small rooms on the sides.
• The majority were created in Barabar caves and Nagarjuna hill of Gaya.
• Examples-
• Lomas caves, Rishi cave, Sudama cave,Karan-chauapr cave
• Dhauli has surviving rock-cut elephant sculpture.
• Mauryan sculpture-
• Though Maurya was a follower of Jainism and Buddhism there is no evidence of sculptures of Buddha and
Mahavir.
• At this point in time, they created images of folk gods and goddesses Yaksha and Yakhisni.
• The worship of Yaksha and Yakshini was equally prevalent in all three religions of that time that is Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism.
• In Buddhism, there is the concept of 24 Yakhisni who is highly worshipped.
• In Buddhism sculptures of yaksha represent power and endurance and the image of Yakshini represents
auspiciousness.
• In Hindusim there is mention of Yaksha and Yakshini in Mahabharat, they are folk gods who preserve
natural order.
• Example-
• The finest of Yaksha images are found in Parkham near Gwalior and also on the Sanchi stupa.
• Also, the most common is Deedarganj, Patna.
• In Sanchi stupa Salbhanjika Yakshini( holding a branch of a sal tree), is considered highly auspicious.
• Mauryan Pottery
• It was the highest stage of pottery making.
• It was mainly black in color and highly polished.
• Another important feature was that it was highly even.
• In their method of creating pottery, they brought simple changes that as filtering clay to remove coarse
grains of soil.
• The Mauryan pottery was created on a highly rotating wheel at an increased speed.
• It resulted in very even pottery and reduced the time of creation.
Mauryan Pillar (09:10 AM)
• Mauryas were perhaps the first ruler in India to initiate pillar installation. 
• The average height of the Mauryan pillar was around 40 feet.
• The Mauryan pillars were monolithic ( created from a single stone)  in nature.
• The pillar can be identified with the following parts i.e shafts, a bell capital with lotus petals followed by
an abacus ( it could be of square circular or rectangular shape ) 
• The topmost part of the pillar is the crowning animal.
• Generally, the Mauryan pillars can be classified into two categories: 
• 1. Commemorative pillar: it was meant for celebrating victory and serving imperial ceremonies.
• 2. Dhamma pillars: It is about the celebration of important life events of Budhha his doctrines and the
propagation of Buddhism. 
• Example: Sarnath pillar the crowning animal in Sarnath is four back-to-back lions. 
• This pillar represented Dharma chakra parivartan .
• The lion in this pillar represents the  clan of Buddha i.e Shakya Clan and the 4 lions represent four cardinal
directions 
• Rampurva Pillar, Bihar 
• The crowning animal is a Bull which represents the growth of Buddhism 
• Sankisa Pillar: the crowning animal is the elephant which represents power and peace 
• Lauriya Nandangarh Pillar: The crowning animal is a single lion.
Mauryan Stupa (10:03 AM) 
• From ancient times the tradition of stupa-making started.
• The Vedic rishis were cremated in stupa formations after their death.
• Later when Buddha achieved his Mahapariniravana ( his death), he was also cremated in a stupa
formation.
• When emperor Ashoka accepted the Buddhist faith he started the policy of 'calm and glad' to enlighten
the hearts and souls of lay followers.
• As per the legend he constructed about 84000 stupas.
• His first initiative was to divide the relics of Buddha into 9 parts and on each of them, a stupa was
created.
 • At the following places the early 9 stupas were created :
• Alakappa
• Ramagrama
• Pippalvina
• Pava
• Vishali 
• Kushinagar 
• Kapilvastu 
• Rajgir 
• Vethapida 
Stupa (10:39 AM)
• The four gateways of the stupa represent four important life events of Buddha i.e east gateway
represents his birth at Lumbini, the south gateway Nirvana at Bodhgaya, the west gateway dharma
chakra parivartan at Sarnath, and the north gateway his death or Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar.
• Vedika is the boundary wall of the stupa on which the Jataka Katha was engraved. 
• Jataka Katha or folk narratives tells the previous life story of Buddha.
• They are didactic in nature which means that there are moral and ethical lessons from Jataka Katha.
• The Medhi part of the stupa is a closed structure that includes the relics of Buddha covered with unburnt
brick followed by burnt brick.
• The Anda part or semicircular part represents the microcosm of the planet earth. 
• Harmika symbolizes the most sacred space of the stupa. 
• Yasti represents the axis of the earth. 
• The three horizontal disks i.e chhatri represents Buddha, dhamma, and Sangha.
• Buddha means enlightened one.
• Dhamma- doctrines of Buddhism. 
• Sangha- monastic order of Buddhism.
• These three are considered Triratna or the three jewels of Buddhism. 
• Pradakshinaptha is a circular ambulatory passageway created in an open space.
• From this place, the devotees have access to the sacred stupa.
• The entire stupa structure is considered the microcosm of the universe and the body of Buddha.
• The Medhi part of the stupa represents meditating legs of the stupa 
• Anda part represents the middle body of Buddha and yastu, harmika, and chhatri symbolize the head of
Buddha.
Post Maurya age (11:25 AM)
• In the post-Maurya age, the developments in Stupa were in line with the development of Buddhism. 
• One of the most striking features was the inclusion of one additional pradakhinapath adjacent to the top of
Medhi connected through stairs.
• The lower pradakshinapath represented the Hinayana path of Buddhism 
• The upper pradashinapath represented the Mahayana path of Buddhism. 
• The number of Chhatris started to increase in odd numbers which represented the great scholars and
philosophers who got associated with Buddhism.
• It further marks the growth of Buddhism. 
• By this time the Buddhist faith incorporated idol worship as such Buddha was represented in many
sculptural forms. 
• Further, the sculptures of manushi buddha were installed inside the premise of the stupa.
• The wooden vedika of the Maurya period was not replaced with a stone balustrade. e.g Bharhut stupa,
Amravati stupa, the stupa of NagarjunaKonda, and renewed stupa of Sanchi.
Post Mauryan cave (11:43 AM)
• The majority of the caves during the post-Maurya period belonged to Buddhism 
• Some new architectural developments started to happen in cave architecture.
• The Buddhist caves of this period can be broadly classified into two categories i.e chaitya and Vihara.
• Chaitya :
• The chaitya caves had barrel-vaulted roofs and in the hallway pillared columns were created.
• On the rear end of the Chaitya, a small stupa was created. 
• The Chaitya hall was meant for prayer and meditation.
• Vihara :
• These were polished and relatively unadorned, it was meant for the shelter of the monks during the rainy
season.
• Examples: Ajanta cave, Bhaja cave, Karla cave, Kanheri cave, etc 
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Gupta Age (10:35 AM)
• The golden age of Art and Architecture.
• There was holistic development in the field of Sanskrit literature, Hindu religious literature, temple
architecture, astrology, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and metallurgy.
• This period is known for the climax of cave-making.
• Moreover, temple art began at this time and led to the Nagar style of temple architecture.
Caves-
• Ajanta Caves:
• Aurangabad(MH)
• 29 Caves (purely Buddhist in nature)
• 25 Vihara
• 4 Chaityas
• Caves were created on the steep sides of the hill
• There was no courtyard in Ajanta.
• The maximum double story was created.
• Inside Ajanta, a large number of sculptures were created based on the life of Buddha.
• For example-
• his Nirvana and Mahaparinurvana.
• The highlighting feature of Ajanta cave is the Fresco mural painting
• In the very first step, a mixture of cow dung, clay, and rice husk was created which was pasted on the
wall.
• In the second step, lime plaster was quoted on the wall.
• In the final step, images were created and filled with colors.
• The initial mixture has the property of absorbing moisture and whenever it absorbs a little bit of moisture it
becomes very fresh.
• Further, over the period, the colors are absorbed by the wall of the cave and get imprinted on it which
increases its longevity.
• The most famous example from Ajanta cave is Avalokiteshvara(Padmapani)-it means lord of compassion
who holds a lotus flower.
• Vajrapani- Lord who holds Vajra-thunderbolt.
• Other examples-
• Flying Apsara
• Dying princes
Ellora cave 9:11 AM
• Aurangabad district Maharashtra.
• Total of 34 caves in Ellora out of which 17 belong to Hinduism, 12 to Buddhism, and 5 to Jainism.
• Ellora caves were created on the sloping side of the hill as such they had courtyards and triple-story
caves.
• Hinduism is the dominating religion at Ellora.
• Temple premise number 16 is popularly known as Kailash Nath Temple: 
• 1. It is a monolithic structure (created from a single stone).
• 2. It is the abode of a few of the finished sculptures of that time.
• 3. The construction of the temple by Rashtrakut ruler Krishna-I.
• 4. A top-down approach was followed in the construction of the temple.
• 5. This temple is considered one of the architectural wonders of India.
• In Buddhist caves mainly sculpture of Buddha and Bodhisatva was created.
• In Jainism cave sculpture of Vardhaman Mahavir and the Tirthankers was created.
• Ellora does not include a large number of fresco mural paintings.
• But it had few paintings associated with Vaishnav Tradition for example the image of Lord Vishnu on
Garuda (created during the Rashtrakut period).
Elephanta caves- 9:31 AM
• It is situated off the coast of Mumbai on an island.
• The caves are in dilapidated condition.
• The cave depicts Shaivite tradition.
• One of the most important sculptures of Ephephants is Tri Murti which includes images of Uma, Mahesh,
and Bairav.
 • Bagh caves (bagh river):
• Nine sandstone Buddhist caves have been created in this place belonging to the Gupta period.
• It includes one Buddhist Chaitya.
• Cave number 4 of Bagh is known as Rang Mahal which has many fresco mural paintings based on
Buddhism.
• Nasik caves:
• 1. 24 Buddhist caves were created at Nasik.
• 2. These caves belong to Hinayana when idle worship of Buddha was not popular.
• 3. It mainly consists of Viharas which is a shelter for Buddhist monks.
• 4. The creation of the caves started in the post-Maurya period and was completed in the Gupta age.
• Nasik holds a very important place in Hinduism.
• It is also the seat of one of the Shiv Jyotirling Tirumbakeshwar.
• 12 Jyotirlinga:
• Gujarat: Somnath and Nageshwar 
• Maharashtra: Girineshwar, Tirumbkeshwar & Bhimashanker 
• MP: Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar 
• UP: Kashivishvanth 
• UK: Kedarnath
• JH: Baidyanath 
• AP: Mallikarjuna 
• TN: Rameshwaram
Junagarh caves - 10:01 AM
• It is situated in Girnar hills Gujarat.
• These caves are also referred to as uparkot caves which mean caves created on upraised platforms
connected to stairs.
• It depicts both Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
• Udaigiri and Khangiri caves (Odisha):
• These caves were created during the regime of Jain king Kharvela.
• In this cave sculptures of Jain Tirthankers were created including an image of Vardhman Mahavir.
• Some of the sculptures depict Odissi's dance steps.
• Udaigiri caves (Vidhisa , MP):
• Created during the Gupta period.
• The most important sculpture from this place belongs to Varah Avatar of Lord Vishnu.
• In this image, Lord Vishnu is depicted with Human Body and a Boar head.
Sarnath style of Sculpture: 10:11 AM
• The art which developed in Mathura matured in Sarnath.
• This style of sculpture was practiced in the area of Mathura, Varanasi, Nalanda, and Rajgir hill.
• Pink color sandstone for the creation of the sculpture was obtained from Chunar mines.
• In this tradition, Buddha was depicted wearing transparent cloth.
• Moreover, the hallow around the head was profusely decorated.
• The single dominating image of Budha was often accompanied by a Jatak panel. 
• Metal images were also created in this style for example bronze sculpture of Buddha from Sultan ganj (7.5
feet high).
• Evolution of temple in North India:
• Stage I:
• In this stage, square chambers were created with flat roofs.
• The temple was created on a grounded platform.
• Shallow pillars were created in front to enhance the decoration of the temple example temple no. 17 of
Sanchi.
• Stage-II:
• In this stage square temple, flat roof approach continued and temples were created on the upraised platforms
with the in-depth pillar.
• There were instances of double-story temples also example Parbati temple of Nachna Kuthara (MP).
• Stage-III:
• In this stage, the square chamber and upraised platform method continued.
• The major achievement of this period was the creation of a curvy lineal tower known as Shikhar.
• It is believed that this stage gave rise to the Nagar style of the temple in north India.
• The initial examples of this style are the Dashvatar temple of Jhansi and the Bhitargaon temple of Kanpur.
Nagar Style of Temple- 10:37 AM
• Explained with help of a Diagram.
• Nagar temple developed during the age of the Guptas.
• It has the following features:
• 1. It is created in an upraised platform known as Jagati.
• 2. Generally boundary wall is not created in Nagar temple.
• 3. The part of Jagati on which the temple tower rises is known as Adhisthan.
• 4. The main chamber of the temple of Garbh Griha inside which the images of deities are placed in other
words it is also known as the house of embryo or creation.
• 5. On the Garb Griha chamber rises a curvy linear tower known as Shikhar.
• 6. The Shikhar is symbolic representation of Kailash parbat or meru parbat or mandar parbat.
• 7. Amaluk is a horizontal disk on which the finial is created.
• 8. The shape of the final could be a Kalash, Trishul, or flag of the temple.
• 9. Mandap is a prayer hall, in the mandap prirmdial towers are created.
• Example Kashi Vishwanath 
Sub-Style of Nagar temple- 11:10 AM
• Odisha Temple:
• The majority of temples in Odisha were created during the regime of the Ganga dynasty between the
10th & 11th centuries.
• Features:
• Generally, boundary walls can be seen in the Odisha temple.
• The exterior walls of the temple were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings.
• The interior walls of the temple were kept plain.
• The Shikhar in Odisha style is known as Duel Shikhar, it is not a completely curvy lineal tower.
• It is almost vertical till the top and in the end, it curves inwards.
• The prayer hall in Odhisha style is known as Jagmohan.
• Inside the premise of the temple, there are structures known as Bhoj mandir and Natya mandir.
• Bhog mandir is meant for Prasad and Natya mandir for musical performances.
• Examples: Jagannath temple of Puri, Sun temple of Konark, Raja rani temple, and lingraj temple of
Bhubaneshwar.
• Note- The idles of Jagannath temples and unfinished and created from neem wood.
• Every 12 years during the festival of Nabhkalevar the old images are replaced with new images.
Khajuraho or Chandel temple- 11:32 AM
• These temples were developed by the Chandel rulers of Bundelkhand.
• It represents the highest stage of Nagar temple.
• Features:
• These temples were created on a highly upraised platform.
• The temple was created on the East-west line and the main gates of temples were generally facing the
east direction.
• Both the exterior and interior walls of the temple were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings.
• The walls represented sculptures based on Dharm, Earth, kama, and Moksha.
• Near about 10% of images were based on Kamasutra written by Vatsyayana.
• Khajuraho temple depicts a large number of Shikhar at different heights which gives an impression of the
mountain range.
• In some places circular temples were also created Examples :
• 1. Lakshman temple 
• 2. Kandariya Mahadev
• Jain temple:
• 1. Parsvnath temple
• Circular temple- Chausath yogini temple of Morina
• It is believed that the circular temple of Muraina created during the regime of kachchapghat was the
inspiration for the parliament building.
Solanki Temple: (09:07AM)
• This style was patronized by the Solanki rulers of the Gujrat clan of Chalukyas.
• Features:
• Both the exterior and interior of the wall of the temple were optimally decorated.
• Had columns, highly carved similar to wood carpentry through a variety of stones used most exotic
structures were created in white marble.
• The majority of the temples in this style were created facing the east direction, presence of stepped water
tanks in the premises of temples.
 • Example- Sun temple of Madhera.
• Not only Hindu but also Jain temples were created in this style.
• Example-Somnath temple-
• As per legend sun temple was created many times, first by the moon god, then lord Krishna and then
finally by Raja Bheem dev Solanki.
• The temple was desecrated many times in medieval times.
• The present one is created after independence and was inaugurated by the then-president of India Dr.
Rajendra Prasad.
• More Examples-
• Dilawara Jain temple, Mount Abu,
• Ranakpur Jain temple
• Jain temple of Tarang, 
• Jain temples of Shantrunjaya hills-Palitana Udyamati
• Ranki ki Vav at Patan-UNESCO heritage site
South Indian Art(9:40 AM)
• Evolution of temple in the South: 
• The temple art in South India began under the Pallava Rulers and reached its climax during the rule of
the Mainline Chola Dynasty 
• The South Indian temple evolved in 4 stages which are as follows:
• Mahendravarman Stage:
• In this stage, a rock-cut cave shrine was created, inside which the images of deity was placed for
worship 
• This structure came to be known as Mandap 
• Narasimhanvarman Stage:
• In this stage, the rocks were not only cut from inside but also outside to give them a beautiful shape 
• These structures were popularly known as Rath 
• Pandava Rath of Mahabalipuram in which the Dharmaraj Rath (dedicated to Yudhisthir) is the biggest
and the Draupadi Rath was the smallest 
• Rajasimhavarman Stage:
• In this stage, real structural temples were created.
• It is believed that this stage gave rise to the Dravida Style of temples.
• The specialty of this stage was the creation of an inclining pyramidal tower known as Vimana.
• For example, the Kailashnath Temple of Kanchi and the Shore of Mahabalipuram
• Nandivarman Stage:
• In this stage, the Dravida style was popularised in South India.
• Vaikunth Perumal Temple of Kanchipuram .
Dravida Style of Temple Architecture (10:21AM)
• Features-
• Presence of boundary wall and stepped water tank.
• Gateways are created from all directions, gateways are known as Gopuram.
• A characteristic tower of the Dravid style is Vimaan which is created not only on Garbhagriha but also
• Garbhagriha is the entrance porch of the temple in which either image of Nandi or the flag of the
temple is installed.
• Garbhagriha is connected to the mandap with a narrow passage known as Nandaraj.
• On gateways of Garbhgriha big sculpture of Dwarpal is created {in Nagar temple the images of river
Goddess Ganga, Yamuna or Mithun (embracing couple) were created}
• Panchayatan style is common to both Nagar and Dravid styles whereby in Garbhagriha 5 images
are placed that is one main god accompanied by 4 subsidiaries God.
• Dravida temple art started to develop under the Pallava ruler but its maturity was achieved during a
period of the Chola ruler
• the Brihadeshwar temple, Tanjore is the climax structure of the Dravid style.
• The temple was commissioned by Rajaraj Chola, at that time it was the largest temple complex in India
• tower of the temple is 68 meters high and the topmost part cupola has a weight of 88 tons.
• Constructed by a puzzling technique whereby stones were cut in such a way that they can get
interlocked.
• Temple is dedicated to lord shiva
• Sub-style of Dravida Temples (10:49AM)
• Vijaynagara Style of Temples:
• A major impetus was given by Rajadevaraya.
• During his tenure, many new things were introduced in the Dravid temple which is as follows-
• i)creation of very high enclosure walls.
• ii)On the walls of the Temple and boundary walls, a large number of sculptures were dedicated to horses,
lions, and elephants.
• iii)They introduced the concept of the second Grabhagriha known as the Amman shrine which is dedicated
to the chief wife of the main god.
• The concept of Kalyan mandapam was also introduced and meant for the celebration of the marriage of
deities.
• A sacrificial rectangular platform was created which was known as Mahanavmi Dibba
• Example-
• Veerupaksha temple of Hampi,
• Veerabhadra temple, Lepakashi
• Hazar Ramaswamy temple, lepakshi
• The current structure at Tirupati was the contribution of Krishnadevraya.
• Nayak Temples (11:02 PM)
• It was patronized by Nayaka rulers of Madurai who were feudatory with Vijayanagar rulers.
• It has the following features-
• i)Like Vijayanagara temple-they also created very high Gopurams.
• One of the important features was huge corridors known as Parakram
• In Nayaka style, the water tank or Pushkaram is created inside the premise of the temple 
• Amman Shrine is continued in Nayak Style 
• Another special feature is the presence of a pillared hall and musical column 
• For example-
• Meenakshi Temple or Sundareshwar Temple of Madurai.
• Sri Ranganath Swami Temple of Srirangam.
• Other Temple Style: (6:35 PM)
• Vessara Temple:
• It is derived from the Sanskrit word Vishra which means to take a long path 
• This style is considered to be a combination or mixture of Nagar and Dravida temples.
• The tower of the temple is inspired by Dravida Viman and like the Nagara-style covered ambulatory
passageway was created 
• They also created semi-circular halls like Buddhist Chaityas
• For example, the Durga Temple of Aihoire in Karnataka 
• Ladkhan Temple of Aihole in Karnataka 
• Hoyshala Temple: (11:45 AM)
• This style was created by Hoyshala rules of Karnataka 
• The specialty of this style is the presence of a stellate ground plan or star-shaped ground plan 
• Generally, the Grey sandstone was highly used in Hoysala temples 
• This style is known for intricate carvings on the wall of temples, for example, the exterior wall of temples are
carved with the story of Ramayan and Mahabharat 
• For example-
• The Hoyshleshwar Temple of Halebid, Karnataka
• Channa Keshvaka Temple, Somanathpura
Art and Culture Class 07
Medieval Architecture (09:07AM)
• Difference between Ancient and Medieval architecture:
• Ancient architecture-
• Trabeate-
• Ancient Indian architecture can be clubbed under name of Trabeate.
• A major feature of this style is the usage of columns and flat roofs (lentil roofs)
• The Tower of religious buildings was generally  Vimana or Sikhara.
• Major construction materials-
• Stone and very less cementing agents were used.
• Medieval architecture-
• Arcuade Style-
• Ancient Indian architecture can be clubbed under the name of Arcuade.
• The major feature is the use of the Arch and dome.
• Towers in this style are Minar and minarets.
• Minararte is a narrow but tall tower meant for the morning prayer announcement which is the
Azaan announcement.
• Major construction materials-
• Brick, limestone, and mortar were major construction materials and the cementing agent was
also used.
1)Indo-Islamic Architecture(09:41AM)
• Arch and Dome was the major feature of Indo-Islamic architecture.
• They used brick ad the main construction material but a wide variety of stones were also used.
• For example-red sandstone, grey sandstone, and white marble.
• Initially, Hindu and Jain architecture were converted into Islamic buildings.
• According to the tradition of Islam, human representation was avoided and in no place, one can
see any humane sculpture.
• They employed many methods of decoration which are as follows-
• Calligraphy-
• It was used for writing Quranic verses on Islamic buildings.
• A new font of Persian script was developed which was in Angularized form and came to be known
as Kufi.
• Arabesque method of decoration-
• It is a vegetal pattern identified with a continuous running stem with similar identical leafy
structures on both sides of the stems.
•
• Many Geometrical designs were created to enhance the aesthetic appeal of buildings.
• Use of Intricate jali work/Tracery work in buildings-
• One of the very important methods of decoration was jali work/Tracery work.
• Beautiful jali work was installed in the buildings
• Jali allows sunlight to enter into the building and also cross ventilation.
•
• Pietra dura's method of decoration-
• As per this method, colored marbles and semi-precious stones were pasted into a white marble
and finally, it was abraided.
• It created an effect that seemed perfectly normal.
• This style many developed during the Mughal period.
•
• Note-
• They also created a good number of water bodies like small ponds, stepped water tanks, and
fountains.
• The tradition of planting gardens around buildings also started which at the time of the Mughals
developed into Chahar Bagh (four similar identical gardens).
Delhi Sultanate Architecture
• i)Slave period-
• In this period major construction was the Quwat Ul Islam mosque which was created after
demolishing the Quila Rai Pithora of Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Within this structure, Qutub Minar was constructed.
• The initial foundation of Qutub Minar was laid by Qutub Uddin Aibak in memory of Sufi saint Qutub
Uddin Bakhtiar Kaki, later Iltutmish completed it.
• During the Regime of Feroz shah and Sikandar Lodi, it was further repaired.
• In Ajmer 'Arhai din ki Jhopra' was created by converting already existing
• Though arches were made they were not an example of true arches.
• ii)Khilji period:
• In a very short period of time, the architectural achievement of the Khilji dynasty was immense
• Alauddin Khilji was created in front of Quwat Islam Mosque-4 arches in all direction-example of the
first true arch in India.
• He further expanded the premise of Quwat-ul Islam mosque 
• In 1304 he laid the foundation of the first medieval precursor city of Delhi-Siri.
• iii)Tughlaq period:
• This period is considered the crisis period of architecture.
• The rulers were of the view that buildings created by their predecessors were not strong and resilient.
• They replaced red sandstones with grey sandstones which were easily available and cheaper.
• They also introduced the barter method of construction whereby walls were slanted inwards.
• The base of the wall was reinforced with concrete.
• The buildings of this period lacked any aesthetic appeal.
• Tughlaqs created 3 precursor cities of Delhi i.e. Tughlaqabad, Jahapanah, and Ferozshah Kotla.
• iv)Sayyid period-
• They introduced blue enameled tiles in India.
• Also introduced the Guldasta method of decoration.
• In this period, the most important introduction was octagonal tombs were introduced.
• For example, Mohammad Shah's tomb in Delhi.
• v)Lodhi period (1451-1556):
• They were originally Afghans.
• They started incorporating Indian elements into Indo-Islamic architecture.
• They incorporated Veranda into Islamic buildings.
• They introduced a double dome structure which was not only a resilient structure but also very high in
aesthetic appeal.
• Double domes in their buildings further inspired the Mughals and British to continue with this genius
initiative of Lodis.
Provincial Architecture of Delhi Sultanate (10:41 AM)
• i)Bengal architecture-
• Brick was the major construction material.
• They also used black marble at a time.
• The characteristic feature of Bengal architecture was the creation of a sloping Bangla roof.
•  They also used very fine/thin terracotta bricks.
• Huge and imposing structures were created.
• Examples-
• Kadam Rasool mosque in Bengal; Adhina mosque in Pandua Bengal.       
• In this style, the mosque was created but without a Minar.
• ii)Jaunpur architecture or Sharqui style of Architecture-
• This style of architecture was developed by the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur.
• this style is more known for grand propylene on gateways.
• In the middle, very large arched gateways were created and on the sides, single-roofed entrances
were also created.
• Mosques were created without Minarates and due to tall structures of gateways.
• Examples-
• Atala Maszid of Jaunpur.
 • iii)Malwa Architecture:
• one of the finest, developed by the Pathan ruler of Malwa.
• Features-
• they used a wide variety of stones for construction.
• They created well-proportioned staircases
• and large windows were created for the purpose of cross-ventilation.
• Arch halls were also created so as high-rising pavillions in Hindola Mahal.
• Some of the buildings were created in the middle of the lake, for Example-Jahaz Mahal in Mandu, etc.
• A very high-raised pavilion known as Rani Rupmati Pavilion gives the best view of Narmada valley.
• Other examples-
• Asharfi Mahall of Mandu
• Rani Rupamati Mahal at Mandu.
• iv)Gujarat Architecture
• Clearly reflects the influence of trabeate construction in Islamic building
• Lentil rood, highly craved columns, and designs inspired by the temple architecture of Solanki.
• Though domes were created in a few places, they were not fully developed.
• Likewise, the Solanki temple and stepped water tanks were also created.
• Gujarat developed the finest jali work of that time.
• Later, Akbar incorporated Gujarat jali designs into Mughal buildings.
• Example-
• City of Ahmedabad, Teen Darwaza, Ahmad Shah tomb, old Ahmadabad fort, Siddi Sayyid mosque.
• v)Bijapur Architecture-
• It was developed by Adil Shah of Bijapur.
• Features-
• They created 3 facet arch.
• One big arch was created in the middle and two smaller arches on the sides.
• They created the almost spherical dome of the Balbous dome.
• Carved cornices were also created in the buildings.
• Example- Gol Gumbaz, Adil Shah tomb and Jami Masjid
Mughal Architechture (9:15 AM) 
• Introduction - 
• Neither Babur nor Humayun had enough time in India to construct a significant structure in India.
• Though Babur created two mosques - one at Panipat and the other at Sambal (UP). 
• Hamayun led the foundation of one of the precursor cities of Delhi Deenpanah, but he was not able to
complete it. 
• Later, between 1555-1560, the foundation of the first landmark building of the Mughal was laid by the
wives of Humayun, Hamida Begam/ Bano Begam. 
• Thus Humayun's tomb was the first building of the Mughal time. 
Humayun's Tomb- (9:29 AM)
• This building is considered a near-perfect combination of red sandstone and white marble. 
• There is symmetry between the arches and the dome of this building. 
• It was the first Mughal building which also included a char bagh. (four similar identical gardens). 
• It includes Tudor type of arches in which the middle arch was quite bigger than the side arches. 
Akbar's period architecture- 1556-1605 - (09:33 AM)
• Akbar started his architectural initiatives with the construction of Red Fort (Agra). 
• Later he decided to shift his capital complex to Fatehpur Sikri. 
• A Large number of buildings were created inside Fatehpur Sikri fort which is as follows - 
• 1) Panchmahal - (09:48 AM)
• It is a five-story building created in Rajput style. 
• It incorporates pillared columns, hanging balconies, and carved Connoisseurs-like Rajput buildings.
• 2) Salim Chisti's tomb- (09:50 AM)
• It is one of the finest examples of JALIWORK. 
• Created in white marble it was dedicated to the Sufi Saint Salim Chishti.
• 3) DIWAN-E -AAM - Hall for meeting with the general public to address their grievances. 
• 4) DIWAN-E-KHAS- Hall for meeting with important people. 
• 5) IBADAT KHANA- It was a hall meant for religious discussion and deliberation with the representatives
of many different religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity Islam, etc. 
 • Other important buildings included- 
• 6) Jodha's Palace
• 7)Jahangir's Mahal
• 8) Birbal's Palace 
• 9) Buland Darwaza-
• It was created to celebrate Akbar's victory in Gujarat.
• It is the largest gateway of the medieval ages. 
• Akbar also funded the construction of the GOVIND DEV TEMPLE in Mathura Vrindavan. 
Jahangir's period- (09:57 AM)
• Jahangir was not a great patron of architecture. 
• He was more known for painting. 
• He created Akbar's tomb at Sikandara.
• He also created MOTI-MASJID at Lahore. 
• The majority of the architectural initiatives of this time were taken by NOOR JAHAN. 
• She created her father's tomb which is  I'timād-ud-Daulah in Agra. 
• This building was created in pure white marble. 
• And it was also the first building known for wide usage of the Pietra dura technique. 
• The model of this building is considered an inspiration for Taj- Mahal. 
• Noor-Jahan was also instrumental in planting NISHAD BAGH AND SHALIMAR BAGH in Srinagar. 
• The foundation of Srinagar was done by Ashoka. 
Sahajahan's period- (10:17 AM)
• It was the climax of Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture. 
• Calligraphy, Arabesque, and Pietra dura reached their zenith stage. 
• Further, one of the initial construction of Shahjahan was the Moti Masjid inside red fort Agra. 
• He also constructed a few marble buildings inside RED FORT Agra. 
• The climax structure of the entire medieval period is the Taj Mahal created in memory of Anjuman
Bano Begam (also known as Mamtaj Mehal).
• The beloved wife of Shah Jahan. 
• It is the only Mughal building that creates four side effects. (creation of the illusion of size). 
• CHAR BAGH was also incorporated into the premise of Tajmahal. 
• One of the most important initiatives of Shahjahan was the construction of the last precursor city of
Delhi, Shahjahanabad. 
• In this new city, he created Red fort, Jama masjid, Fatehpuri masjid, Chandni Chowk, Meena Bazar
etc. 
• In the last part of his life, Shahjahan was house arrested by his son Aurangzeb which led to a
sudden halt in Architectural initiatives. 
Aurangzeb's period- (10:38 AM)
• Art and Architecture started to decline during Aurangzeb's period.
• Though he continued the construction of the Mosque the other art forms were completely
discouraged. 
• Aurangzeb created Moti- Masjid inside Redfort Delhi. 
• He also created the biggest mosque in the world that is Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. 
• During his lifetime, Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad was commissioned. 
• It is considered a poor imitation of the Taj-mahal. 
PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE (10:45 AM)
• Sikh Architecture- 
• It borrowed many features from Mughal Architecture and incorporated some new elements- 
• For example - The most important Sikh building is Gurudwara, in which DOME represents the
influence of the Mughal style. 
• The Sikh element in the dome is its fluted structure. 
• Multiple domes of smaller sizes can also be noticed in Gurudwara. 
• Another important feature of Gurudwara is the multiplicity of Chhatries.
• For example -
• Golden temple - Amritsar. 
• Nankana sahib - (talwandi , pakistan)
• Kartarpur Sahib.
Rajput Architecture - (11:11 AM)
• Rajputs were one of the finest fort makers in the world. 
• Their forts were not only Aesthetically pleading but also created on difficult terrain. 
• for example- Amer fort, Nahargarh fort, Ranthambhore fort, Mehrangarh Fort, Jaisalmer fort, and
Bhangarh Fort.
• Rajputs used a variety of stones in construction. For example- Red sandstone, pink sandstone, buff color
stone, and white marble. 
• They also borrowed dome structures from Mughal architecture. 
• One of the unique features of Rajput Architecture was the creation of hanging balconies of various shapes
and sizes. 
• Moreover, The ancient pillar style was also incorporated. 
• They created carved Connoisseurs in half bow shape. 
• Some of the Rajput buildings were created in the middle of water bodies. 
• Rajput ruler Jaisingh created the astronomical observatory Jantar Mantar at Jaipur, Delhi, Mathura,
Banaras, and Ujjain. 
• For example- City palace Jaipur, Umed Bhavan, Rang Mahal, Amer fort, etc.
A description of architecture through Images (11:29 AM)
Awadh Architecture. - (11:46 AM)
• It was created in the 18th century by the rulers of Awadh. 
• One of the unique features of Awadh architecture is no use of white marble in construction.
• Instead, they used brick as the main construction material. 
• The gateways of the Awadh style were very different from the Mughal style. They included floral patterns in
the gateways. 
• Awadh rulers were the finest Labyrinth makers. (bhul-bhuliya).
• The domes created in the Awadh building were without any apparent support. 
• Some of the buildings represented umbrella-shaped domes. 
• For example- Rumi Darwaza, Bada imambara, Chota imambara , Chattar Manzil. (all in Lucknow).

INTRODUCTION (9:05 AM)

• Overview of the previous class.
MODERN BRITISH INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (9:07 AM)
• The construction activity of the British began after the annexation of Bengal.
• Previously they created St. Fort George at Madras and St. Fort William at Calcutta.
• But they can not be celebrated for any style.
• After 1800 British started to construct buildings in India in the Gothic Style.
• Later in 1911, they tried to create a neo-classical style in India.
INDO-GOTHIC STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE (9:11 AM)
• With the introduction of the Indo-Gothic style advanced British mechanical engineering tools were also
introduced.
• It led to the start of the usage of iron rods, steel, and poured concrete in construction.
• Now inner walls were created with strength remaining intact.
• Pointed arches were created in the buildings.
• They employed Victorian-Deco Art for increasing the aesthetics of buildings.
• Large windows were created and cross ventilation was also taken care of.
• Victorian-style fountains were also created in many of the cities.
• They also incorporated double dome structures and almost spherical dome structures in their
buildings.
• The city of Mumbai, Calcutta, and Madras was created in Indo-Gothic style.
• For Example in Calcutta: Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, and Writer's Building.
• In Chennai: Chiapuk Palace, Ripon Building, and Mysore Palace.
• In Mumbai: Churchgate, Victoria Terminus, Crawford, Taj Mahal Hotel, and Gateway of India.
NEO-CLASSICAL STYLE (9:28 AM)
• It is often referred to as the Neo-Roman style.
• In 1911 the capital of British India was transferred from Calcutta to New Delhi.
• For the creation of new capital two British architects were interested who was Herbert Baker and Edwin
Lutyens.
• The new structure incorporated elements from Mughal Architecture, Rajput Architecture, and Ancient
Indian architecture.
 • Features:
• (1) Grand and magnificent buildings were created in this style.
• (2) Due to the fusion of many styles anonymous structures were created.
• (3) Though the buildings were grand but they were compromised in terms of utility and convenience.
• (4) Circular plan was favored for many of the buildings.
• Note: It is believed that the circular temple of Chaunsath Yogini at Morena in MP is the inspiration behind
the parliament building.
• The temple was created by the Kacchapghat dynasty.
• In the majority of the buildings Jaipur columns and balconies were used.
• Pink sandstone in Chunar was used as major construction material.
• The dome of this style reflects the legacy of the Mughals.
• Keeping with Indian tradition many motifs like the lion, horse, elephant, and bull, are represented on
buildings.
• For example, Government's House (Rashtrapati Bhawan), the Old parliament building, the central
secretariat, North Block, South Block, National Museum, etc.
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY (9:54 AM)
(1) BUDDHISM (9:59 AM)
• Founder: Siddhartha Gautam
• Birth: 563 B.C.E Lumbini
• Father: Suddhodhana
• Mother: Mahamayadevi (Kosala Mahajanpada)
• Kingdom: Kapilavastu (Malla Mahajanpada)
• Varna: Ksatriya
• Clan: Shakya
• Wife: Yashodhara
• Son: Rahul
FOUR SIGNS OF LIFE (10:17 AM)
• Signs of Despair
• (1)An old Man
• (2)A sick person
• (3)A dead body
• Sign of hope
• (4) yellow-robed monk
• Other details:
• At the age of 29 Siddharths left his home with his favorite horse Kantaka. This event of renunciation home
in Buddhism is known as 'Mahabhinishkarma- The Great going forth.'
• After leaving his home he became a Parivrajak- 'Homeless Wanderer.'
• Within a few months, he started to follow Shramana Tradition.
• After some time he found a teacher Alara Kalam who was an early Sankhya philosopher. After learning
from Alara Kalam he had to leave his Ashram.
• Once again he started to wander in search of enlightenment.
• At the age of 35, he reached the village of Uruvila (Modern Bodh Gaya) where on the banks of river
Niranjana (Phalgu) under a peepal tree he meditated for 49 days.
• At midnight of the 49th day he achieved 'Nirvana- the extinguishment of the flame of desire.'
• After achieving Nirvana, Siddhartha moved to Sadhna where in a deer park he gave his first sermon.
• This first preaching of Siddhartha in Buddhism is known as DharmaChakraParivartan ie. turning the
wheel of religion
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (10:38 AM)
• ARYA SATYA
• The world is full of misery- Dukha
• There is a cause of misery- Samudaya
• Misery can be overcome- Nirodh
• There is a path- Magga
EIGHTFOLD PATH (ARYA ASHTAN MARGA) (10:40 AM)
• Samyak Drishti- Right Vision
• Samyak Vaach- Right Speech
• Samyak Kammantha- Right Conduct
• Samyak Ajivana- Right means of Livelihood
• Samyak Vyamana- Right Exercise
• Samyak Dhyan- Right Concentration
• Samyak Smriti- Right Awareness
• Samyak Samadhi- Right deep meditation
• Siddhartha started to preach his sermon at many places including Rajagriha, Vaishali, Patliputra,
Nalanda, Pava, Shravasti (capital of Kosala), and Saket (the old name of Ayodhya).
• During monsoon season, Buddhist monks stayed at either a Buddhist Chaitya or a Buddhist monastery.
• Buddha spent the maximum of his monsoon stays at Jaitavan Monastery of Sravasti.
• After preaching for many years at the age of 80, Siddhartha achieved Mahaparinirvana in 483 BCE at
a place called Kushinagar.
BUDDHIST COUNCILS (11:15 AM)
• FIRST BUDDHIST COUNCIL 
• In 483 B.C.E the followers of Buddha persuaded the contemporary king Ajatashatru to convene the
First Buddhist Council.
• As such the First Buddhist Council was convened at Rajagriha presided by Buddhist monk
Mahakashyapa and patronized by Ajatashatru.
• The major developments of the Council are as follows:
• The brother of Budhha, Ananda elaborated on the original teachings of the Buddha which were
compiled in a text known as ''Suttapitaka.''
• One of the favorite disciples of Buddha Upali elaborated on the rules to be followed by the monks in a
Buddhist sangha.
• It was compiled in a text Vinaypittaka.
• SECOND BUDDHA COUNCIL (11:33 AM)
• The Second Buddhist Council was convened in 383 B.C at Vaishali.
• It was patronized by the contemporary king Kalasoka of the Sisunaga dynasty.
• The assembly was presided over by Buddhist monk Sabbakammi.
• The major development of this council was the division of Buddhism into two sects ie. Sthavarvadins
or Theravada (orthodox sect) and Mahasanghikas (liberal sect).
• In between the Second and Third Buddhist councils, Buddhism again got divided into 18 councils- 11
Stheravadins and 7 Mahasanghikas.
• THIRD BUDDHIST COUNCIL (11:37 AM)
• The Third Buddhist Council was convened in Patliputra in 215 B.C
• The council was patronized by Asoka and presided over by the Buddhist monk Mogaliputra Tissa.
• In this council, Ashoka recognized Thervadins as a branch of Buddhism.
• In this council, Ashoka removed all the heretics (deviations) from Buddhism.
• In this council, Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled which was a philosophical interpretation of Buddha's
teachings.
• After the council was over Ashoka started sending different Buddhist missions to many places.
• He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Srilanka.
• They planted a sapling of the Bodhi tree at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka.
• That is how the original Bodhi tree survived outside India when the original tree was destroyed by
Shashanka Gauda, ruler of Bengal.
• He also sent Buddhist missions to East Asia, South East Asia, and Central Asia.
• FOURTH BUDDHIST COUNCIL (11:53 AM)
• The 4th Buddhist Council was convened in 78 AD which continued for more than 20 years.
• Initially, the assembly was presided over by Buddhist monk Vasumitra and in later stages, it was
presided over by Ashwaghosha.
• It was patronized by the Kushan king, Kanishka.
• One of the initial developments of the council was a compilation of the encyclopedia of Buddhism-
Mahavibhasha.
Development after 4th council(9:08AM)
• After the end of the 4th council, Mahayana Buddhism emerged under the guidance of Asvaghosh.
• Mahayana emerged from the early Mahasanghika branch.
• Mahayana tradition emphasized a greater role in everyone's nirvana.
• They started to refer to the branches of Sarastivada as Hinayana tradition since it talked about
individual nirvana
• Hinayana • Mahayana
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 • Mahayana developed-Bodhisattvas-they are considered the previous birth of Buddha. 
• They are the capital of achieving nirvana but they postponed their own nirvana to help all sentient beings
on planet earth.
• After helping a large number of people they progress to the path of the Buddha.
Metaphysical studies on Buddhism(9:40AM)
• View on the universe:
• Buddhists believed the universe is created on the concept of nature.
• Buddhists refuted the divine authority of Veda.
• Buddha was agnostic on the question of god. He neither accepted nor rejected the concept of God.
• Rebirth-Buddisht believed in the concept of rebirth and attributed all miseries of life to the earth
• Soul-Buddhist did not believe in the concept of a permanent soul.
• A question arises if they do not believe in the soul then what takes rebirth?
• To which the Buddhist replied it is karmic consciousness that takes rebirth.
• In Buddhism, the karmic consciousness is referred to as Panchskanda.
Jainism(9:51AM)
• It is an ancient creed that came to reality due to the contribution of the 24th Tirthankaras.
• Tirthankars were the personality who helped people to navigate the ocean of misery and free themselves
from the cycle of birth and death.
• Adinath Risabhdev is considered as first Tirthankaras
• The first 22 Tirthankaras are mythical figures and only the last two are historical.
• Parsuvnath was the 24th Tirthankar who was the son of the king of Kasi asvasen
• At one point in his life, he decided to abandon his home and became a Parivajak.
• Later he meditated on Parsunath of Jharkhand where he achieved Kavala or absolute knowledge.
• He aggregated the teachings of the first 22 Tirthankaras and propounded 4 pledges of Jainism
• Mahavir:
• Birth 540 BC
• The birthplace was the kundagram in Vaishali of Bihar.
• His father -Siddharth
• His varna-Kshatriya
• Clan-Jnantri
• Principality-Jnantrika
• Mother-Trishala-she was the sister of Licchavi king of Chetak
• Wife-Yashoda
• Daughter-Arnogya
• He was called as conquerer-Jina
• At the age of 30, Mahavir left his home and become a Pariprajak.
• He started to follow the shaman tradition.
• At the age of 40, he reached the village Jhimbakgram where on the banks of a river under a soul tree he
meditated and achieved keval jnana, or absolute knowledge
• After achieving Kevala- his followers started to refer to him as Jina(the one who has conquered all the
desire, passion, and cravings).
• His followers were called Jaina.
• Mahavir took the 5th pledge of Jainism
• 5 pledges of Jainism-Anuvrath
• 1)Do not speak lies (Satya)(Amrusha)
• 2)Do not commit violence(Ahimsa)
• 3)Do not steal(asteya)
• 4)Do not acquire property(more than sustenance)(aparighakaha)-It is propounded by parsvanath
• 5)Observed brahmacharya-propounded by Mahavir.
• Right from the beginning, Jainism emphasized on 3 Ratna of Jainism.
• 1)Right knowledge
• 2)Right faith
• 3)Right conduct(the five pledged as the part of right conduct).
• Chandra Gupta Maurya was perhaps the first king who accepted Jainism under the guidance of Jain monk-
Bhadrabahu.
• Around 299 bc there was a severe famine in Magadh.
• In this situation, Chandragupta shifted to a place called Shravanbelagola in Karnataka.
• At this place, he followed the extreme penance of Sallenkhana(santhara).
• He died in typical Jain fashion by fasting till death.
• First Jain council-299 BC at a place called Patiliputra.
• Chandragupta's son Bindusar convened the first Jain council at Patliputra which was presided over by Jain
monk -SthuliBhadra.
• The major development of this council was the compilation of teachings of all the Tirthankaras in 14 books
known as Urvas.
• The followers of Sthulibhadra were liberal in outlook and they took some liberal cues from the teachings of
Mahavir.
• Meanwhile, differences started to emerge between the followers of Badhrabahu and Sthulibadra.
• One of the major differences was the observation of the rule of nakedness.
• over the period of 100 years, these differences crystallized into two sects of Jainism.
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 • Metaphysical thoughts on Jainism
• They believe the universe is created on the concept of nature similar to Buddhism.
• Veda-they also refuted the divine authority of Veda.
• God-they did not reject the concept of god and maintained that if there is any god-like entity he must be
below the Tirthankaras.
• It also means they were foremost for Jaina.
• Rebirth-They believes in rebirth and maintained kevalya is necessary to end the cycle of birth and death.
• Soul-they believed in two types of the soul-
• Anonimate soul-Jeeva
• Inonimate soul-Ajeeva
• The stone and metal also have a soul.
Why Buddhists started to decline in India(11:38 AM)
• Once Buddha said to his cousin, Anand, that if the entry of women happens in Sangh then Buddhism which
is going to survive more than 1000 years will vanish within 1000years from its own place of birth.
• Later his words were proven to be true
• Factors of decline-
• The monks became corrupt.
• They started to live a life of opulence.
• They abandoned the austerities
• They started practicing a luxurious lifestyle.
• The monks started to practice the Sanskrit language which was an elite and sophisticated language.
• Sanskrit was not easily understood by the common public who practiced Pali and Prakrit.
• That is how the doctrines of Buddhism were not understood by the common public.
• Monks started to interfere in the political affairs of kingdoms as such many kings stopped their patronage of
Buddhism.
• By the beginning of the medieval -there was aggressive missionary zeal that started to work against it.
• In the Gupta period, there was a reform in Hinduism.
• The concept of devotion was emphasized instead of the animal sacrificed.
• The Gupta period led to the institutionalization of Hinduism through the construction of the temple and the
compilation of major religious Hindu texts
• For example Bhagvat Gita, Puranas, and Uppuranas.
• Vaishnav bhakti became very popular during and after the Gupta period.
• It was popularised that buddha was the ninth reincarnation of Lord Vishnu which diluted the doctrines of
Buddhism.
• The constant division in Buddhism further weakened the position of Buddhism in India.
• Buddhists were completely against varna and the caste system which also worked against them.
• With the arrival of medieval Islamic rule in India finally, a death blow was caused to Buddhism.
• Many of the monasteries, Mahaviharas like Nalanda were blown and destroyed by medieval rulers.
• Why Jainism survived in India(11:55AM)
• Jainism was always a small religious community that never interfere in the affairs of others.
• They were against the social evils existing in Indian society but not completely against the varna and caste
system.
• They did not completely cut off their links with Hinduism and they never displayed or create missionary zeal
like Buddhism.
• They always led by example.
Indian Philosophy (9:16 AM)
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Sankhya Philosophy  (9:26 PM)
• Kapila Muni is considered the founder of this philosophy and it is the oldest of all the philosophies.
• The early Samkhya Philosophy maintains that Universe owes its origin to nature.
• The later Samkhya philosopher maintains that not only nature but also the divine agency is
responsible for the origin of the universe.
• Many a time this philosophy is referred to as Dvaitvada or dualism because it believes in two
realities which are Purush and Prakriti.
• Purush is inner consciousness and Prakriti is the element of nature.
• They maintain that salvation can be attained through real knowledge.
• It mentions three Pramada or sources of knowledge that are-
• Pratyaksha (Perception),
• Anumana (Inference),
• Shabda (Testimony that is Veda).
Yoga (09:38 AM) 
• It was founded by Patanjali.
• The tenets of Yoga are mentioned in his book Yogasutra.
• Samkhya and yoga are considered Yugma as such they believe in dualism (Purusha and Prakriti).
• This philosophy emphasizes Astanga Yoga as the path of salvation. 
• Astanga yoga refers to 8 phases of Yoga-
• Yama- Don’ts
• Niyamas- Do’s
• Asana- Yogic postures
• Pranayama- Breathing exercises.
• Pratyahara- Restraints
• Dharana- selecting an object to concentrate
• Dhyan- concentrating on an object 
• Samadhi- Deep meditation 
• In Yoga, Kundalini Jagaran is the last stage that happens after the activation of Muladhara Chakra. 
• In this stage, the energy level of the body becomes synonymous with the energy level of the universe.
Nyaya Philosophy (9:42 AM)
• Founder: Akshapad Gautam.
• It is considered a school of logic and reason.
• It says salvation is possible through valid knowledge.
• Valid knowledge is one that is logical and reasoned.
• It says there are 4 sources of knowledge that is-
• Pratyaksha (perception)
• Anuman 
• Guman 
• Shabd(testimony)
• It gives a famous proposition-
• Where there is smoke, there is a fire.
• This proposition must be carried by thorough comparative analysis as in the different contexts there are
many look-alikes of the smoke.
Nyaya Vaishesikha (10:07AM)
• Founder: Kannad
• These are considered Yugma as they have a common theory of knowledge.
• The first school of physics in India hypothesized the atomic theory.
• According to them, the universe is atomic in nature and everything on earth is made up of atoms.
• Atom is the smallest, indivisible, and indestructible part of the universe, though they are inactive in
themselves, though they are put in motion due to God's will.
• They further maintain the atomic recognition of the universe leads to salvation.
Mimamsa (10:19 AM)
• Mimamsa means suffering.
• also known as Purva Mimamsa which means early reflections on Veda.
• This philosophy was proposed by Jamini.
• It says salvation is possible through the performance of Vedic rituals
• It further emphasized the concept of heaven which results due to accumulation of good deeds
• This philosophy further placed the priestly class in a very important position in society.
Vedanta philosophy (10:31 AM)
• It Means Uttara Mimamsa which means the later reflection of Veda.
• it means the end of the Vedic discussion.
• Badrayana was the initial founder of Vedanta.
• Over time many streams emerged, the most established ones are s follows-
• It was propounded by Adi Shankaracharya who believed in one of the Mahavakya or great words- Aham
Brahmasmi.
• It means that God is within oneself if one searches.
• According to Shankaracharya, there is no difference between the creator and created.
• the difference that we perceive is because of our ignorance.
• This ignorance can be eliminated by embarking on the path of knowledge(Gyan marg).
Vishishtadvaitvada (10:47 AM)
• Propounded by: Shri Ramanujacharya of Sri Rangam
• According to ti him, god has qualified special attributes, which can be recognized by embarking on a
path of Bhakti.
• With  Bhakti marg not only one recognizes God within oneself but one also attains salvation.
• Mimamsa and Vedanta are considered Yugma.
Charvaka (11:09 AM)
• It is also the oldest of philosophies, popularly known as Lokayat (popular among the masses).
• It was propounded by Charvaka.
• Perception is the only source of knowledge.
• Pratyaksham Kim pranam means whatever that has not been accepted by us is not knowledge or reality.
• They rejected the divine authority of god, rebirth, and hence salvation.
• They emphasized the maximization of physical pleasure which is reflected in one of the popular phrases-
• यावत् जीवेत् सुखम् जीवेत्।
ऋणं कृत्वा घृतं िपबेत्।
• Yavat Jivite Sukham Jivite
Rinam Kritva ghartam pibet
Ajivika (11:36 AM)
• Founder: Makhali Putra Gosala
• He was a contemporary of Mahavir
• the philosophy of Ajivima is known as Niyatiwad
• Theory of destiny (Niyativad)
• According to this philosophy, there is no free will, as such one can change what is destined
• Whatever has happened,  that is happening and will happen, one can not change it.
• They rejected the theory of god, salvation, and Veda and granted them as a fallacy.
Zoroastrianism (11:41AM)
• They believed that there are two types of spirits that operate in the universe which is-
• Spenta Mainyu (spirit of good).
• Angra mainyu(spirit of evil) .
• When they are in balance there is a natural cycle of creation, birth, and death
• But the natural tendency of Angra Mainyu is to dominate
• In this situation Zoroaster god Ahur Mazdra represented through fire established the equilibrium
• Ahur Mazdra is considered a fire god and is worshipped inside Atash Behram, a fire temple.
• Zinda Avesta is considered the holy text of Zoroastrianism
• Parsis were also known for their unique last-rite practices whereby they did not cremate their dead or
buried them, instead dead bodies were left fallow in open spaces to be fed by scavengers.

Classical Dance (9:00 AM)

Evolution of dance in India
• Bharat Muni's Natyashastra is considered the first treatise on dance, drama, and music.
• As per the story in Natyashastra, Lord Brahma requested Bharat Muni to create a pastime with
philosophies by taking the elements from existing Vedas.
• As such Bharat Muni took the following elements:-
• Pathya (words) taken from Rigveda. 
• Abhinaya (expression)- Yajurveda
• Geet (music)- Samaveda
• Rasa (emotions)- Atharvaveda. 
• Natyashastra further mentions the two aspects of dance and three elements of the dance-
• Aspects- Lashya and Tandava
• Lashya is a feminine aspect of dance. It is characterized by soft and beautiful movements, strong
expression, and grace. 
• The first mythological example of Lashya is Goddess Parvati's dance on the occasion of her
marriage with Lord Shiva.
• Tandava-
• It is the masculine aspect of the dance, characterized by fast movement, aggression, strength, and
determination. 
• The first mythological example is Lord Shiva's Tandava- Bhairava tandava associated with the
destruction of the universe and Ananda Tandava associated with the reconstruction of the universe.
• Another mythological example is Lord Krishna's Tandava on the head of Kaliya Naag. 
• Three elements of dance: 
• Nritta- pure dance movement without any expression
• Natya- dramatic expression
• Nritya- Abhinaya with dance movement
• Later Nandikeshvara wrote Abhinaya Darpan which elaborated on the use of Rasa or
emotions in the dance, which are as follows:
• Shringar- Love
• Vir- courage 
• Hasya- Laughter 
• Karunya- tragedy
• Adbhut- amazement 
• Bhayanak- fear 
• Raudra- anger 
• Bibhasta- disgust 
• Shant- Peace 
Bharatanatyam (9:37 AM)
• It is the oldest of all classical form names after Bharat Muni.
• It is also referred to as Bhava, Raga, Tal, or Natyam( dance of expression, melody, and rhythm.
• The dance form emerged from the state of Tamilnadu.
• In Tamilnadu temples devadasi system was followed, as per this system, young girls were donated to the
temples and they were symbolically married to the god of the temple.
• They were supposed to serve God for their entire lifetime.
• Dance form further flourished due to the patronage of Tanjore rulers.
• In the 20th century, in the guise of social reform, the devadasi system was banned after which the dance
form started to disappear.
• In this scenario, a freedom fighter revived the dance form and also transformed it into a stage
performance.
• Features-
• The steps in Bharatnatyam are prefixed in the following sequence-
• Alaripu- It is an invocatory dance performance to seek the blessings of God
• Jatiswaram- It is a pure dance movement.
• Shabdam- It is the beginning of the expression in the dance. 
• Varnam- further elaboration of Abhinaya. 
• Padam- dancer portrays her mastery in Abhinaya
• Jawali- A fast performance on a short dance performance on love lyrics. 
• Tillana- it is the last step in which the dancer performs exuberant and joyous movements symbolizing
temporary salvation. 
• Many times, Bharatnatyam is referred to as a fire dance as the movement of the dancer resembles the
dancing flame.
• During the dance, the recitation of the mantra is an important part
• During the performance, one can notice that the body weight of the dancer, body weight is equally
distributed on both sides of the center of mass.
• Katak Mukha Hasta- is the most important Mudra(Hand gesture) of Bharatnatyam.
• In this Mudra, the first 3 fingers are joined to symbolize OM.
• Ek Charya Lashyam- is a single-dancer performance in Bharatanatyam. In this single dancer takes up the
role of many.
• Carnatic classical music- is performed in Bharatnatyam
• The famous proponents of Bharatnatyam include Rukmanidevi Arundale, Bala Saraswati, Ragini Devi,
Padma Subramaniyam, Yamini Krishnamurti, Mrinalini Sarabhai 
Kuchipudi(10:21AM)
• It emerged from the Andhra Village Kuchelapuram.
• It was performed by the male artist of this village, who was a moving troop from one village to another.
• In the neo-Vaoshnavite period, the dance form was monopolized by male brahmins of Andhra.
• They started to perform on the theme of Bhagvat Puran, popularly came to be known as Bhagwathalus.
• The dance performances are highly enchanting as they received the patronage of Vijayanagar and
Golkonda rulers.
• These were revived by Ragini Devi and Balasaraswati.
• Features-
• It highlights the importance of elements of the earth in the body.
• In the very first step- Daru, dancers one by one enter the stage and introduce themselves with small
performances.
• The theme of lord Krishna is most popular in Kuchipudi.
• For example- Bhama Kalpamam, written by Siddhendra yogi is often a repeated theme
• The dancer takes up the role of a singer
• It is male preserve, but often equally performed by females.
• During the performance, Shrigar Ras is emphasized
• The popular solo performances are as follows-
• Tarangam-
•  In this, the dancer keeps her toe on the edges of the brass plate while balancing a water pitcher on her
head and two lit diyas in hand while performing.
• Jala Chitra Natyam-
• In this, the dancer tries to create a colorful rangoli on stage with her feet while performing.
• Carnatic classical music is used during the performance
• Famous Proponents-
• Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Kiran Sehgal, etc.
Kathakali  (11:15 AM)
• Its name is derived from the Sanskrit words Katha means story and Kali means Drama.
• Initially, it was part of the traditional theaters of Kerala.
• Example-
• Ramanattam, Krishnattam, Koodiattam, Chakyar Koothu, etc.
• Later it became a separate classical performance also.
• It was patronized by the rulers of Travancore and the feudal lords of Kerala.
• In modern times, Kathakali was revived by the Malayali poet V N Menon under the patronage of Mukund
Raja.
• Features-
• It is considered the ballet of the East.
• Kathakali's performance always happens in the open sky thus it highlights the importance of the element of
the sky.  
• It is the depiction of the eternal fight between good and evil in which finally good wins.
• Color is of utmost important
• Facial makeup plays utmost importance and different colors do depict different types of characters-
• Green color-
• Depicts Satwik characters, It represents nobility, divinity, virtue, etc.
• Red depicts- Rajshik which is characterized by Royalty.
• Black depicts-Tamashik which characterizes evil and wickedness.
• White depicts- Godly character
• Yellow depicts- Beautiful women
• Even eyebrow movement is of utmost importance with eye and eye movement, different kinds of emotions are
portrayed.
• Generally, dancers wear headgear which also denotes their status.
• The theme of  Kathakali are many drawn from Ramayan, Mahabharat, and Puranas
• colors of facial makeup are organically created with natural color and rice flour paste
• During the performance, the Sopan music of Kerala is used.
• Important instruments which accompany the performance are-
• Chhinda, maddala, chingila, Idakka, Sankhy are used.
• it was originally a male preserve but it is very recently Kerala mandala has decided o throw open the kathakali
dance form to females also.
• Famous Proponents are-
• Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopinath, Rita Ganguly, Madhuri Amma, etc.
Continuation of Classical dances 
Mohiniattam - 09.32 AM 
• Mohiniattam means dance of Enchantress. 
• It traces its origin from the event of Samudra Manthan (churning of the sea), whereby, Lord Vishnu disguised
himself in the form of Mohini to take back Amrit pot from Asuras. 
• Initially, the dance form was patronised by the rulers of Travancore.
• In modern times, VN Menon revived it under the patronage of Mukund Raja.  
• Features - 
• It started as a female preserve and is still a female preserve. 
• The steps of Mohiniattam resemble Bharatnatyam and its vigour is inspired by Kathakali. 
• The steps of the dancers resemble sea waves, swaying of paddy fields, and coconut and palm trees. 
• The basic steps of Mohiniattam are known as Attavavakul. 
• The costume in Mohiniattam is of utmost importance that is, an off-white Kasavau silk saree with golden
brocade. 
• Jasmine Gajra is also an important part of the costume. It highlights the importance of the element of air. 
• Carnatic classical music is used during the performance. 
• Famous proponents - Kalyani Kutty Amma, Ksemavathu Kalamandalam
Odissi - 09.53 AM 
• Odissi can be considered the second oldest classical form of India. 
• It is mentioned in Bharatmuni's Natyashashtra as Odhra Nritya.
• The pieces of evidence of this dance form can also be found in the form of sculptures at the Udaiygiri and
Khandgiri caves of Odisha. 
• Maharis were initial repositories of this dance form. They were professional temple dancers patronised by a
Jain King Kharvela. 
 • In the later ages, the Mahiri dance became defunct and the court form of Odissi emerged known as
Nartala. 
• Another form of Odissi emerged in the modern age known as Gotipua Odissi. 
• In modern times, the dance form was popularised by Indrani Rehman and the efforts of Charles Fabri led
to global recognition of the dance form. 
• Features - 
• Gotipua Odissi is performed by young boys whose ages must be between 10-14. It is an acrobatic
performance which involves leaping, jumping and frogging. 
• One can notice similarities between the steps of Bharatnatyam and Odissi. 
• Very often Odissi is referred to as a fluidic dance as dancers can create any shape with their body curves.
It highlights the importance of the element of water. 
• In group performances, static and moving postures can be noted simultaneously and that's why Odissi is
also referred to as a moving sculpture. 
• The performance of the Odissi starts with - 
• a) Mangalcharanam - invocation of mother earth to seek her blessing. 
• b) Batunritya is a fast dance dedicated to Batukeshwar Bhairav. 
• c) Pallavi and Tharijham- dance movement with abhinaya.
• d) Moksha and Trikhand Manjura is an exuberant and joyous movement symbolising temporary
salvation. Trikhand Manjura is performed without music and Moksha is performed with music. 
• Tribhang is considered the most important posture of Odissi. It is considered a feminine posture in which
the body is tri-bent at the neck, torso and knee. 
• Chowk is considered the masculine posture of the dance in which the dancer tries to imitate the shape of a
square with the help of her legs. 
• Odissi Sangeet is used during the performance. 
• The popular themes of the Odissi dance includes Gita Govind of Jayadeva and Vichitra Ramayana of
Vishwanath Kunthia. 
• Famous proponents - Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Kelu Charan Mohapatra, Sanjukta Prashar and Sonal
Man Singh. 
Manipuri - 10.30 AM 
• It traces its origin from the celestial story whereby Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati descended to the hills
of Manipur and danced with local Gandharvas.
• Later, during the new Vaishnavite period, themes of Lord Krishna became very popular.  
• The present-day Manipuri is the combination of some of the folk traditions of Manipur like the Lai Hairoba
festival dance and the Martial dance Thungta. 
• In modern times, the dance form went into oblivion. It was revived by Rabindranath Tagore who introduced
the dance form in the curriculum of Vishwabharatri University, Shantiniketan. 
• Theme of Lord Krishna like Sankirtana and Rasleela is most important. 
• The costume of the female dancers is a static gown and the face is covered with a veil. As such,
mukhabhinaya (facial expression) is not performed in Manipuri. Instead of it, Sarvang Abhinaya is
performed (with the rest of the body parts). 
• Nagbandha is the most important mudra in Manipuri whereby the dancer tries to create a shape of 8 os S
with the help of a body curve. Many times, the dancers take up the role of singers. 
• During the dance performance, local Manipuri music is used which includes musical instruments like Pung,
Pena, Cymbals and Kartals. 
• Famous proponents - Jhaveri sisters (Nayana, Suvarna, Rangana and Darshana) and Guru Bipin Singh. 
Sattriya - 10.52 AM 
• It traces its name from the Vashnavite monastery Sattra of Assam.
• The dance form is attributed to the famous Bhakti saint of Assam Shankardev
• He introduced two popular folk dances that are Devadasi and Vyahargitamala into the rituals of Sattar. 
• This fused dance form came to be known as Sattriya 
• Features - 
• The theme of Sattriya is based on the writings of Sankardeva known as Borgeets. 
• During the performance, music is created with Khol. 
• The male dancers are known as Bhokots.
• The costume of Sattriya is made from part silk of Assam. For males, it is Dhoti, Kurta and Paguri and for
females, it is saree and Paguri. 
• In contemporary times, there are two branches of Sattriya - Gayun Bhayanar Sattriya and Kharmanar
Sattriya. 
• Famous proponents - Ghana Kant Bora, Jatin Goswami, Tankeshwar Hazarika, Anita Sarma 
Kathak - 11.08 AM 
• It emerged from the Kathakar tradition of Braj and Awadh.
• Initially, it was a devotional performance based on Hindu religious literature but later after the establishment
of Mughal rule, the court form of Kathak also developed. Moreover, it also led to the inclusion of Persian
techniques and costumes in Kathak. 
• Features - 
• Kathak is highly different from all the other classical forms. 
• In Kathak, unlike the other classical forms, there is no bent position. 
• Full foot contact with the dance floor is of utmost importance in Kathak. With full foot contact, the dancer
thumps on the floor and creates numerous sounds. 
• The Persian influence in Kathak is very much visible in the costume which is the Anarkali suit or Kurta. 
• Generally, the Kathak dancers jump in the air and take a turn which leads to the creation of beautiful
pirouettes (ghera) in the costume which provides further elegance to the dance form. 
• Many times during dances, dancers also interact with the audience. 
• Kathak gives more freedom to the dancer to choose the element of the recital. 
• Famous recitals - Toda, Tukda, Torana, Padhant, Kramakya, Gutbhava, Jugalbandi etc. 
• Jugalbandi is a competitive play between the dancer and the tabla musician. But it can also be a
competitive play between two dancers. 
• During the performance of Kathak, Drupad music was used initially but later, in the Mughal period, Dhumri,
Tarana and Ghazal were also incorporated. 
• Another unique feature of Kathak is the existence of Gharana systems based on Guru-Shishya parampra.
It is a particular style which has been preserved and transferred to the disciples by the Guru. 
• Popular Gharanas of Kathak include -
• a) Lucknow Gharana - It developed under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow and it emphasizes
expression. 
• b) Banaras Gharana -  It developed under Janki Prasad and it emphasizes symmetry. 
• c) Jaipur Gharana - It developed under Bhanu Ji and it emphasizes rhythm. 
• Famous proponents - Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit Lacchu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Damyanti Joshi. 

Music (09:07 AM)

• Bharatmuni's Natya shastra is considered the earliest treatise on music. There were references to music
in Rigveda. It refers to OM as the first Nada (universal sound, with which many other sounds were
created).
• There used to be a special priest in those times who were singing hymn's praise, known as Udgatar.
• All those hymns sung were constituted as Samveda, considered as Veda of music.
• Samveda mentions near about 16000 Raga and Ragini's.
• The last part of Ragini is known as Gandharv Veda, considered the rulebook of music.
• 3 basics of Indian Music-
• 1)Swara-
• It is the note, tone, or frequency.
• Indian music is heptatonic in nature which means there is a concept of Shuddha Swara which are 7 in
number.
• Each Swara is composed of many Shrutis-
• 2)Shruti is the weakest sound which human ear can perceive.
• 3)The Shuddha Swara in Indian music are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni -
• Sa: Sadja,
• Re: Resabha,
• Ga: Gandhara,
• Ma: Madhyam,
• Pa: Pancham,
• Dha: Dhavaita,
• Ni: Nishad.
• Similarly, in western music classical music of Europe has the concept of 7 pure nodes (Do, Re, Mi, Fa,
So, Li, Ta).
 • Raga:
• It is the basis of melody in music.
• It is a different combination of Swara.
• For the creation of Raga, there must be at least 5 distinct Swara.
• On the basis of distinct Swara, there could be 3 types of Raga-
• 1. Odhav Raga -5 distinct nodes.
• 2. Sadhav raga - 6 distinct nodes.
• 3. Sampoorna Raga-with all 6 distinct nodes.
• Tal:
• It is the basis of rhythm 
• It is an arrangement of beats in a cyclical manner
• The Indian cyclical music includes the following popular beats-
• Thisra: 3 rhythmic cycles.
• Chatusara: 4 rhythmic cycles.
• Khand: 5 rhythmic cycles.
• Mishra: 6 rhythmic cycles.
• Sankirtana: 7 rhythmic cycles. 
• Initially, there was no differentiation between north and south Indian music but differentiation started in the
late 13th century
• The singers of north India started to follow the system of time season mood theory of Raga.
• Initially, 6 principal ragas were developed, and later many other Ragas.
Hindustani Music: (10:06 AM)
• The differentiation happened between Hindustani and Carnatic Music, basically because of the time, season,
and mood theory of raga, followed by Hindustani musicians. 
• Initially, six principal ragas were created based on time, season, and mood theory, which are as follows-
•
• •
Se
Rag Tim • Mood 
aso
a  e 
n 
•
• • Awe
• Earl
Shi and
Bhai y
shir devotio
rav  Mor
  n 
ning 
• •
• •
After Gri
Dee Compa
noo sh
pak  ssion 
n  ma 
•
•
He
• Shri  Eve • Love 
ma
ning 
nt 
• • • •
Hind Nigh Vas Gladne
ol  t  ant  ss 
•
• • •
Var
Meg Mor Coura
sha
ha ning  ge 
 
•
• •
• Laught
Malk Sh
Midn er and
auns ara
ight  Gladne
  d 
ss 
 • Classical Hindustani: (10:24 AM)
• 1)Dhrupad- 
• It is the oldest classical form whose origin can be traced to the Vedic period
• Dhrupad's performance starts with an Aalaap followed by Jod and then the four composed sections that
are-
• 1. Sthayi
• 2. Antara
• 3. Sanchari
• 4. Abhog
• It is a devotional performance that demands efforts from the lungs and vocal cords
• Lyrics are simple and sober, mainly composed in Braj and Awadhi language.
• Pakhawaj musical instrument is often accompanied by Dhrupad music.
• In medieval times raja man sigh Tomar popularised Dhrupad singing 
• In the court of Akbar, there were many Dhrupad singers, that is,  Tansen, Baiju Bawra, and Gopal Das.
• Tansen was the most outstanding among them and was given the title of Miya ( by Akbar) whose original
name was Ramtanu Pandey.
• Swami Haridas was also one of the famous Dhrupad singers of this time and he was also the guru of
Tansen. 
• One of the important aspects of Dhrupad is the existence of the Gharana system, depending on the
aptitude of music, temperament, dialect, and language.
• The famous Gharanas of Dhrupad are as follows-
• 1. Dagri Gharana.
• 2. Betia Gharana.
• 3. Darbhanga Gharana.
• 4. Bishnupur Gharana.
• 2)Khayal-
• The origin of Khayal can be attributed to Amir Khusro.
• In Khayal much more freedom is given to singers in the structure and form of the music.
• Khayal is a romantic category of music
• most important aspect of Khayal is the execution of an idea or thought
• Khayal performance takes place in two parts-
• 1. Chhota Khayal
• 2. Bada Khayal
• Another special feature of khayal is the use of Tan in the music in which the last part of the song is
elaborated.
• Khayal performance is often accompanied by the musical instrument Tanpura.
• Famous gharanas of khayal-
• Kairana Gharana
• Gwalior Gharana
• Patiala Gharana
• Jaipur Gharana
• Agra Gharana
Semi-Classical Versions of Hindustani Music: (11: 51 AM)
• Thumri:
• It emerged from North India and it was popularised by the Bhakti Saints of North India.
• It is semi-romantic and semi-devotional in nature and based on Ragas
• There are 2 popular versions ofThumri-
• Purbi Thumri: Sung in slow tempo.
• Punjabi Thumri: Sung in a fast tempo.
• Dhamar:
• It is specifically performed during the festival of Holi in the Braj area.
• It is performed to highlight the love affair between Lord Krishna, Gopis, and Radha.
• Tappa:
• It was created by camel riders of the Northwest.
• They started composing songs by using local idioms and phrases.
• As such it is noted for a quick turn of phrases.
• Later the singers of Punjab started to create fast songs under this category.
 • Tarana:
• It was created by the aristocratic class from North India.
• It was created only for entertainment, it had very few meaningful words.
• Qawali:
• It was another product of Persian influence.
• its origin can be attributed to Amir Khusrau
• Amir Khusrau started to compose small couplets in the praise of Allah, the Prophet, and the Sufi Saints.
• It is devotional in nature and specifically performed during the festivals of Urs at Sufi Dargah.
• Ghazal:
• It is also the product of Persian influence.
• Generally, Ghazal is romantic in nature but many a time there is an underline Sufi element where God is
depicted as beloved. 
• Mirza Ghalib, Mir Taki Mir, and Bahadur Shah Zafar were the initial famous Ghazal Composers.
Carnatic Classical Music: (09: 52 AM)
• Sangeetsara of Vidyaranya is considered a forerunner of southern classical music.
• Later in the middle of the 17th century, Venakatamukhi wrote Chanturdandi Prakashika which became
the soul and conscience of Carnatic music.
• In this text, he devised the Melakurta raga system based on 72 scales which was the highly scientific
system of raga which is equally relevant in contemporary times.
• In contemporary times Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande popularised Carnatic music and also tried to revive
it at Merris College of music was created at Lucknow which was later renamed Bhatkhande College of
Music after independence.
• The Carnatic performance takes place in three stages-
• Ragam: It is an improvised Alapana in free time.
• Tanam: It is an interconnector.
• Pallavi: It is the final composing section that set the melody to the Taal.
• There are two popular versions of Carnatic-
• 1.Kriti- singing is more empahsised
• 2.Kritanayi- music is more empahasised.
• Important Personalities of Carnatic Music-
• 1. Male Trinity:
• Tyagaraja-wrote songs in praise of lord Rama.
• Shyamashastri
• Muthuswami Dikshitar
• 2. Female Trinity:
• M.L. Vasanthakumari
• D.K. Pattammal
• M.S. Subbalakshmi
Language and Literature: (09:05 AM)
• Script-
• Brahmi and Kharosti are considered as oldest scripts in India
• they developed in between 7th and 6th Century BCE
• Brahmi was mainly practiced in mainland India and Kharosthi in NW India
• Brahmi is considered  as connecting link and the mother of many Indian scripts
• For the first time, it was Buddhist literature in the Pali language  was complied in Brahmi script
• In the period between 300 BCE to 450 CE, the majority of Hindu literature was in the Sanskrit language
and in Brahmi script.
• Language-
• Broadly Indian languages can be divided into 4 families on the basis of phonemic similarity and the
language of aborigins in tribals.
• 1)Indo- Aryan Group of languages:
• Examples-
• Sanskrit, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Maithili, Odiya, Assamese, Kashmiri, Punjabi, Nepali, etc.
• 2)Dravidian Group of languages:
• Examples-
• Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, etc.
• 3)Sino- Tibetan Group of languages:
• Examples-
• Sikkimese, Arunachali, Naga, Mizo, Manipuri, etc.
• 4)Austric Group of languages:
• All the tribal languages are under this like Bodo, Santhali, Dogri, Mundari, Gondi, Andamanese,
Nicobari, etc.
• All the Indian Languages are considered as most advanced languages of the world because the system
of writing corresponds to the system of pronunciation.
• In Indian languages, the system of writing corresponds to a system of pronunciation
• They all follow the abugida system of writing under which consonants are always written but vowels
are generally used as diacritic(matra).
• Whenever a word is going to start from a vowel then it is completely written but not when the word is
starting from a consonant.
Sanskrit Literature: (10:01 AM)
• Sanskrit is considered a truly international language, it transcends the boundary of regions and
religions, it has been used in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism.
• Broadly the Sanskrit language can be divided into two categories-
• 1)Vedas
• i)Rigveda-
• It is the oldest of all  Vedas.
• It is the earliest collection of 1028 hymns.
• The Rigveda has 10 mandalas out of which mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest and were composed during
the early Vedic period.
• Mandala numbers 1,8,9 and 10 were composed in the later Vedic period.
• There are 3 types of themes mentioned in Rigveda-
• First; it gives a beautiful description of the nature and topography of north and NW India. 
• For example, the Himalayas are mentioned as Himavant and Jamavant Parbat.
• it also mentions some important rivers like-
• Indus-->Sindhu
• Sarasvati-->Naditarini
• Jhelum--->Vitasta
• Chenab--->Ashkini
• Ravi--->Parushani
• Beas--->Vipasa
• Satluj--->
• Second; Rigveda is also a book of prayer and mantra in which they seek the development of a highly
cultured society
 • Three; it is one of the most important sources about the society, culture, economy, and polity of Vedic
India.
• The expert priest of Rigveda is known as Hotra.
• ii)Yajurveda:
• Composed during the later Vedic period
• It is associated with the details of Vedic rituals and sacrifices.
• It provides guidelines for the performance of Yajna
• There are two popular parts of Yajurveda-
• i)Krushna Yajurveda
• ii)Shukla Yajurveda
• Since it emphasised Vedic rituals it is most popular in all Vedas.
• Adhvaryu was considered an expert priest of Yajurveda.
• iii)Samaveda-
• all those hymns of Rigveda constitute Samaveda
• It is considered as Veda of music.
• It mentions 16000 melodies i.e. raga and Ragini and the last part of Samaveda is Gandharvaveda
which is the rule book of music.
• The expert priest is known as Udgatar.
• iv)Atharv Veda-
• It is the most elaborate of all the Vedas.
• Its origin can be traced to two rishis i.e. Atharva and Angira.
• It is also considered a book of spells and charms.
• Apart from it, it is a book of botanical knowledge, ayurvedic knowledge,  mathematics, astronomy,
astrology, etc.
• It mentions the cure for 99 diseases.
• Brahamana-
• First explanatory book of Veda.
• It deals with the Vedic rituals and provides guidelines for regular conduct.
• Aranyakas-
• they are considered forest books
• the knowledge of Aranyaka is disseminated to disciples through Vanaprastha's state of life
• it deals with the mystery of Veda, the mystery of science.
• Upanishads-
• They are the last explanatory text of Vedas which deals with the philosophy of Vedas.
• It also deals with the most difficult discussion, for example, the purpose of worship, spiritualism, the
origin of the earth, soul, rebirth, etc.
Extended Religious Texts (11:15 AM)
• i)Epics-
• Ramayana
• Mahabharat
• ii)Puranas-
• They hold a very unique position in Hinduism.
• They also try to consolidate the ideas of Hinduism with legendary and mythical stories.
• Puranas always combine with Itihas to prove things.
• On the basis of themes, there are four parts to Puranas:
• 1. Sarga: It deals with the creation of the universe.
• 2. Pratisarga: It deals with the destruction of the universe.
• 3. Manvantar: It deals with the story of the first human beings i.e. Manu and Ila.
• 4. Vamsanucharita: It deals with the dynastic history of India. Satvahana history can only be traced
with the help of Puranas.
2)Classical Sanskrit literature(11:36AM)
• Drama
• Prose
• Poetry
 • Important books are as follows-
• i)Mricchakatika-
• Written by Shudraka.
• It means little clay cart.
• ii)Mudrarakshasa-
• It was written by Vishakadatta.
• In this book, political mechanization developed by Chanakya against Nanda's ruler is mentioned.
• iii)Devichandraguptam-
• It was written by Vishakhadatta
• Biography of Chandragupta 2.
• Books that were written by Kalidasa-
• Abhijnana Shakuntalam: It is a love story about Dushyant and Shakuntala.
• Vikramo- Urvashi: It is about the love affair of Pururava and the Celestial nymph Urvashi.
• Malvikagnimitra: It is a love affair of the princess of Vidisha with Agnimitrashunga
• Raghuvansham: It is a story of the clan of Lord Rama.
• Kumarasambhava: It is about the making of a young god Kartikeya.
• Two poems of Kalidasa-
• Meghadootam- It's a power and love letter through clouds.
• Ritusamhara- It is a medley of seasons
• Other books-
• Harshacharita- Biolgrahy of harshvardhana
• Kiritarjuniyam- written by Bharavi. It deals with the fight between Lord Shiva and Arjuna.
• Mahavircharit-Bhavbhuti
• Buddhcharuta- Ashwaghosh
• Charaksamhita- By Charak
• Shushrutsamhita-By Shushrit- It's a book on surgery and it mentions surgical instruments and also
ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, and Rhinoplasty.
Buddhist and Jain Literature (09:09 AM)
Buddhist Literature:
• Buddhist Literature can be classified into two types: Canonical and Non-canonical.
• Canonical:
• Canonicals were the most revered text of Buddhism directly associated with traditions set by Buddha.
• Canonical literature is written only in Pali.
• Examples include Suttapitaka, Vinayapitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka, and Jataka Katha (mentioned in Khuddak
Nikaya of Suttapitaka).
• Non-canonical:
• These were written in both Pali and Sanskrit.
• They also form the category of holy text in Buddhism associated with different branches of Buddhism.
• Examples include Buddhacharitra (Sankrit), Mahavastu (Pali and is the holy text of Theravada), Lalitvistara
(Sanskrit and holy text of Mahayana Buddhism), Dipavamasa and Mahavamasa (Both in Pali and Srilankan
Chronicle of Buddhism), Mahavibhasa (Sanskrit and encyclopedia of Buddhism) and Therigatha (Pali
Language).
• Therigatha was a revered text of that time, attributed to and authored by women and it talks about women's
experience of renunciation.
Jain Literature:
• Most of the Jain literature was compiled during the Jain council.
• Prakrit was the most popular language of Jain literature, although some texts were written in the Sanskrit
language also.
• In the first Jain council, 14 Purvas were compiled which contained the teachings of all the Tirthankaras.
• During the second Jain Council, the majority of the Jain literature was compiled which were Anga, Upanga,
Prakirha, Chedabsutra, Mulasutra, and Bhagwatisutra.
• They are unique texts of that time that not only talk about their own doctrines but the doctrines of rival schools
as well like Buddhism, Ajivika, and Hinduism.
• Note: Second Jain council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 AD or CE.
• It was patronized by Chalukyas of Gujarat and presided by Devardhi Kshema Shramana.
• The Jain literature is also an important source of information about Mahajanpada.
• It is believed that Bhagwatisutra is one of the foremost texts which mentions Mahajanapada history.
• Moreover, it also deals with the dynastic history of eastern India.
• For example, the history of Licchavi, Malla, Vajji, Anga, etc.
Sangam Literature: (09:36 AM)
• Under the Pandya rulers between the 1st century AD and the 6th Century AD,  three Sangam assemblies were
held in Madurai.
• In these assemblies, the poets and poetesses from Pandya, Chola, and Chera Kingdoms participated.
• As per the belief, the first Sangam assembly was attended by the Gods and Angels as such nothing was
recorded.
• The second Sangam assembly was also held in Madurai under the patronage of Pandyas.
• Only one book was recorded in the second assembly i.e. Tolkappiyam written by Tolkappiyar which was the first
and foremost Tamil grammar book.
• The third assembly was attended by many poets and poetesses. i.e. 473, out of which, 35 were women.
• The majority of the Sangam literature was compiled in the third assembly which could be classified into two
categories:
• Milkanakku: These were the major texts.
• Kilkanakku: These were minor texts.
• The major texts were further classified into Ettuttokai (8 anthologies of Poems) and Paditpattu (10 proses)
• They deal with the political exploits of Pandya rulers and the religion which existed at that point in time.
• The 18 minor texts deal with the moral and ethical code of conduct.
Tamil Epics:
• After the end of the Sangam Assembly, two Tamil epics were written.
• Silappatikaram written by Ilango Adigal.
• It is a story of an anklet which includes the character Kovalan, Madhavan, and Kannagi and Pandya ruler
Nedunjeliyan.
• Manimekalai written by Chattanar.
• Thirukkurral was written by Thiruvalluvar.
• It serves as a manual precept to guide one to a noble living.
• It is a book of moral and ethical codes of conduct.
• It's a highly practical book with witty quotations on almost every important subject.
• The outlook of this text is highly secular in nature.
• Such as the sanctity of this book that it is accepted as a book of pledges or oaths in Tamil courts.
Urdu Literature:(10:10 AM)
• It emerged from the military camps of the Delhi Sultanate where both the rulers and Indian soldiers tried to learn
the language from each other.
• Due to this cross-interaction, a new language called Urdu was born.
• It is a language that developed from Turkish, Persian, Khari Boli, and Hindavi.
• The grammatical structure of Urdu is inspired by Sauraseni and the script of Urdu is based on Persian.
• Amir Khusro was the first person who started to use Urdu for literary purposes.
• The official status of the Urdu language was given by the Golconda rulers.
Indian Painting (10:34 AM)
Pre-historic paintings:
• These were the paintings dated back to the era when history had not been recorded.
• Upper Palaeolithic Age Paintings: (40000 BC- 10000 BC)
• In this phase, men started creating rock-cut paintings on the walls of the cave.
• This type of painting is known as a petroglyph.
• These paintings provide initial insights into the life of early humans.
• They used naturally obtained colors like red, green, brown, yellow etc.
• The theme of the painting was based on animal hunting, food gathering, and fighting scenes.
• These paintings are found in Bhimbetka caves, Narsinghgarh caves, Mirzapur caves etc.
• Mesolithic paintings(10000 BC- 6000 BC)
• It was one of the highly aesthetic classes of painting as per the context of the context.
• The characteristic tool of this painting is the microlith which facilitated the creation of a good-quality rock-cut
painting.
• They started using natural colors like black, red, etc., and mixed them with egg yolk to increase the longevity of
the paintings.
• In the later phases, red became the preferred color which was mainly sourced from animal blood.
• A wide variety of themes were painted at this point in time.
• A wide variety of themes were practiced which provides insight into the sociocultural practices of that time.
• The themes include hunting and gathering, animal riding, fighting scenes, household chores, celebration, group
dance, palace, sexual union, phallus worship, yoni worship etc.
• From these themes, it can be inferred that there was a division of labor in society, the development of
community sense and coordination, domestication of the animals, and the importance of sexual union.
• These paintings are mainly found in Bhimbetka caves.
Mural Paintings (11:25 AM)
• Ajanta Murals:
• They are considered progenitors of the Indian Painting tradition.
• It not only inspired the wall paintings but also the miniatures and canvas paintings of India.
• The paintings inside Ajanta were created in the Fresco mural tradition and they are completely based on
Buddhism.
• Some of the important examples include Padmapami, Vajrapani, flying Apsara, Dying Princess etc.
• Maitreya is the future buddha.
• Ellora Mural:
• The Murals in Ellora cave were created during the age of Rashtrakuta rulers.
• Though not many paintings are surviving, the ones which are still intact are based on Vaishnavite tradition.
• For example, the painting of lord Vishnu riding on his vehicle Garuda.
• Bagh Murals:
• Murals were created inside cave number 4 and it was based on Buddhist tradition.
• Moreover, the paintings belong to the Gupta period.
• Sittanavasal Murals:
• It is located in Tamil Nadu.
• The theme is based on Jainism whereby the life of Vardhaman Mahavir was the most important theme and
was patronized by the Pandya rulers.
• Badami Mural:
• Found from Badami caves in Karnataka.
• The theme is Vaishnavism and is patronized by Mangalesh Chalukya.
• Chola Mural:
• Found in Tanjore in Tamil Nadu.
• Mangalesh Chalukya was the most important patron of mural painting.
• The theme is based on the Vaishnavite tradition and court and royal scenes with royal figures were also
created.
• Lepakshi Mural/ Viajayanagar Mural:
• It was practiced in Lepakshi located in Andhra, patronized by Vijayanagara rulers.
• The theme of the painting was secular in nature, though it was created on the walls of the temple.
• It was based on the proceedings of royal life and daily activities.
• It is noted for the complete absence of primary colors like Red, Green, and Blue.
• Chola Mural:
• It was patronized by the Imperial Chola dynasty at Tanjore.
• These paintings were created on the walls of the Brihadeswara temple.
• The paintings were based on Lord Shiva but also a large chunk of paintings was dedicated to the rulers and
the royal figures.
• Nayaka mural paintings:
• Found in  Madurai, Tamil Nadu, and the theme is based on Hindu mythology.
• Mainly patronized by Nayaka rulers of Madurai.
• The paintings were mainly created on the walls of the temple.
• Depiction of the life of lord Krishna is an important theme in the Nayaka style.
• Moreover, at some of the places, the life of Vardhaman Mahavir was also painted.
• Kerala Mural Paintings:
• Created on the walls of the temples of North and Central Kerala.
• The theme is based on Ramayana, Mahabharat, and Puranas.
• Patronized by local feudal lords and the Travancore rulers.

Miniature Painting(9.11 AM):

• It is a small-scale painting but highly detailed in nature
• .It was crafted on perishable martial like paper, palm leaves, and cloths.
• In the initial phase, the size of the painting was not more than 25 sq. in. but later the size increased.
• Many a time miniatures were painted as books of illustration.
• Early miniature of India:
• Pala Miniature:
• It was the earliest miniature of India patronized by Pala rulers of east India.
• This painting was created on palm leaves and it was a style of manuscript painting.
 • In manuscript painting, the image is often accompanied by a written record.
• These paintings were based on Buddhism 
• Western miniature:
• It was practiced in the area of Gujarat and southwest Rajasthan.
• It was patronized by the rich Jain traders of this area.
• It also started as a manuscript on plan leaves but later painting was also practiced on paper.
• They painted the themes associated with Jainism like Kalapasutra, and Kalakacharya Sutra.
Mughal Miniature(9.28 AM):
• Humayun brought from Iran two famous people with him, Abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali.
• With the arrival of these two painters, the Persian Safavid style of painting emerged in India.
• Akbar's initiative:
• Akbar was one of the greatest patrons of art.
• He patronized art, architecture, and painting.
• He opened a Karkhana of Painting in which a large number of Indians were employed.
• Realism was the keynote of the Akbar period painting.
• During this time  Abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali painted the Hamzanama series painting which was based
on the life of Amir Hamza(uncle of the Prophet).
• Seeing the popularity of this painting, Akbar wanted to paint Indian literature also.
• As such Tutinama(the tale of the parrot) and Razmanama(Mahabharat) were painted.
• The traditions of painting biographies started at this time.
• Akbar also encouraged the competitive aesthetic development of panting for which he started the system of
reward.
• The bests of the paintings were displayed in his studio Tasveerkhana.
• Maktabkhana was the place where the literature was translated into paintings or other languages.
• Jahangir's initiatives:
• Jahangir was the greatest patron of painting during the Mughal period.
• He was a great painter and he was a naturalist who often painted various flora and fauna.
• He continued with the realism of the Mughal style, with the characteristic invention of the  style
• In portrait, a single image was highly emphasized and the rest of the things in the background were kept
blurred.
• Another feature was the creation of decorated margins in the painting.
• Shahjahan's period:
• Although the tradition of the paintings continued, Mughal realism was diluted because Shahjahan
excessively favored gold and silver color.
• The painting of this time reflected the heavy influence of European style, for example, the use of light and
shadow methods of painting.
• Another European influence was the start of pencil sketching or charcoal sketching.
• During the tenure of Aurangzeb, all the art forms declined, moreover the painters faced unemployment and
fled to the regional kingdoms of Rajasthan and Pahadi areas.
Rajasthani school of paintings(10.11 AM):
• From the 16th century onwards the majority of areas in Rajasthan started to practice wall painting and
miniature paintings.
• The common attribute of Rajasthani painting are as follows:
• Geetgovind of Jaya dev and Chorpanchasika of Bhilhana were the important themes of the painting
• Lord Krishna was often depicted in the majority of the Rajasthani schools.
• They borrowed a good number of features from the Mughal style.
• The portrait of Rajasthani schools was inspired by the Mughal style.
• In almost all the Rajasthani schools, the local topography was painted with details.
• Some of the Rajasthani schools followed and exaggerated the physical features style.
• Another connecting feature between all the Rajasthani areas is Ragmala Painting(based on the musical
Ragas).
• Lord Krishna was often depicted in blue color to highlight his Shyam varna.
• Type of Rajasthani painting:
• Kot-Bundi panting(Hadoti painting):
• Though lord Krishna is the common running theme in this painting but also the local vegetation of this area
holds an important place.
• It incorporated the Mughal royal portrait style and often the royal figures were depicted hunting.
• Mewar painting:
• Mewar included the areas of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, and Nathdwara.
• Not only Ragmala but also a variety of court scenes were painted.
 • Some of the highly picturesque paintings were associated with the depiction of Udaipur with its lake(Phichola
and Fateha Sagar) and palaces.
• Picchwai painting developed in the town of Nathdwara and it is associated with lord Shrinathji.
• This painting is created on a large piece of cloth with serves as the backdrop of Shri Nath Ji.
• In Picchwai the changing seasons and flora and fauna are depicted.
• Kishangarh Painting:
• The Kishangarh painting developed under the patronage of Raja Sansarchand to the famous painter Nihal
Chand.
• He created exaggerated physical features in the body like shape nose, sharp chin, almond-shaped eyes, long
nails, and figures.
• The most famous painting of Kishangarh is Bani Thani who is often regarded as the fashion lady of India.
• Bani Thani painting:

Pahari style painting(11.16 AM):

• Kangra Painting(GI Tag painting):
• It was practiced in the Kangra valley of Himachal patronized by the Rajput rulers.
• The painting embodies royal court scenes, local vegetation, and Hindu mythology.
• One of the interesting aspects of Kangra art is that it is a combination of embroidery and painting.
• Around 1835 British governor-general Charles Metcalf discovered Kangra painting during his visit to
Kangra and he started patronizing Kangra painting.
• NOTE-Chamba Rumal is a piece of cloth depicting various Hindu motifs and gods.
• Usually, Chamba Rumal was exchanged as a gift during celebrations, festivals, marriages, etc.
• Basohli painting:
• Basohli was an offshoot of the Kangra painting.
• They started using glitter colors in the painting.
• As far as the theme is concerned it is very similar to the Kangra tradition.
• One of the most famous paintings is Abhisarika Nayika.
• Guler Painting:
• It is also one of the offshoots of Kangra which continued the Kangra legacy.
• like Basohli they also created paintings of Abhisarika Nayika braving all the hazards to meet the lover.

South Indian painting(11.39 PM):

• Kalamkari painting:
• It emerged from the state of Andhra.
• The process of painting is very long and it almost takes 2.5 months to complete the painting.
• Traditionally kalamkari is created on cotton cloths.
• Based on them there are two varieties of kalamkari:
• 1. Masulipatnam kalamkari based on secular theme.
• 2. Shrikala Hasti kalamkari is based on Hindu mythology.
• Tanjore painting:
• It is considered one of the costliest paintings of India in which real ornament and gold are used.
• It is a panel painting in which a cotton cloth is pasted on a wooden block with the help of gum made from
tamarind and jaggery.
• The images are embossed on canvas and then painted with gold and other colors.
• The theme of the painting is mainly based on Hindu tradition with lord Krishna as the favorite character.
• The is often depicted playing the flute with Gopikas.
• Mysore Paintings:
• It is also a category of panel painting like Tanjore.
• It was Patronized by the Wodeyar rulers of Mysore.
• As compared to Tanjore the embossing in painting is not very very and there is the optimum usage of gold color
• The characteristic feature of Mysore's painting is the use of contrasting colors and muted colors.
• One of the characteristic features of Mysore is the use of Gesso paste(combination of lead, gamboge, and
glue) in painting.
• The mixture provides luster to the painting and also safeguards it from insects.
• The theme of Mysore painting is mainly based on Hindu mythology and Mysore Dussehra.
Miscellaneous (09:10AM)
• Thang-ka painting
• Practised n the area of Leh and Laddakh purely based on Buddhist tradition.
• It also reflects Sino-Tibetan influence in painting.
• For example-
• The motif of a Dragon in the painting.
• One of the popular themes in Thang ka is mandala art.
• It is practised on walls, silk cloth, and canvas.
• Madhubani painting-
• It is mainly practised in the Mithilanchal belt of Bihar.
• Earlier it was practised by only women of Bihar and it was a wall painting.
• But in recent years Madhubani Canvas art is also produced.
• In the early days when the painting was created on the wall of houses colours were mixed in rue flour to
be applied on the wall.
• Nowadays synthetic colours are also used.
• Based on the theme, it has the following varieties-
• a)Aripan Madhubani-
• Aripan is the floor art on the entrance of houses meant for religious rituals.
• b)Gosaighar Madhubani-
• Images of Gods were created inside the Puja room.
• c)Kohbar Madhubani-
• These were created inside the bedroom based on sexual life after marriage.
• The motifs created in the painting wished for fertility.
• It’s noted for its compactness, that is entire space of the canvas is utilized.
• Moreover, the colours were mixed in rice flour for painting
• Patnakalam painting (Bihar)-
• It is mainly practised by court artists in Bihar.
• The style and technique of painting were very closer to the Mughal style but in terms of theme they depict
the daily hardships of the common man
• Patta Chitra painting (Odisha)-
• It is a scroll painting created on cotton, silk cloth, or palm leaves.
• The central theme of Patta Chitra is based on the legends of lord Jagannath.
• Apart from it, many other secular varieties are also produced.
• Puri district village of Raghurajpur is known for the maximum number of Pattachutea artists.
• During Rathayatra inside the Garbhagria Pattachitra is installed-Ansara Patti.
• Kalighat painting (West Bengal)
• Emerged from Calcutta and its style was a mixture of European and folk traditions.
• It followed a subaltern theme in the paintings which means the depiction of hardships of marginalized
sections of society.
• It also depicts their ways of entertainment and religious life.
• Pabu ji ki Phad painting (Rajasthan)
• It was practised by pastoral communities. 
• These paintings are based on the life of the legendary warrior Pabu Ji.
Bhakti and Sufi tradition (09:56AM)
• The Bhakti tradition of India can be traced back to the Gupta period.
• during this period concept of Bhakti superseded the idea of sacrifice.
• The real beginning of the bhakti movement in India started in the 7th century AD in Tamilnadu.
• Two types of saints emerged in this area known as Alwars and Nayanaras.
• Alawars were devotees of lord Vishnu and started to compose simple poems known as Prabnadham and
Prabandh Kavya in praise of lord Vishnu.
• Nayanars were devotees of lord shiva and they started to compose simple poems in Tamil known as
Tevarams and Tewacrams in praise of lord shiva
• They popularised the Bhakti movement and Tamil language in the southern part of India.
• In the 8th Century AD, Adishankara was born in Kerala.
• He emerged as one of the most profound figures from Hinduism who defended Hinduism on an intellectual
basis.
• He propounded the philosophy of Advaithvedant.
• In the 11th century, CE Shri Ramanujcharya popularised the bhakti movement.
• Later the disciples of popularised bhakti in different parts of the country.
Veersaiva and Lingayat tradition (10:05 AM)
• It was initiated by a person known as Basvannah in the 12th century AD.
• He was a devotee of lord shiva and believed that lord shiva is the ultimate reality.
• They believed at the time of death body gets united with lord shiva
• They refuted the authority of Veda and followed practices that were different from mainstream society.
• For example-
• Lingayats don't cremate their dead instead they bury them.
• They brought a progressive reform movement in society whereby they favoured widow remarriage and
post-puberty marriage.
• In their cadre, they promote people from all walks of life including untouchables and women
• Bhakti Tradition in Maharashtra-
• In between 16t and 17th centuries, a profound Bhakti tradition was instituted in the state of Maharashtra 
• Due to the efforts of bhakti saints like Gyandevm, Namdev, and Tukaram and they believed in the
Vithibha god.
• They initiated a progressive movement that was free from caste, creed, religion, and gender.
• Life of Tukaram/he belongs to the shudra section of society breaking the injunctions of orthodox society
he started to write on Hindu religious matters but in the Marathi language
• He had to face the anger of the orthodox members of society who threw his books in a nearby river
• In this scenario, he decided to observe fast until death
• On the 13th day of his epic fast mysteriously all his books reappeared in the river 
• it became an example to emulate that the devotion of Bhakti to Tukaram was pure and undeterred.
• Bhakti in North India-
• by the 9th century, CE Bhajti tradition was consolidated in north and northwest India.
• By this time two streams of bhakti emerged in this part of the country-
• Nirguna bhakti-
• The adherence to Nirguna bhakti in one formless and shapeless god 
• They popularised the idea of Nirankar 
• Kabir was one of the foremost people associated with Nirguna bhakti
• The sayings of Kabir were compiled by his disciples in Bijak and Kabir Granthavali.
• The Dohas of Kabir are full of wisdom, practicality in rational values
• Another important personality in this was Gurunanak.
• He popularised the ideas of Nirankars through his saying which are compiled as Shabad.
• The adherence of Saguna bhakti believed in the human form of the God with special attributes for
example- 10 reincarnations of lord Vishnu
• For example, a large number of bhakti saints emerged in north India which po+
Sufi movement (11:15 AM)
• It was derived from the word Suff (a piece of woollen cloth)
• In the early centuries with the establishment of Islam, it was hijacked by Islamic theologians who
developed their way of interpreting the holy Quran and the Hadid.
• they devised their scholastic method and dogmatic approach.
• Sufis claim that they had an unbroken special chain of connectivity with the Alkahm prophet and this
unbroken chain came to be known as silsila
• Silsila came to be known as the Sufi hospice known as Khanqah in which Guru Shihsya tradition is
followed.
• The master of Khanqah was known as Shaikh, Khwajah, or peers and disciples known as Murid.
• the first Silsilah who came to India was Chistiya.
• Khwaja Mouinissin chisthi was forst saint of this silsilah in India
• he made his base at Ajmer and he was popularly known as Garib Nawaz
• he started the community food service -' Langar
• the next was Baba Farid- Farid-Uddin-Ganj+
• his teaching was incorporated into the holy text of Sikhism Guru Granth saheb
• the next important Sufi saint was Nizamuddin Aulia of Delhi
• it is said that he was highly anti to the policies of the Delhi Sultans and though he has seen the rule of
the 7 Delhi sultans he never paid any visit to them.
• Nasiruddin was the last important Chistiya saint in Delhi and he was often regarded as the land of Delhi.
 • Suhrawardy Silsila
• The First Sufi of this tradition was Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria.
• As opposed to Chistiya they accepted the official positions in the Delhi sultanate.
• As such Iltutmish gave him the title of sheikh -ul-Islam means leader of Islam.
• Based on the belief in Islamic law Shariat there were two types of Sufi.
• Bashara believed in Shariat.
• Beshara does not believe in Shariat.
Traditional theatre (11:40 AM)
• 1)Bhandh pather (Jammu and Kashmir)
• It is a traditional folk theatre form performed by Bhandh i.e, folk entertainers.
• 2)Swang-
• Rohtak and Hathras Swang, are mundane activities with entertainment.
• t is also a satire on society with dialogue based on Doha and Chaupai of Hindu religious literature.
• 3)Nautanki (UP)
• 4)Ras Leela (UP)- Love affairs of Lord Krishna
• 5)Ramlila – UP, Awadh, Theme life story of Lord Rama.
• 6)Maach -MP,
• The theme is based on gossip between ladies about their Mother-in-law
• 7)Pandavani- Chhattisgarh, the theme is based on the Story of Pandavas and Allah and Udal
• 8)Bhavai-gujast
• it is devotional Theatre specially performed during Navratri
• 9)Bhaona-Assam
• Presenting Ankia-nat of Assam
• 10)Jatra-. West Bengal
• Fairs are organized in honour of God.
• It was initiated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and its performance also included Keertan
• 11)Yakshgana (Karnataka)-
• Episodes from Mahabharat.
• 12)Dasavatar-Goa
• 10 incarnations o lord Vishnu.
• 13)Theyyum (Kerala)-
• Derived from the Sanskrit word Daivam (divine).
• theme-stories based on Hindu mythology
• 14)Krisnattam(Kerala)
• Guruvayur temple
• 15)Ramanathan (Kerala)
• In Thrissur
• It's an 8-night-long play based on the life of lord Rama
• 16)Koothiiyattam (Kerala)
• It is the oldest surviving traditional theatre of Kerala and India. the theme is devotional.
• 17)Muddiyattu from Kerala –
• Triumph goddess Bhadra kali over Asurdarika.
• 18)Therkoothu-
• The theme is the life story of Draupadi.
• It is performed to please the rain goddess Mariamman