Biology and Basic Science

Food and Nutrition
Nutrients
• These are substances in our food that are essential for providing us with
energy and acting as building blocks for repair and growth
• Macronutrients:
• These nutrients are needed by the body in a larger amount and form the
greater part of our food
• Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
• Micronutrients
• These are nutrients which body needs in smaller amounts and form the lesser
part of our diet
• Vitamins and mineral
Carbohydrates
• Naturally occurring organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen
• They are found in our food and can be broken down to release energy
• Types of Carbohydrate
• 1)Monosaccharide-
• It is the simplest form of carbohydrate-containing a single unit
• Examples:
• Glucose: Glucose is the simplest form of energy
• Fructose
• Galactose: is a component of milk sugar
• 2) Oligosaccharide-
• When 2-10 monosaccharide units are joined together by glycosidic bond
oligosaccharides are formed
• Examples:
• Sucrose=1 unit of glucose+1 unit of Fructose
• Lactose=Glucose + Galactose
• Maltose= 2 units of glucose
• Found is a malt syrup
• 3) Polysaccharide-
• When more than 10 units of monosaccharides combine
• The joining bond between units is called a Glycosidic bond
• Examples:
• Starch-storage product of glucose in plants
• Glycogen- storage product of glucose in plants
• Cellulose-found in the cell wall, present only in plant cells
Protein
• These are nitrogenous organic compounds(C, H, O, N ) which have long
chains of Amino Acids joined together by a peptide bond
• Types of protein-
• 1)Globular protein
• Amino acid chains are coiled in a spherical shape and they perform
various functions in the body
• Example:
• Some hormones like Insulin
• Blood plasma protein
• Enzymes- they are biocatalysts that help in different reactions in the body
• 2)Fibrous protein
• Amino acid chains run in a linear pattern
• And they form the structure of different parts of the body
• Example:
• Collagen-skin
• Myosin-muscle
• Alpha keratin-Hair, Nails
Lipids
• Lipids are organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
• Triglyceride is the main form in which fats are stored in the body
• It is made of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol joined by Ester bonds
• Types of fatty acid
• 1)saturated
• No double bond
• Ghee, cheese, etc.
• Coconut oil
• 2)unsaturated
• Double bond
• Types:
• i)Monounsaturated(MUFA)
• it has one double bond
• Example:
• most of the plant sources
• olive oil
• sesame oil
• avocado
• ii)Polyunsaturated(PUFA)
• it has more than one double bond
• Example:
• walnuts
• fish oil
• flax seeds and chia seeds
Transfats
• Unsaturated fatty acids which are partially hydrogenated to change to a solid form
• Example:
• Vanaspati ghee
• Fried food
• certain bakery products
Vitamins
• Vitamins are micronutrients that are needed in smaller quantities for the proper functioning
of an organism.
• Most of the vitamins can not be synthesized in our body so have to be incorporated as a part
of our diet.
• Types of vitamins:
• Water soluble-Vitamin B and C
• fat-soluble-Vitamin A, D, E, and K
Vitamin B complex:
Vitamin B1:
• Thiamine
• It is found in milk, Peanuts, Cereal.
• It helps in carbohydrate metabolism in the body.
• Its deficiency can cause indigestion and even severe conditions like heart enlargement and
heart failure, Berry Berry disease (retarded growth).
Vitamin B2:
• Riboflavin
• Sources:
• Milk, Curd, Green vegetables, Yeast.
• It is needed for cellular respiration
• Its deficiency causes a condition called Cheilosis-
• It is the development of cracks at the corner of the mouth.
Vitamin B12-
• Cyanocobalamine.
• It is formed by the bacteria present in our intestines.
• Sources:
• Meat, fish, and eggs.
• It is needed for the formation of Haemoglobin and its deficiency results in a pernicious
Anaemia.
Vitamin C:
• Ascorbic acid.
• Sources:
• Citrus fruits
• Anwala
• It helps to maintain the immunity of the body.
• Its deficiency causes Scurvy-
• which is seen as bleeding gums and pain in joints and muscles.
Vitamin A:
• Retinol.
• Sources:
• Fish liver oil, Carrots,
• It is needed for maintaining the health of your eyes and skin.
• Its deficiency can cause night blindness.
Vitamin D:
• Calciferol.
• Source
• it is produced in the skin on exposure to sunlight.
• It helps in the absorption of calcium in the bones.
• Its deficiency causes Rickets in children.
Vitamin E:
• Tocopherol.
• Source:
• Vegetable oil.
• Its deficiency causes muscle weakness and in severe cases, it also results in reduced fertility in males.
Vitamin K:
• Phylloquinone
• Sources:
• Green leafy vegetables,
• It helps in the clotting of blood.
• Its deficiency results in increased clotting time.
Minerals
• These are inorganic in nature as no carbon is present.
• Minerals are divided into 2 types:
• i)Macro Minerals:
• Those needed in more quantity
• Example:
• Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Chloride, Potassium, Sulphur
• ii)Micro minerals:
• Those needed in lesser quantity. Eg. Iron, Iodine, Fluorine, Zinc, Copper.
Calcium:
• Sources:
• Milk and milk products, Green beans.
• Needed for:
• Teeth, Bones, and Muscles.
• Deficiency results in:
• Rickets, weak bones, and bad muscle movements.
Magnesium
• Sources:
• Nuts, seeds, and green leafy vegetables.
• poor muscle coordination.
Sodium
• Sources:
• able salt
• needed for:
• Muscle movements and maintaining fluid balance in the body.
• fluid imbalance, dehydration, and extreme body weakness
Potassium
• Sources:
• Most fruits and vegetables.
• Muscle weakness.
Phosphorus
• Sources:
• Pulses, Cereals, and Milk.
• Weaker teeth and bones.
Chlorine
• Sources:
• common table salt.
• Fluid imbalance and Dehydration
Sulfur
• Sources:
• Onion, Garlic, Meat.
• Protein deficiency.
Zinc
• Sources:
• Chia seeds, Meat, Fish.
• It is important for helping the enzyme function.
• It also helps the immune system.
• Deficiency results in varied symptoms like Diarrhea and hair loss.
• Treatment for diarrhea which is given is ORS and zinc tablets
Fluorine
• source:
• Drinking water
• Prevents teeth decay called caries
Copper
• Sources:
• Pulses, nuts, and seeds.
• Important for the functioning of various enzymes.
• Deficiency results in a low WBCs count.
Iron
• Sources:
• Red meat, Pulses, Pumpkin, Spinach.
• Deficiency results in Hemoglobin found in RBCs and this hemoglobin contains iron.
• So if less iron is there then it leads to less hemoglobin, which further leads to
anemia.
Iodine
• Sources:
• seafood and iodized table salt (Common salt i.e Sodium chloride fortified with
iodine).
• Deficiency results in Iodine making up the thyroid hormone.
• If iodine is deficient then there will be a deficiency of thyroid hormone and will
result in a goiter.
Cell Biology
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life
Different types of organisms:
1)Unicellular organisms:
• These contain only a single cell that performs all the life processes.
• Example:
• Amoeba
• Euglena
• paramecium
• bacteria
2)Multicellular organisms:
• Organisms that consist of more than one cell.
• The different cells can become specialized for different functions, all of
which coordinate to make life possible in an organism.
• Example:
• human beings, plants insects
Viruses
• Viruses contain their own genetic material (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat
but lack the enzymes for energy production
• they can grow and replicate only inside the living cell of another organism
• they can infect plants, animals, and even microorganisms
• Sources: NCERT Class 6th 2nd chapter
Classification of organisms
i)Prokaryotic:
• the unicellular organism which lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and cell
organelle
• genetic material which is DNA is circular and is found in the nucleoid region
• example:
• Bacteria
• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green Algae)
ii)Eukaryotic
• They can be unicellular or multicellular
• They have a membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelle
• Genetic material that is DNA is linear and is organized in the form of rod-
like structures called chromosomes
• Example:
• Plant
• Animals
• Fungi
Components of the cell:
Cell membrane:
• The biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the
outside environment
• Made up of phospholipids
Cell wall
• It is the structural layer surrounding the plasma membrane or cell
membrane in certain types of cells to provide support and protection
• Plant: Cellulose
• Bacteria: Peptidoglycan
• Fungi: chitin
Cytoplasm
• Nucleus:
• It is the controlling center of all activities of the cell
• Generally spherical in shape and is located in the center of the cell
• It contains genetic material in from of chromosomes
Cytoplasm:
• Consist of all components of cell enclosed within the cell membrane other
than the nucleus
Protoplasm:
• It is the living part of the cell which includes the cell nucleus and the
cytoplasm
Ribosomes:
• Sites for the production of protein in the cells
• They can be found freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum(ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER):
• It is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets which act as
channels of transport between different parts of the cell
• Rough ER:
• Contains attached ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis
• Smooth ER:
• Does not contain attached ribosomes and is involved in the manufacture of
fats
Golgi body
• Membrane-bound structures which package and dispatch different
materials inside and outside the cell
Mitochondria
• It has its own DNA and performs cellular respiration
• This leads to the production of energy making it ‘Powerhouse Of Cells’
Lysosome
• Contains a powerful digestive enzyme that can digest any foreign material
as well as worn out cell organelle
• It can also digest whole damaged cells by releasing its enzymes into the
cytoplasm
• It is thus called “Suicide Bags of Cell”
Vacuoles:
• They are the storage structures that can be present in the form of a single
large structure in the case of a plant cell and multiple small structures in the
case of an animal cell
• Vacuoles in plants provide the pressure which holds the plasma
membrane against the cell wall.
Plastids:
• Pigment containing organelle found only in plants
• They have their own DNA
• They are of three types-
• i)Chloroplasts:
• Found in green parts of the plant like leaves
• Pigment: chlorophyll
• ii)Chromoplasts
• found in colored parts of the plants like flowers and fruits.
• iii)Leucoplasts
• They are white to colorless because of the presence of starch, oil, or
proteins.
Difference between the plant cells and the animal cells:

Animal Plant
Contain
Contain the
only cell
cell wall
membrane.
multiple
Single large
small
vacuole
vacuoles
Chloroplast
s (Plastids)
Not found
in the plant
cells only.
central Peripheral
nucleus nucleus
Glycogen Starch
Kingdom Classification
• 1)Prokaryote (Monera):
• They are prokaryotic, unicellular.
• Examples: Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.
• 2)Protista:
• They are prokaryotic, unicellular.
• Example: Amoeba, Euglena
• They are also called Protozoa.
• 3)Fungi:
• They are eukaryotic, both unicellular or multicellular.
• Example: Yeast, Edible Mushrooms.
• 4)Plants:
• Eukaryotic, multicellular.
• 5)Animals:
• Eukaryotic, multicellular.
Mode of nutrition
• Autotrophic:
• Those who make their own food.
• Heterotrophic:
• Those who feed on others.
• Saprotrophic:
• Feed on dead and decaying matter.
• digest the food outside
• Detrivores:
• are heterotrophic
• they eat/consume the food and digest it inside
1)Animal Kingdom:
• i)Porifera
• the non-mobile animal which contains pores
• Example: Sponges
• ii)Coelenterata:
• They are usually found attached to the bottom of the rocks
• Also called Cnidaria
• Examples:
• Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals
Worms:
• i)Platyhelminthes
• Flatworms:
• They have a flattened body from top to bottom
• They are hermaphrodites:
• because the sexes are not separate
• Examples:
• Tapeworms, Liver fluke, Tinea Solium
• ii)Aschelminthesis:
• Roundworms or Nematodes:
• Their body is circular in cross-section and the sexes are separate
• Examples:
• Filarial worm, Guinea worm, Hookworm, Ascaris.
• Annelida:
• They are segmented worms.
• Examples:
• Earthworm and Leeches
Arthropoda:
• They have a hard exoskeleton.
• Three groups-
• i)Insects:
• Ants, Cockroaches, bees, wasps.
• ii)Arachnids:
• Spider, Scorpion, Ticks, Mites.
• iii)Crustaceans:
• Crabs, Prawns, lobsters
• Mollusca:
• They are aquatic animals.
• Examples:
• Snails, Octopus, Oysters
• Echinodermata:
• It has a calcified endoskeleton(Internal skeleton)
• Example:
• Starfish, Sea cucumber, Sea Lily
• Chordata:
Vertebrates:
• Organisms or animals that have backbones.
• Fish-Pisces:
• shark, catfish, seahorse, salmon
• Amphibians:
• Frogs, Salamander.
• Reptiles:
• Turtles, Snakes, Crocodiles.
• Birds
• pelicans, Great Indian Bustard, Siberian crane
• Mammals:
• dolphin, whale, pangolin, Dugong(sea cow)
HEALTH And DISEASES

Definition:
• Health is the complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing of an individual and not merely
the absence of disease
Diseases:
• Types-
1)Congenital:
• any abnormality in structure or function of a person which is present right from the time of
birth
• Example:
• Congenital heart disease
• Cleft lip
2)Acquired diseases
• which is not present at the time of birth but develops at a later stage of life of an organism
• Two Types-
• i)Communicable or infectious
• caused by a disease-causing organism called pathogens
• malaria, dengue, Covid 19
• a)Contagious:
• Direct Contact
• Chickenpox
• Covid 19
• b)Non-contagious:
• AIDS, Tetanus, Malaria
ii)Non-communicable/Non-infectious diseases:
• Not caused by pathogens but by lifestyle or environmental factors
• 1)Cardiovascular diseases- which involve your heart- hypertension, heart
attack,
• 2)Respiratory Diseases: Asthma
• 3)Deficiency Diseases: due to Vitamins and mineral deficiency
• 4)Mental Disorder: Anxiety, bipolar disease, depression
• 5)Environmental Diseases: Minamata Diseases (Due to mercury),
Silicosis(Silica)
• 6)Cancer:
• It is the uncontrollable cell division that can lead to an abnormal tissue growth
• Causes:
• Genetic defect
• Lifestyle:
• Sedentary, Alcohol, smoking
• Radiations:
• Natural-UV Ray
• Nuclear accidents like Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Idiopathic (cause unknown)
• Cancer cells that remain localized to a particular organ and do not spread are
called a Benign tumor
• Cancer cells that invade and destroy surrounding tissue are called Malignant
cancers
• Treatment:
• Surgical, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy.
Communicable diseases:
• How they speared:
• Vectors:
• organisms that do not cause disease itself but spread the infection by taking
pathogens from one organism to another
• Mechanical vectors:
• carry the pathogen on the surface of their bodies and transmit via physical
contact
• cockroach
• Biological vectors:
• carry the pathogen within their bodies and transmit via biting the person
• mosquitoes, like Dengue and chikungunya
• Zoonotic
• Rabies, Swine flu, plague, etc.
Different Modes of Transmission:
• Air: Tuberculosis
• water: typhoid
• Food: Amoebiasis
• Soil: Hookworm
• blood and bodily fluids: HIV/AIDS
• Direct contact: chickenpox
• Zoonotic: Rabies
• Vector
• Fomite (transmission through a non-living thing): common cold, Covid, etc.
Different types of communicable diseases
1) Bacterial diseases
• TB, Leprosy, Typhoid, Tetanus, Cholera
• Tuberculosis:
• Bacteria: Mycobacterial Tuberculosis
• Most of the time it affects the lungs called PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS
• Also, it can affect parts of the body other than the lungs like the Brain, bones, intestine
it’s called EXTRA-PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS
• Symptoms-
• Persistent Cough for more than 15 days
• Afternoon fever (maximum bacterial activity in the afternoon)
• Weight loss
• Blood-stained sputum
• Night sweats
• Antibiotics:
• Destroys bacteria
• Drug therapy:
• Dosage
• Frequency
• Duration
• Antibiotic Resistance:
• The bacteria has now become something that antibiotic is not able to kill it
• Standard treatments become ineffective and infections persist and may spread to
others.
• Causes:
• a)Naturally
• b)Self-medication-
• Incomplete courses
• Over usage
• c)Food mainly animal products
• d)Water pollution
• Anti-microbial resistance:
• It is the ability of a pathogen like bacteria, viruses, plasmodium to stop an anti-microbial
drug/medicine from working against it
• Standard treatment becomes ineffective
• Infections persist and may spread to others
• It can occur naturally or through misuse of drug therapy
• Acute diseases:
• Severe
• Short duration
• For example most the infectious and communicable diseases
• Chronic diseases
• Mild
• Long term
• Example: diabetes
2)Protozoans Diseases
• Malaria:
• Pathogen-
• Plasmodium
• Two varieties-
• i) Plasmodium Vivax
• ii) Plasmodium Falciparum
• Vector: Female Anopheles mosquito
• Cycle:
• First infected mosquito(Plasmodium)-->First infected person-->infected lever cells (growth of
plasmodium)-->infected RBC (multiplying plasmodium)-->RBC burst-->Release of plasmodium--> high-
grade intermittent fever
• infected RBC (multiplying plasmodium)-->second infected mosquito-->second, infected person
3)Fungal Diseases
• i)Candidiasis-Candida Alba
• ii)Ringworm
• iii)Athlete's foot
Helminthic diseases
• Ascariasis- Ascaris
• Taeniasis- Taemia Solium
• Lymphatic Filariasis- Filarial Worm
• Hookworm infection
Viral diseases-
• Hepatitis
• Chickenpox
• Polio
• Dengue
• Zika
• Chikungunia
• AIDS
• Coronavirus-
• RNA virus
• SARS
• MERS
• Covid-19
Hepatitis:
• Inflammation of liver
• Pathogen: Hepatitis Virus
• Symptoms:
• Pain
• Swelling
• Redness
• Loss of function
• Increased temperature
• 5 types of Hepatitis:
• Hepatitis A-Food and water
• Hepatitis B-Body fluids
• Hepatitis C-Blood
• Hepatitis D-Only with Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis E-Food and water
• Note: As of now Hepatitis C still remains with no vaccination available
IMMUNITY
• It is the balance state of an organism having adequate biological defenses to fight infection,
disease, and provide tolerance to avoid allergy
• Different types of Immunity:
• Innate Immunity-non specific
• Acquired or Adaptive Immunity-specific
• 1)Innate Immunity:
• It is the non-specific response that is activated immediately on exposure to a pathogen forming
the first line of defense of the body.
• Physical barriers:
• skin
• mucous membrane,
• Chemical barriers:
• Tears
• Saliva
• HCl in the stomach,
• Cellular defenses:
• Neutrophils
• Monocytes(WBC)
2)Acquired/Adaptive Immunity
• It is the specific immune response that is developed on exposure of the immune system against any
unwanted agents
• It is slower than innate immunity
• Lymphocytes( WBCs)-
• All lymphocyte cells are formed in the bone marrow (soft tissue in the long bones)
• B-Cells-
• Antibodies production
• called "Antibody-mediated immune response"
• T -Cells-
• Mature in the Thymus gland
• destroys the foreign particle directly called "cell-mediated immune response"
• Phagocytosis
• Antigen and Antibody-
• Antigen:
• it is an agent which triggers an immune response
• Antibody:
• It is the protein produced as a response to antigen
• Phagocytosis:
• It is a process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle and then digest it
• First: Antigent -->B Cells-->Antibody-->Slow and low intensity
• Second: Antigens(same)-->Immunological memory -->High intensity and fast
Vaccination
• It is a process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease typically by
the stimulation of the body's own immune system
• when the body encounters an antigen for the first time a slow and low-intensity production of
antibodies takes place by the B cells\
• B-Cells however remains sensitized because of immunological memory
• any subsequent attacks by the same antigen are thus met with a fast high-intensity response
• This is the rationale for the production of vaccination.
• Types of vaccines:
• 1)Live Attenuated vaccine:
• The pathogen is disabled so that it does not cause the disease but retains its capacity to grow
• For example:
• BCG
• MMR
• Oral Polio
• 2)Inactivated killed vaccines
• pathogens are killed but proteins present are still able to create an immune response
• example:
• Influenza
• COVAXIN
• Injectible polio
• 3)Subunit vaccine:
• It uses specific parts like protein in the vaccine
• Example:
• Whooping Cough, Tetanus
• Nucleic acid Vaccine:
• DNA and RNA vaccine
• 4)Conjugate Vaccine:
• when more than one antigens are given in a vaccine
• Example:
• Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
Adaptive Immunity:
• It is the specific immune response that is developed against a pathogen. It is slower than innate
immunity.
• Active Immunity:
• It results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the antigen,
• Example:
• Natural active Immunity in case of infection
• Artificial Active Immunity in case of vaccination
• Passive Immunity:
• In this Immunity, the antibodies are administered from outside to protect against a particular antigen
• Example:
• Natural through mother's milk
• Artificial through antisnake venom
Digestive system
• The word digestion means to break down the food into simpler forms and then the body is able to use it.
• For digestion purposes, we have digestive enzymes.
• Enzymes and their secretion in the body parts through:
• Salivary Gland:
• The first contact of the food in the mouth with the saliva.
• The saliva has an enzyme called Amylase and this amylase is for breaking down carbohydrates in the
mouth.
Esophagus:
• It is a connecting pipe for food transfer between the mouth and stomach.
• In Esophagus, no digestion takes place.
Stomach:
• After breaking down, the food will go to the stomach.
• And to do this process we have a pipe called Esophagus or food pipe.
• In Esophagus, no digestion takes place. It is just a connecting pipe.
• The stomach produces gastric juice.
• The term gastric is associated with the stomach.
• The stomach contains HCl and an enzyme called Protease which breaks down proteins.
Sphincters:
• Sphincters are the band of muscles, which help to close the stomach while it (stomach) is digesting food.
Small Intestine
• The food goes to the small intestine.
• The small intestine is the longest of the digestive system.
• It is called the small intestine due to lesser thickness as compared to the Large Intestine.
• It has three juices coming one has its own and for other two, one from pancreas & one from the liver.
• It has bile juices too.
• Intestinal juice contains various enzymes to break down carbohydrates & proteins.
• Peptidase enzymes for proteins.
• Sucrase, Maltase, and Lactase enzymes for carbohydrates.
• When all the foods are broken down in the small intestine then they will go to the blood which is needed
for different parts of blood.
• Nutrients are absorbed into the blood and then blood supplies these nutrients in different parts of the
body.
• The small intestine has a very rich blood supply.
Liver:
• The liver is very important for fat digestion.
• But the liver does not contain any fat digestive enzymes.
• The liver produces bile juice which helps in the digestion of fats.
• But bile does not have enzymes.
• These biles are produced and get stored in an organ called the gall bladder.
Gall Bladder:
• The biles get stored in the gall bladder.
• And it releases to the Small Intestine.
• The gall bladder does not produce anything on its own.
Pancreas:
• It gives us pancreatic juice.
• And pancreatic juice has enzymes for all three micro-nutrients.
• The pancreatic enzyme has Protease for protein, Lipase for fats, and Amylase for carbohydrates.
• Pancreatic juice is created in the pancreas and it moves to the small intestine.
large Intestine:
• Undigested waste/things (including fiber, cellulose, etc) that are not broken down and excess water
go to the large intestine from the small intestine.
• And the further remaining things/wastes go out from the body in form of waste through the anus.
The respiratory system:
• The process of the respiratory system is energy production.
• Nutrients will be utilized for energy production.
• Glucose is the main nutrient used for energy production.
• And that process of producing energy is called respiration.
• There are two parts to respiration: a. Cellular respiration and b. gaseous exchange.
• Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell because it produces energy and this energy through
cellular respiration.
• Cellular respiration: Each and every cell produces its own energy. In this, we study how fats are
producing energy in our body.
• Glucose + O2 = CO2 + water + energy.
• In the above process, O2 is the main agent: Aerobic respiration.
• In Anaerobic process (absence of O2):
• Glucose = Ethanol + energy. Examples of organisms like bacteria, yeast.
• Fermentation also occurs due to Anaerobic respiration.
• One more situation of the anaerobic process is when a body faces a shortage (ie. insufficiency) of O2
and in this case:
• Glucose = Ethanol + energy.
• The above reaction is unique to the muscle cells of our body. Eg: cases of rigorous exercise, long-
time mechanical work, etc.
• Then the lactic acid gets deposited in the muscle cells.
• That is why we have sometimes muscle cramps.
• In photosynthesis, plants take CO2 & water from the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight and
they will produce their own food (glucose) along with O2 being given out.
• Reaction: CO2 + H2O = Glucose + O2.
• Gaseous exchange in our body:
• Air from the outside goes to the Nasal Cavity.
• From the Nasal cavity, it comes to the region called Pharynx.
• After Pharynx, we have the Larynx which is the voice box.
• From here the air goes down in the lungs through the windpipe or Trachea.
• The Trachea divides into two parts called Bronchi and further bronchi divided into bronchioles.
• And bronchioles finally end in air sacs called Alveoli.
• So, the process of the sequence: Trachea- Bronchi- Bronchioles- Alveoli.
• This alveolus is the place where the air is exchanged.
• The Alveoli have a very rich supply of blood.
• In the blood, there are red blood cells, which have hemoglobin (which has a very high affinity for
oxygen).
• Oxygen gets attached to hemoglobin and then this oxygen gets transferred in all the bodies through
blood.
• In every cell, the process of respiration takes place now.
Process of excretory system:
• The process of removal of wastes is called excretion.
• Removal of wastes and regulation of water are important processes in the excretory system.
• The water is also excreted in waste during this process.
• The kidney filters out the waste and the rest of the things are sent to the body back.
• The waste and water are removed from the body in form of urine.
• The basic unit is Nephrons.
• Nephrons are two: a. Bomen's capsule and b. Glomerulus.
• In Urine:- Urea (composition: 2.5%); other wastes (2.5%) and water (95%).
Nervous system:
• Central nervous system.
• Peripheral nervous system:
• There are two types of nerves under the Peripheral nervous system: a. Sensory nerves and b.
Motor nerves.
• Sensory nerves are those which take signals to the central nervous system.
• Motor nerves take signals from the central nervous system.
Circulatory system:
• It contains blood, blood vessels, and a pumping organ (heart).
• There are two main types of blood vessels: a. Arteries and b. Veins.
• Arteries:
• Arteries carrier blood away from the heart.
• Arteries are deep-seated and thick-walled.
• They are reddish in color.
• Veins:
• Veins carry blood towards the
• Veins are superficial and also thin-walled.
• They are bluish-green in color.
• Hearts:
• The lower chambers are called ventricles.
• Double circulation in the heart:
• Right Ventricle-De-oxygenated blood to Lungs-oxygenated blood to left Auricle-Left ventricle-
oxygenated blood to the body (except lungs)-De-oxygenated blood to Right Auricle-Right Auricle.
• An artery carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery.
• A Vein carries de-oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein.
Parts of the blood:
• There are two parts: a. Plasma and b. Cells
• Plasma (liquid part):
• It contains three blood plasma proteins.
• Albumin protein: It helps in maintaining the pressure of the blood
• Globulin protein: It helps to provide a defense mechanism to the body.
• Fibronectin protein: This helps in the clotting of blood.
• Cells:
• Red-blood cells:
• It contains hemoglobin which transports oxygen in the body.
• As hemoglobin contains iron and hence the color of blood is red.
• Platelets:
• These are for clotting of blood.
• White Blood cells (WBCs):
• White blood cells are also called leukocytes.
• They protect us against illness and disease.
• They flow through your bloodstream to fight viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders that
threaten your health.
• Agranulocytes:
• They do not contain pigment-containing granules in the cytoplasm.
• Lymphocytes:
• A type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and is found in the blood and in lymph
tissue.
• A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell.
• Granulocytes:
• They have pigment-containing granules in their cytoplasm.
• Granulocytes are three types: Neutrophils, Basophils, and Eosinophils
• Neutrophils:
• They are involved in innate immunity.
• Basophils:
• They are involved in inflammation.
• Eosinophils:
• They are involved in allergic reactions.

Blood groups:
• Antigen:
• It stimulates the immune system.
• On the surface RBCs, antigens are found which will determine ABO type.
• If antigen A is present on the RBCs then it will be called blood group A.
• If antigen B is present on the RBCs then it will be called blood group B.
• If sometimes both the antigens A and B are present on the RBCs then it will be called blood group
AB.
• If no antigen is present on the RBCs then it will be called the blood group O.
• Antibody:
• Antibodies are produced in the plasma of blood.
• Antibodies are produced to destroy antigens.
• Two types of categorization of blood. a. ABO type and b. Rh type.
• Rh antigen is also called the determining the blood group.
• Two types: positive and negative.
• If Rh is present then blood is positive.
• For the negative blood group, there will be no antigen.
• Blood transfusion:
• The transfer of blood from one person to another.
• Matching needs to be there for blood transfer.
• Blood group O has no antigen.
• Blood group AB has no antibody.
• A person who has O negative (universal donor) can donate blood any type of blood.
Hormones:
• Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries them
to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions.
• The endocrine system is meant for internal communication and regulation of the human body.
• Hormones are secretions of the endocrine glands which do not have ducts and secrets directly
into the blood to be transported to distantly located target hormones.
• Hypothalamus:
• It is a part of the brain (or the limbic system).
• It has a vital role in controlling many bodily functions including the release of hormones from the
pituitary gland.
• Releasing hormones stimulates the release of secretion of the pituitary gland.
• Pituitary gland:
• It has two parts: a. Anterior and b. Posterior.
• Anterior pituitary gland:
• It is the growth hormone and it is for the growth & development of a person.
• Prolactin hormone for the formation of milk.
• Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH): It stimulates the release of hormones from the thyroid
gland.
• Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH): It stimulates the secretions from the adrenal glands.
• Luteinizing hormones (LH): It stimulates the secretions of sex hormones from the gonads.
• Follicle-stimulating hormones(FSH): It is needed for the growth & development of sperms & eggs.
• Posterior Pituitary gland:
• Two hormones: a. Oxytocin b. Vasopressin or ADH.
• Oxytocin is released during childbirth.
• Vessopresin or Anti-Diuretic hormones(ADH): This helps in the reabsorption of the water and
minerals from the kidneys. It is diabetes insipidus.
• Thyroid gland:
• The hormone is called thyroid hormone or thyroxine.
• Thyroxine is associated with the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
• Hypothyroidism: Less thyroxine is being produced.
• Hyperthyroidism: This thyroid has extra hormones. Extra metabolism functioning.
• Para-thyroid:
• The hormone is called parathyroid hormone.
• It is associated with the metabolism of calcium and phosphate.
• When the amount of calcium is reduced and then increases in the amount of phosphate (inverse
relationship).
• Adrenal Gland:
• This gland is also called the emergency gland.
• The gland has two hormones.
• Glucocorticoid or Cortisol is involved with carbohydrate metabolism.
• Mineralocorticoid or Aldosterone: It regulates the balance of water and minerals in the body.
• Adrenaline: It produces two emergency hormones namely epinephrine and norepinephrine and these
two are released by the body during stress, anxiety, fear, and extreme excitement, etc
• These two hormones work together.
• Pancreas:
• It is the mixed gland (both exocrine and endocrine).
• Its two hormones are Insulin and Glucagon.
• Insulin will reduce the blood glucose level.
• Glucagon increases the blood glucose level.
• In Diabetes Miletus (insulin decreases and blood sugar increases).
Genetics:
• DNA: De-Oxyribose nucleic acid
• RNA: Ribose Nucleic Acid
Nucleic Acid:
• They form the genetic material of all life forms and are responsible for the transfer of traits from parents
to offsprings
• It is made up of 3 things:
• i)Pentose sugar
• ii)Phosphate group
• ii)Nitrogenous bases:
• These are of two types-
• a)Purine:
• Adenine(A)
• Guanine(G)
• b)Pyrimidine
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine(T)
• Uracil (U)
• DNA has: A, G, C, T
• RNA has: A, G, C, U
• Purine has complimenting relationship with Pyrimidine too:
• A=T
• G Triple bond C
• DNA is Double-stranded
• RNA is Single-stranded
• Note: Exceptions of each is also found
DNA
• In the structure of DNA nitrogenous bases pair up into strands that have a sugar and phosphate
backbone
• This structure of the two strands twists together into a spiral form forming the double Helix DNA
structure
• Segments of DNA tell the individual cells how to produce specific proteins
• Gene:
• It is a segment of DNA Segments of DNA tell the individual cells how to produce specific proteins
• These segments are called genes
• Gene expression:
• It is the presence or absence of specific proteins that give an organism its characteristics
• Transcription:
• passing on information from DNA to mRNA (In nucleus)
• Translation: mRNA to the production of Protein (In Ribosome/Cytoplasm)
Virus:
• DNA
• RNA:-
• Retrovirus
• Non-Retrovirus
• RNA------>DNA (Reverse Transcription)
• RT-PCR: Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (1:43 PM)
• Covid-19-RNA Virus
• The enzyme used: Transcriptase
Chromosomes:
• Haploid cell (n):
• Contains a single set of unpaired chromosome
• Example: found in the sex cells or gametes
• Diploid(2n)
• Contains two sets of chromosomes one from each parent
• Example:
• Somatic cells (all cells of the body other than gametes)
• Homologous chromosomes:
• Pairs of chromosomes which are similar in length, structure, Gene position and come from both the pairs
Mendel’s experiment:
• Illustration of crosses to show how genes express
• All characters in organisms are manifested in two factors
• These factors or genes are the units of inheritance
• A dominant trait:
• It is the one that overrides the effects of another trait
• Recessive trait:
• It is the one that is not able to express itself in the presence of the dominant trait
• Genotype:
• The genetic makeup of an individual
• Phenotypes:
• It is the observable characteristics
• Homozygous:
• When both the genes are the same
• Heterozygous:
• When both the genes are different
• Bood group inheritance:
• ABO type:
• Phenotype Genotype
• A AA, AO
• B BB, BO
• O OO, O
• AB AB-codominance
Sex determination:
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• 22 pairs autosomes
• 1 pair sex chromosomes or Allosomes
• 50 % chance of getting either male or female
Genetic abnormalities:
• 1)Abnormality in the number of chromosomes
• i)Klinefelter's syndrome-XXY
• one extra chromosome
• 47 chromosomes
• this is a male with development of feminine characteristics
• ii)Tarner’s syndrome: XO
• one chromosome is missing
• Sterile female
• 45 chromosomes
• iii)Down syndrome-Trisomy 21
• extra chromosome 21
• Small round head
• partially open mouth
• mental retardation
• 2)Abnormalities in genes:
• i)Autosomal disease: Recessive
• example:
• Sickle cell anaemia
• 3)Abnormality in sex chromosomes:
• most will be x linked
• i)Sex linked-recessive
• Example:
• Haemophilia
• Colour blindness
DNA/RNA vaccine
• DNA---->mRNA---->Protein---->Antigen--->B cells--->Antibody:Immune memory
• mRNA Vaccine:
• RNA vaccines work by introducing a messenger RNA sequence that is coded for disease-specific vaccine
• Example: Pfizer and Moderna vaccine
• DNA vaccine:
• it is the introduction of DNA sequence encoding for antigen against which immune response is needed
Invitro-fertilisation(IVF)
• Egg+Sperm=Zygote--->Embryo--->Transplant into the uterus of women who gave the eggs
• however, if the uterus of the other woman is used to transplant the embryo then its called Surrogacy
Technological aspect to Genetics:

• Recombinant DNA:
• Isolation of our desired gene
• Enzyme - Nuclease for cutting DNA and Ligase for joining DNA
• Vector is the segment of DNA that holds the desired gene
• This vector can be bacteria or virus
• Recombinant DNA technology: for growth hormone
• Isolation of the desired gene from human cell
• A plasmid which is independent circular DNA is removed from bacterial cell
• Viral Vector Vaccine: Genetic material coding for antigen where viral DNA was introduced
• For example, Covishield - here adenovirus acting as a viral vector
• Gene Therapy:
• In case of a gene defect, a normal corrective gene can be added to take over the function to
compensate for the non-functional gene
• Gene Editing:
• Add, delete, replace genes through genetic material
• Gene-editing tool - Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)
• CRISPR is also called molecular scissors
• It has two parts - Guidance molecule and cutting enzyme
• Single guided RNA (Sg RNA) - double-stranded RNA ie Guidance molecule
• Cas9 Protein/Enzyme - DNA cutting enzyme
• Sg RNA guides CRISPR to specific sites where Cas protein can act and cut the DNA
Animal Cloning:
• Somatic cells from the animal to be cloned.
• Donors who give egg cells are from that same species.
• Removal of the nucleus from the donor's egg.
• The nucleus of the somatic cell is kept.
• Thereafter somatic cell nuclear transfer technique is adopted to produce an embryo.
• After the stimulation of the embryo, it is transplanted into the uterus
• Cloning of animals is allowed in India; for example, Dolly, the sheep
Three Parents baby:
• Own DNA - mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA)
• Defect in mt-DNA - disease eg Leigh Disease
• Mt-DNA inherited only from mother
• Mitochondrial Replacement or Pro-nuclear transfer
Cell Division:
• Two types of cell division take place in the body
• Mitosis - In somatic cells and for growth; normal cell division; the number of chromosomes
remains the same
• Meiosis - for the formation of sex cells or gametes; the number of chromosomes here becomes
half
Stem Cells:
• They are unspecialised cells that can divide and grow into different types of cells
• Totipotency - It is a property of a cell to change into all the cells of the body including the ones in
the extraembryonic tissues
• Pluripotency - It is the property of the cell in which it can form all the cells of the body except
those to support and develop the embryo
• Embryonic stem cells - present at the early stages of life and can form all the cells of the body ie
they do not have specificity
• Adult stem cells are present in different tissues like the bone marrow, skin, blood, spinal cord,
brain and produce cells specific to that tissue
• Induced Pluripotent Cells - They can be induced to divide and become undifferentiated again
• Applications for various kinds of diseases and organs in the body
Biotechnology:
• Green biotechnology: It means when biotechnology is used in agriculture.
• Blue biotechnology: It means when biotechnology is used in marine organisms.
• Red biotechnology: It means when biotechnology is used in medical science.
• Grey biotechnology: It means when biotechnology is used in the environment.
• White biotechnology: It means when biotechnology is used in industries.
Genetically Modified Crops (GM Crops):
• High yield - GM Mustard
• Pest resistance - Bt Cotton (Allowed for commercial use)
• Increased nutrients - Golden Rice (Vitamin A)
• Issues:
• Health and environment
• Economic - Monopoly of MNCs and issue of terminator seeds
• Application of biotechnology in Environment - Oil Zapper and bioremediation
• It is used in the management of water pollution in the form of oil spills
• Challenges:
• Cost and related research and development
• Lack of awareness and scepticism due to lack of education
• University to industry gap
• Regulatory issue
Ethical Dimension of Bio-technology:
• Designer babies
• Issue of equity
• Bio-piracy
• Religious - against the natural order
• Informed consent
• Use of biological weapons, etc
Additional Basic Science Class 01
BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASS.
• Decoding the syllabus.
• The trend of UPSC.
BOOKLIST/SOURCES.
• 6-10th class NCERT.
• Attempting AITS.
WAVES
• Wave is a disturbance in any medium and represented by Sine or Cos curve.
• Wavelength is the distance between two identical points in a waveform. In other words, it is the distance
after which the wave repeats itself.
• Frequency is the number of occurrences of an event per unit of time.
• Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other.
LIGHT
• Wave nature of light:
• In Young's Double Slit Experiment, the light was deduced as a wave.
• The wave nature of light helps us in understanding phenomenon like refraction, light as an energy carrier,
etc.
• Light as a particle:
• Einstein in his Photoelectric effect experiment proved light as a particle.
• In this experiment, he found that light of a specific frequency was able to eject electrons out of the metal
surface.
• Einstein further elaborated that light is nothing but a packet of photons.
• Any one of the photons must have collided with any one of the electrons to eject it out of the metal.
• For this particular experiment, Einstein was awarded the Nobel prize.
• This experiment helps us in understanding phenomenon like reflection or traveling of light in a straight line.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Gamma and X rays are known as Ionizing radiations.
• Radio waves:
• Applications= Radio and television communication, Bluetooth, Wifi, Submarine communication.
• Microwaves:
• Applications= Mobile phone communication, Microwave oven, Radar.
• Infrared:
• Applications= TV remote, they are a carrier of heat from Sun, fire source, etc.
• Heat signature from mammals also travels in the form of infrared waves.
• Ultraviolet:
• Applications= It can kill microorganisms like bacteria, Viruses, etc
• Ultraviolet also synthesizes Vitamin D in our skin.
• X rays:
• Applications= To check for any bone deformation, In Airport or Metro security scanners.
• Gamma Rays:
• Applications= For cancer therapy, To sterilize medical equipment, For food Sterilization.
REFLECTION
• It is a phenomenon in which incident light or heat waves return to the same medium after falling on a
surface
• It means that the medium remains the same
REFRACTION
• When the light changes the medium, it changes its path.
• During refraction, there is no change in the frequency of the wave but the wavelength and the speed
changes.
DISPERSION
• When white light passing through a prism it splits into 7 individual colors (VIBGYOR).
• This happens because different colors have different speeds through any medium.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
• Rayleigh scattering:
• It involves the interaction of electromagnetic waves with particles whose size is smaller when compared to
the wavelength of electromagnetic waves.
• It is elastic scattering, where the incident and scattered photon share the same frequency.
• The sky appears blue because of Rayleigh scattering.
• Raman Scattering:
• It is scattering from atom or molecule this happens because of excited electrons.
• It is inelastic scattering, it helps in understanding the structure of Atoms, etc.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION
• The light should come from a denser to a rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
• The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which refracted ray coincides with the medium interface.
OPTICAL FIBER.
• Core, clad, and insolation.
• The density of the core is more than the density of a clad.
• A signal is transported via core.
• It works upon the total internal reflection.
MIRAGE
• It happens in hot places.
• It is an optical illusion where the object appears to be inverted.
• Refraction and total internal reflection are responsible for this phenomenon.
Looming
• It is an optical illusion happening in a colder climate.
• The object is erect and appears to be suspended in the air.
• Refraction and total internal refraction are the responsible phenomena.
RAINBOW.
• Primary rainbow:
• The outer circle is red; the Inner circle is violet.
• Secondary rainbow:
• Sometimes in nature, we may find a secondary rainbow where the outer circle is violet and the inner circle is
red.
• It is rarer than the primary rainbow and more blur comparatively.
• It happens if more than two total internal reflections are involved.
TWINKLING OF STARS.
• Multiple air pockets are present between earth and stars multiple reflections take place through all these air
pockets.
• Hence, the line of sight is adjusting every second because of which our eye is unable to locate the exact
position of the star.
• Hence we find a star to be twinkling at distant start twinkles more than a nearby star.

Why is the sky blue?
• Human eye:
• Cons (responsible for daylight vision and color recognition) and Rods (responsible for dim light vision).
• The human eye recognizes three-color i.e. Red, Blue, and Green, whereas, other colors are framed by
human eyes.
Particle
Scattered Colour of the
Circumstances. suspended in the
spectrum. sky.
atmosphere.
Blue, as
human eyes
Violet, Indigo,
Normal Dust are more
Blue.
sensitive to
the blue color.
Light storm Water droplets Violet, Indigo. Violet, Indigo.
Heavy storm Salt particles Violet. Violet.
Optical illusion.
• At dusk and dawn, the sun appears to be slightly bigger than normal.
• We are able to see Sun 2 minutes before sunrise and 2 minutes after sunset because of refraction.
• Also, on the horizon, Sun appears to be slightly bigger than normal.
Mirror.
• Plane mirror:
• A plane mirror can be easily defined as the mirrors that are flat on the surface and are without any inward or
outward curve.
• The front side is a shiny surface, whereas, the backside is the painted one.
• The image formed is virtual.
• The real image is inverted.
• Lateral inversion.
• Spherical Mirror:
• There are two types of the spherical mirror- Convex and Concave.
• The concave mirror is also known as a converging mirror because it converges a parallel beam of light at a point
called the focus.
• Focus is also the point where an image is formed.
• The convex mirror is known as a diverging mirror as it diverges parallel beams of light.
• A concave mirror is used when we want to focus a parallel beam of light or any small object to appear big, for
example, a mirror used for shaving, a mirror used by dentists, headlights of vehicles, torch.
• A convex mirror is used when we want to make any large object to appear small, for example, a surveillance
mirror, telescope, sunglasses, rearview mirrors in vehicles.
Lens.
• Concave lens:
• They have similar properties as convex mirrors.
• They are also known as the diverging lens.
• Convex lens:
• They are also known as converging lens.
• They have similar properties as concave mirrors.
Defects of vision.
• Myopia:
• This happens due to the elongation of the eyeball.
• Image is formed in front of the retina because of which the person is unable to see the distant objects clearly.
• Correction is a diverging or concave lens.
• Hypermetropia/ Farsightedness:
• It is just the opposite of myopia.
• Correction is a convex lens.
• Some people may suffer from myopia as well as hypermetropia.
• Correction is a bifocal lens.
• Astigmatism:
• It is the inability of the human eye to focus on horizontal and vertical lines clearly, because of which multiple
images are formed.
• Correction is a cylindrical lens.
• Cataract:
• This is the defect of old age people.
• It is clouding of the lens, where, initially, the person is unable to distinguish blue color but when the clouding
becomes opaque, a person may suffer from blindness.
• The only treatment is surgery.
Electric current.
• Electric current is the flow of charge.
• Ohm's law, V= I * R.
• Voltage is a measurement of the capacity of the power source.
• Current is the flow of charge.
• Resistance is the hindrance in the flow of current.
• Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section.
• Resistance is proportional to length.
• Resistance also depends upon the property of the material.
• Conductor- Offers less resistance but with time resistance increases.
• Insulator- Provide infinite resistance, electricity can never pass.
• Semiconductor- Offer more resistance than a conductor but with time offer less resistance than a conductor,
hence, extensively used in the electronics industry.
• Superconductor- Offer almost zero resistance i.e. energy loss is almost zero, but they are not functional at
room temperature. They reflect zero resistance at subzero temperature.
• Silver at nanoscale shows superconductivity.
• Electromagnets, Hyperloop, Fusion reactors.
Series and Parallel.
• Series:
• In the entire circuit, the same current flows.
• If one device becomes non-operational, no current flows through the circuit.
• Parallel:
• In the entire circuit, different current flows.
• Failure of one appliance does not affect the entire circuit, and other appliances remain operational.
Fuse.
• It is a device to save costly appliances in case of excess current flow or fluctuated voltage.
• It is connected in series.
• The melting point of the wire used in the fuse should be very low.
• The resistance of the fuse should be very less.
Heating effect of current.
• When current is passed through a conductor, there is the heating of the appliance due to resistance.
• Here, the electrical energy is getting converted into heat energy.
• An alloy of Nickel and Chromium is used to intensify the heating.
• This property of the current is harnessed in devices like Iron, Geyser, Heater, etc.
Chemical effect of current.
• Solution= Solute+Solvent.
• The solution is of two types- Electrolytic (water) and non-electrolytic (distilled water).
• When current passes through an electrolytic solution, it breaks into ions i.e. such solution allows passage or
conduction of current.
• The non-electrolytic solution does not conduct electricity.
• Electroplating:
• Ion is a charged particle- positive (cation) or negative (anion).
• Cations will move towards the negative electrode (Cathode).
• Anions will move towards the positive electrode (Anode).
• Electroplating is plating one metal with another.
• An anode is a metal to be deposited.
• The cathode is the metal on which anode metal is deposited.
• Applications of electroplating:
• Imitation jewelry (Gold plating on silver), Gold- Anode, Silver- Cathode.
• Saving important appliances/ metals-
• Zinc plating on iron= galvanization; Zinc- Anode, Iron- Cathode;
• Chromium plating on Iron (Chrome plating); Chromium- Anode, Iron- Cathode.
Dynamo/Generator.
• This is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Motor.
• It is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Inverter.
• Alternating current and Direct Current:
• AC is a fluctuating or changing current, whereas, DC is a constant current.
• AC is used in transmission lines (from power stations to houses).
• Household appliances like Air Conditioner, Fridge, etc. use AC.
• The battery will always give DC.
• Laptop, Plasma TV, Mobile, E-vehicles use DC.
• An inverter is a device that converts DC into AC.
Magnetic effect of current.
• When the current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is developed around it.
• If any iron rod or conductor is brought near the magnetic field, magnetism is developed in that iron rod.
• When the electric current is stopped, the magnetic property of the iron is also gone.
• This property of the current is used to develop electromagnets, which have many applications, for example, in
electric devices like electric bells, telephone receivers, they are used to develop particle accelerators like large hadron
colliders, Cyclotron, Betatron.
• Electromagnetic induction.
• It is the production of voltage or electric current in a changing magnetic field.
• Applications:
• Wireless charging.
• Eddy current-
• Eddy currents are loops of induced current in a conductor in changing magnetic field in a.
• These currents are often seen as heat loss but have applications in induction cookware, melting of metals, train
braking mechanisms, etc.
LATENT HEAT.
• Latent heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance during a phase change (change in the
state) without change in the temperature.
• Applications:
• Steam can burn more severely than boiling water because steam is having an additional 540 calories in it
(latent heat).
• Food gets cooked even after putting off the flame- the steam that sits at the bottom of the lid condensates and
releases 540 calories in the process that cooks the food further.
• Anything becomes cool if kept in the vicinity of ice.
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF WATER.
• The density of the solid is greater than the density of the liquid.
• The density of ice is less than the density of water.
• Water is having a maximum density at 4 degrees celsius.
COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE FORCES.
• Cohesive Force:
• It is an intermolecular attractive force between two adjacent portions of two similar sets of molecules, for
example, the force acting among water molecules.
• Adhesive Force
• It is an attractive force between two dissimilar sets of molecules, for example, - Makeup on the face.
SURFACE TENSION.
• It is the property of the surface of the liquid to resists an external force caused due to cohesive force.
• Here, the surface of the water behaves as an elastic.
• Applications:
• The water strider is able to walk due to surface tension.
• Mosquito eggs float on the surface of the water due to surface tension. Kerosene oil is added to reduce the
surface tension of water.
• Urine test for jaundice.
• Water molecules gain a spherical shape to avoid surface tension.
• Capillarity is one of the manifestations of surface tension.
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE.
• Any object completely or partially emerged in a fluid is acted upon by an upward or buoyant force whose
magnitude is equal to the amount of water displaced by the object.
• Examples-
• The iron ship floats in water whereas an iron nail sinks.
• A bucket filled with water seems to be lighter when emersed in water.
• Helium air balloon.
• Submarine, etc
CHEMISTRY.
MATTER.
• It has some mass and occupies some space and something that responds to gravity.
• A different state of matter:
• Solid- molecules are tightly packed
• Liquid- molecules are loosely packed
• Gas- molecules are not packed
• Plasma-
• It is an ionized/charged gas.
• If gas is put into strong electromagnetic field gas is converted into Plasma.
• Plasma is found in stars, for example, Sun.
• Plasma is also found in the interstellar medium.
• Plasma also happens in fluorescent lamps.
• It is also found in the ionosphere.
• Like gas, plasma does not have a definite shape or volume unless enclosed in a container.
• Unlike gas, plasma can form structures like beams and filaments.
ATOM.
• Any matter is made up of Atoms, so atoms are nothing but a fundamental unit of matter.
• The central part is known as the nucleus.
• In the nucleus, we have Neutron and Proton.
• Nucleons are neutrons plus protons.
• Neutrons - Neutral or Zero charge.
• Protons - positively charged.
• So, an atom is made up of Electrons and Nucleons.
• Electrons are made up of Leptons and Nucleons are made up of Quarks.
• Quarks:
• They are of 6 types but for us only 2 types are important.
• 1) Upquark-
• It has a +2/3 charge.
• 2) Downquark-
• It has -1/3 charge.
• A minimum number of up and down quarks required to make proton= 2 up quark and 1 down quark.
• A minimum number of up and down quarks required to make Neutron= 1 up quark and 2 down quark.
• Atomic number = Number of protons.
• Atomic mass = Sum of the nucleons = Number of protons + Number of neutrons= Atomic number + Number of
neutrons.
• Number of neutrons= Atomic mass - Atomic number.
ISOTOPES.
• Isotopes are elements having the same atomic number but a different mass number or atomic mass. In other
words, Isotopes have a same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
• Sometimes, the mismatch of this kind may lead to radioactivity.
• Isotopes of Hydrogen= Hydrogen, Deuterium, Tritium.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS.
• Study at the level of the nucleus.
• It is further subdivided into- nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
• Fusion means addition.
• Nuclear fusion
• Addition of two smaller nuclei to form a bigger nucleus.
• This is often seen in stars.
• Nuclear fission
• Fission means decay or disintegration.
• The disintegration of the big nucleus into smaller nuclei.
• Radioactivity is one of the manifestations of nuclear fission.
RADIOACTIVITY.
• It is a natural emission of high-energy radiation or nuclei from unstable elements or isotopes due to the
disintegration of their atomic nuclei.
• These are of 3 types alpha, beta, and Gamma
• Alpha decay:
• Alpha is a term used for the Helium nucleus.
• The Helium nucleus comes out of the parent nucleus.
• It happens in bigger nuclei, for example, Uranium.
• Beta-decay:
• Beta is a term used for electrons.
• Electron comes out of parent nucleus.
• It generally happens in Isotopes, for example, Carbon-14.
• Gamma decay:
• Gamma is a term used for high-energy radiation i.e. Gamma-ray.
• Gamma-ray comes out of the parent nucleus.
• It happens naturally due to an excited state, for example, the Barium nucleus.
• It can also happen after alpha-decay.
• Radioactivity is measured by three counters= Geiger Muller counter; Scintillation counter; Semiconductor
device.
NEUTRINO.
• Formed during both fission and fusion.
• Also formed naturally= Coamic radiations when falling on nitrogen gives Pions, which further decays to Muons, which
ultimately decays to the neutrino.
• Neutrinos are like the CCTV camera of the universe.
• Generally, they are chargeless.
• Mass is almost zero.
• They have lots of information and are found everywhere.
• They are difficult to catch.
HALF-LIFE.
• Radioisotopes decay at a constant rate.
• The time required for half of the original isotope to reduce to its half is called the half-life.
• Every living organism has both C-12 (stable), and C-14 (radioactive) carbons in them.
• Carbon 14 being unstable, goes for beta decay.
• This decay is compensated by the nutrition of the organism, because of which, Carbon-12 to Carbon-14 ratio in the
body reflects the environmental level. But when an organism dies this ratio is no longer the same.
• This is the difference is exploited by the researchers to know the age of any fossil.
CORROSION.
• Also known as rusting.
• It is actually the decay of metal.
• It is the formation of the oxide layer on the outer surface of the metal.
• For corrosion to happen, the requirement is= Moisture and air.
• To avoid corrosion, galvanization is done.
ALLOTROPES.
• Some chemical elements are known to exist in two or more different forms because the atoms are bonded together in
different manners.
• Allotropes of Carbon= Graphite, Diamond, Fullerene.
PERIODIC TABLE.
• The periodic table is an arrangement of the elements in a particular fashion like according to their atomic number.
• Elements are categorized into Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids.
• Most of the elements found in nature are metals (75%).
• Metalloids are the least found.
• Some non-metals that can conduct electricity:
• Natural form= Iodine, Selenium.
• Allotropic form= Graphite, Black Phosphorous.
HALOGEN FAMILY.
• Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine.
• They are generally used as disinfectants (to kill germs).
• They are Ozone-depleting substances (ODS), Chlorine being hyperactive of them all.
• Chlorine v/s Ozone (better disinfectant):
• Chlorine • Ozone
• It is not used in light as
• It can be used anytime.
efficiency declines in light.
• It gives a certain odour. • No such odour.
• Skin will turn dark (tan). • No impact on skin.
INERT GASES.
• Helium:
• It is lighter than air, so, it is used in air balloons, tyres of aircraft, etc.
• It is non-flammable.
• Neon:
• In advertisement board.
• Argon:
• Fluroscent lamps.
• Krypton:
• Surgical LASER, to generate light.
• Xenon:
• Lighthouse, car headlights, anaesthetic agent.
• Radon:
• It is radioactive in nature.
• Generally, found in soil.
Rare Earth Elements:
• These are a set of 17 elements- Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanides (15).
• These all elements are metals and hence, also called rare earth metals.
• They are not rare as the name suggests, rather their abundance may be more than 200 times the total average
presence of copper, gold, etc. in the earth's crust.
• They are called rare because it is difficult to extract them in their purest form and also their concentration in
ores is in traces.
• They are generally traded in the form of oxides and hence, called rare earth oxides.
• Applications- Consumer electronics like touch screen, developing navigation and communication technology,
Night vision equipment, aircraft and submarines, Surgical LASERs, Rechargeable batteries, Weapons based
on the principle of fire and forget, etc.
• China is the largest producer of rare earth elements.
• India along with Japan have signed an agreement with regard to the extraction of these elements.
Ph Scale.
• It is a scale to measure acidity or basicity.
• 0-7= Acidic; 7= Neutral; 7-14= Basic.
• Acids:
• They are the substances that donate hydrogen ions (H+) or protons.
• They convert blue litmus to red.
• They are sour in taste generally.
• Two types- Organic acid and Inorganic acid.
• Organic acids are the acids having Carbon in them.
• In general, organic acids are found naturally.
• In general, organic acids are weaker than inorganic acids.
• Some common organic acids are= Formic acid, Acetic acid, Citric/Ascorbic acid, Tartaric acid, Malic acid,
Tannic acid, Lactic acid, Oxalic acid.
• Formic acid is found in ants or bees.
• Acetic acid is also known as Vinegar- manufactured in the lab.
• Citric acid is in lemon.
• Tartaric acid in Tamarind.
• The malic acid in Apple.
• Oxalic acid in Guava, Choclate.
• The tannic acid in tea.
• The lactic acid in Milk
• Inorganic acids are manufactured in labs and have industrial uses.
• Manufactured inorganic acids- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Nitric acid (HNO3).
• Bases:
• They are substances that accept hydrogen ions or protons.
• It converts red litmus to blue.
• It is bitter in taste.
• To reduce the acidity of the soil, lime is used.
• Acidity in the body is neutralized by antacids (Anti-acids) i.e. Milk of Magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide).
• Baking agents are also bases like baking soda (Sodium bicarbonate)
• Potable water should be basic.
• Salt:
• Acid and base neutralize each other to give water and salt.
• HCl+ NaOH gives NaCl and H2O.
• Neuron message transmission in the body takes place in the presence of a salt of Sodium and Potassium.
• In sweat, the salt of Sodium, Magnesium, is excreted.
Viscosity.
• The resistance of a fluid to flow.
• Honey is more viscous than water.
• If temperature increases, the viscosity of liquid decreases (cohesive bond breaks), whereas, the viscosity of
gas increases (gas molecules come closer).
• If temperature decreases, the viscosity of blood increases, thereby the heart has to pump more blood, pressure
on the heart increases, which might lead to heart failure.
• Fever increases the temperature of the body, if the temperature of the blood increases, the viscosity of the
blood decreases, thereby the heart has lesser pressure leading to normal conditions.
Endothermic and exothermic reactions.
• Endothermic:
• These reactions absorb the heat.
• Since, such reactions absorb heat, after the reaction, the nearby surrounding becomes cooler.
Osmosis and reverse osmosis.
• A semi-permeable membrane allows passage of only solvent (water) and not the solute (salt).
• Osmosis is the movement of a solvent through a semi-permeable membrane from a region or solution of a
lower concentration to a higher concentration.
• Reverse Osmosis= It is the movement of water from a comparatively higher concentrated solution to a
comparatively lower concentrated solution via SPM under an external force.
• Desalinization plant:
• Screening- To resist bigger impurities like coconut, marine creatures, etc. to enter the setup.
• Filtering- To clear or filter smaller impurities like hairs, worms, silt, etc.
• Desalinisation- Through reverse osmosis.
• Chlorination- Clean water is then reacted with chlorine to make it potable in nature.
Hydrocarbons.
• Alcohol:
• Types- Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, etc.
• Only ethanol is a beverage (consumable), whereas, others are toxic in nature.
• Alcohol is used as solvents in industries.
• Alcohol is used as a spirit in industries.
• It is also used in the cosmetics, pharma, and paint industries.
• It is also used as Gasohol (Gasoline+Alcohol).
• Gasohol is also known as Blended fuel.
• Its advantages are- Environment friendly, Import of crude oil will decrease, CAD will reduce.
• Chemical explosives:
• Research and Development Explosive (RDX).
• Tri Nitro Glycerine (TNG).
• Tri Nitro Toluene (TNT).
• Dynamite.
• Extraction of Fuel from crude oil:
• Gasoline/Petrol- Fuel for cars.
• Naphtha- Making chemicals.
• Kerosene- Aircraft fuel.
• Diesel oil- Fuel for cars, buses.
• Fuel oil- Fuel for ships, power stations.
• Residue- Bitumen for roads and roofs.
• Knocking of engine:
• Unwanted sound in the engine reflecting its poor condition.
• Octane number is the measurement of the quality of petrol/gasoline.
• Cetane number is the measurement of the quality of diesel.
• The higher the Octane number implies the better quality of petrol.
• A Higher Cetane number implies a better quality of diesel.
• Better Octane number avoids premature ignition of Petrol (ensures slow-burning), whereas, Better Cetane
number avoids delayed ignition of Diesel.
• Petrol's Octane number can be increased by adding Lead in it.
• Aviation turbine Fuel:
• Kerosene (High quality; pale yellow in color) + more than 2000 chemicals (to avoid corrosion, giving them
anti-freezing properties).
• Natural Gas:
• Two types- Compressed Natural Gas and Liquified Natural Gas.
• LNG has better fuel efficiency than CNG because the fuel density of LNG is higher than of CNG, but still,
LNG is not used in India as storage of LNG requires cryogenic infrastructure to store them.
• LPG and CNG:
• Liquified petroleum Gas is mainly Butane, Isobutane, some concentration of Propane along with Ethane is
also found.
• CNG is 99% Methane.
• LPG is an odorless gas and Ethyl mercaptan is added to give odor to sense the leakage.
• CNG is also odorless gas and sulfur is added to give it odor.
• LPG is heavier than air and in case of leakages, it settles at lower places like parking, godowns, etc.
• CNG is lighter than air and in case of leakages it flushes out in the atmosphere.
• Soaps and detergents:
• They reduce the surface tension of water so that the cleansing properties of water are enhanced.
• Soap molecules align themselves in such a fashion that dirt is trapped in them. This structure is called as
Micelles.
• In the process of rinsing, micelles come out with dirt, and hence, clothes get cleaned.
• Soaps are not effective in hard water because they interact with metallic salts present in water and hence, lose
their cleansing property. On the other hand, detergents do not interact with metallic salts in hard water and
hence, they are effective.
Important terms.
• Phosphorescence:
• Some compounds like Calcium Sulphide, etc, absorb some of the visible spectrums in presence of sunlight.
• When the sunlight is gone, they emit the absorbed spectrum.
• Application= Divider stones at highways, Guideposts.
• Florescence:
• When any substance absorbs light, the electron gets excited and change their orbit.
• In their return journey, they emit radiations of various wavelengths.
• This is a comparatively faster process than Phosphorescence.
• Applications- Argon lamps, Glowsticks.
• Luminescence:
• Any source (non-living) that gives the light, for example- Lightbulb, Mobile, ocean, etc.
• Bioluminescence:
• Any living source that emits light, for example- firefly, Jellyfishes.
• Efflorescence:
• Some salts like washing soda have excess moisture in them.
• When such salts are kept in the air, moisture evaporates and salt crystals are left behind.

COSMIC PHYSICS.
Gravitation
• Any two objects in the universe having some mass attract each other by the force of gravitation.
Escape velocity
• The gravitational field of the earth- the gravitational pull of the earth acts within this range.
• It is the minimum velocity required by an object to overcome the gravitational pull of the earth.
• Escape velocity for the earth is 11.2 km/sec.
Stars
• Starts are lump or collection of dust and gas have their own light.
Planet
Three criteria:
• It should revolve around the sun.
• It should have enough gravity to gain a spherical shape.
• A planet should also have enough gravity that is able to clear its own surroundings- Pluto fails this criterion.
Asteroids
• Rocky objects, revolve around the sun, found between Mars and Jupiters.
• Some asteroids are found beyond Jupiter also, known by the name Trojan.
• Some of the asteroids are also found beyond Mars, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).
• NASA is studying an asteroid named Bennu:
• Bennu is of moderate size.
• 1/600 chances are there that it might collide with the earth.
• Hayabusa-2 of Japan: Name of the asteroid- Ryugu.
• JAPAN'S Hayabusa mission has brought some rocks from Ryugu.
Satellite
• Objects that revolve around the planet.
Comet
• It has a nucleus and a tail.
• It also revolves around the sun.
• There are many gases, dust, and ice in the nucleus.
• They are flammable gases like ammonia, methane.
• Comets are evolved from the Kuiper belt(short-period comets)and the Oort cloud(long-period comets)
• When they reach near the Sun, the tail develops, as these gases catch fire.
Meteoroids
• Meteoroids:
• Chunk or part of either asteroids or comets.
• Most of them vanish in the outer atmosphere of the earth.
• Meteors:
• They are meteoroids entering the earth's inner atmosphere.
• Also called Shooting starts- They show different colours due to the presence of different minerals in them.
• Meteorites:
• Meteoroids reaching the earth's surface.
• They are responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs.
The life cycle of a star
Small Star:
• Nebula of a star= womb of a star (Dust + Hydrogen gas).
• The dimension of womb= 1 to 10 light-years.
• Every phase of a star is for billions of years.
• Dust particles have a mass and they try to attract each other by a force of gravitation.
• The stellar energy counters the effect of gravitational force, which leads to the formation of Protostar.
• In Protostar, nuclear reactions/fusion is just started.
• Nuclear fusion will intensify which gives the Main Sequence Star (Youth).
• Sun is a Main Sequence Star.
• Nearly more than 90% of the fuel (H2) is over.
• Star burns remaining Hydrogen more quickly, which leads to the expansion of the star, which is called as Red
Giant (Mature).
• Hydrogen is then almost over, but then Helium becomes the fuel.
• Helium then reacts with H, He, Be, C.
• Helium, after billions of years, is also almost over.
• Star collapses at the Carbon Oxygen core.
• It gives Planetary Nebula Collection of dust+gas, and White Dwarf (Luminous high dense mass)/ Fossil star.
• After billions of years, Planetary Nebula acts as a nebula for a new star.
Big Star:
• The dimension of a womb= Greater than 10 light-years.
• The stellar energy counters the effect of gravitational force, which leads to the formation of Protostar.
• In Protostar, nuclear reactions/fusion is just started.
• Nuclear fusion will intensify which gives the Main Sequence Star (Youth).
• Nearly more than 90% of the fuel (H2) is over.
• Star burns remaining Hydrogen more quickly, which leads to the expansion of the star, which is called as Red
Super Giant (Mature).
• Hydrogen is then almost over, but then Helium becomes the fuel.
• Helium then reacts with H, He, Be, C, Oxygen, Silicon, Fe (Iron).
• Helium, after billions of years, is also almost over.
• Star collapses at the Iron core which gives Supernova an explosion.
• Medium size star gives a Neutron star, whereas, Big size star gives a Blackhole.
CHANDRASHEKHAR LIMIT
• If the mass of the core is less than 1.44 than that of the mass of the Sun, it will die as White Dwarf.
• If the mass of the core is less than 3*Mass of Sun or greater than 1.44 of the mass of Sun, it will die as Neutron
Star.
• If the mass of the core is greater than 3*Mass of the Sun, Blackhole will be the final stage.
WHITE DWARF
• It is formed when a small star collapses at the Carbon, Oxygen core.
• This collapse is so intense that every electron in each atom reaches the first orbit due to which volume decreases
and hence, density increases.
• This state in quantum mechanics is called 'Degenerate Gas'.
• White dwarfs are glowing dense objects in the universe without any fusion mechanism.
NEUTRON STAR
• These are formed due to the death of medium stars.
• When a star collapses at the iron core, all electrons in every atom enter the nucleus, where they feed upon the
protons to give neutrons.
• Due to this only neutrons are left in the stars and that's why they are known as neutron stars.
• These are also called Pulsar because they accelerate any particle entering their magnetic field.
SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
• These are extreme events in the cosmic realm where a huge amount of energy is emitted and also elements
heavier than iron like uranium, Gold, Silver, etc are formed during the Supernova explosion.
BLACKHOLE
• It is a very big object in the universe from which even light can not come out.
• This is because of the infinite pull of the black hole.
• The gravitation is so much because the entire mass of the black hole is concentrated at a one-dimensional point
called Singularity.
• Any object falling in a black hole loses its dimensions and attain one dimension or singularity, this process is
called Spaghettification.
• These are dead remains of a big star that warp or curves space-time infinitely.
GALAXY
• It is a collection of dust, gas, billions of stars and their solar systems, all bound together by gravity via a black
hole.
KUIPER BELT
• Kuiper belt found beyond Neptune.
• They resemble with Asteroid belt
• This looks like a great ring of debris which are remanents of our solar system.
• Pluto is falling in the Kuiper belt
• These Rocky objects are much bigger than the asteroid belt
• As the distant edges of Kuiper belt icy objects are found known as Oort cloud.
• The size of the Oort cloud may be bigger than the mountains on earth.
• Oort cloud also marks the outermost layer of our solar system.
HELIOSPHERE & HYDROGEN WALL
• Solar winds emanating from the Sun forms the shape of a bubble that extends beyond the major planets. This
bubble is the Heliosphere
• It is unable to penetrate an area of hydrogen concentrated area known as Hydrogen wall.
• This Hydrogen walls also marks the end of our Solar system
INTERSTELLAR
• It is the unclaimed area of the universe
• It is the part of space (unclaimed) that exists between the stars. (Vacant space)
• It is a hard vacuum i.e. the presence of dust, gases, plasma (Ionised gases), cosmic radiations.
GOLDILOCKS ZONE[Asked in UPSC 2015]
• Search for the Earth-like planets in outer space.
FORCE CARRIERS
Strong:
• The strongest force.
• Force carrier= Gluon.
• Range- It works within the nucleus.
• It is responsible for binding the nucleus.
• Application= Quarks- Protons and Neutrons.
Weak:
• It works within the nucleus.
• Force carrier= W and Z.
• Application= Beta decay and Neutron decay.
Electromagnetic:
• It has an infinite range.
• Force carrier= Photon.
• Application= Electronics light.
Gravitation:
• The weakest force.
• It has an infinite range.
• Force carrier= Graviton (It is imaginory).
• Application= Solar system, Galaxy.
Anti Matter:
• Anti Matter is just the Opposite of Matter. It shares all the properties with the matter but has either opposite
charge or subatomic characteristics.
• Both matter and antimatter formed during Big Bang, but today antimatter are rare in our galaxy. But they can be
found in other stars and galaxies.
• When matter and antimatter come in contact with each other they annihilate flashing a lot of energy.
• For example- Positron, antiquark, antineutrino, antihydrogen, etc.
Dark Matter:
• Matter which does not interact with an electromagnetic wave (light)
• It is very difficult to locate them
• Evidence of Dark matter-
• High galactic orbital velocity than expected
• Gravitational lensing more than expected
• Dark matter = 95%, Visible Matter = 5%
• 27% is Dark matter and 68% is Dark energy
• Visible matter- neutrinos(0.3), stars and galaxies(0.5), heavy elements and others(0.2),Free H2 and He(4)
The states of Matter-
• 4 states of matter- Solid, Liquid, Gas, and Plasma (super hot and super excited state)
• If we move from S-L-G-P =heat/energy increases
• 5th state of matter- Bose-Einstien condensate (super cool and super unexcited state)
• When we move from Plasma-Gas-Liquid-solid= energy declines (super cool and super unexcited state). This is the
5th state of matter.
• In Bose-Einstien condensate state =Every particle loses their identity and behave like a single wave.

HIGGS BOSON THEORY
• The Universe was a tiny dense mass 13.7 billion years ago.
• During that period, the temperature and density were infinite.
• An explosion happens which led to cosmic inflation i.e expansion of the universe in the creation of space and
time.
• This led to an invisible but interactive Higgs field appeared.
• Quarks (q) and Leptons (l) interacted with the Higgs field (h).
• Quark interacted more than Leptons with Higgs field and thus gain more mass than Leptons.
• Then quarks interacted among themselves to give protons and neutrons.
• The Leptons in a similar sense gave electrons.
• The electron absorbed light because of which universe become opaque. This phase is called the "Dark Ages".
• Proton and electrons came together to form hydrogen.
• Electrons emit extra energy while revolving around protons in the form of gamma radiation. This causes a
transparent universe.
• At this time, Nuclear fusion started and gives rise to Starts, Galaxies.
• Various elements also formed during that time like C, P, N & O, etc. which are precursors of DNA and forms life.
THEORY OF RELATIVITY (Einstein)
• E=MC^2
• Light always travels in a straight line.
• The speed of light is maximum and No object in the universe can match the speed of light.
• The entire universe is sitting on an imaginary space-time fabric.
• Any object in the universe having mass and acceleration will warp or curbs space-time fabric.
• In the process of warping, they create ripples or disturbances in the universe.
• These ripples are called the Gravitational Waves (GW).
• These GW are too weak to be detected but major events like a merger of two black holes etc. can create
comparatively stronger GWs that can be detected.
• Einstein = 1st person to give the concept on this theory of relativity.
EINSTEIN-ROSEN BRIDGE (WORMHOLES)
• Blackholes warp space & time infinitely.
• In this process of warping, it can bring two points in the universe closer to each other.
• In other words, it can act as a bridge that reduces the physical distance between two points.
• Wormholes can make inter-galaxy travel possible.
• But at this point in time, traveling through wormholes is not possible as they are very small.
GRAVITATIONAL LENSING
• Massive matters like galaxies, black holes, etc. create stronger gravitational fields which cause light rays to pass
close to that matter.
• In this process, light is slightly bent or refocused somewhere else.
• This phenomenon also acts as a cosmic telescope.
EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE
• Cosmic background radiations are found in microwave range instead of gamma range.
(Electromagnetic Spectrum)
• Galaxies appeared to be red-shifted. (Doppler Shift) (VIBGYOR)
DARK ENERGY
• After the big bang, with the passage of time, matter was created.
• These matters attract each other by the force of Gravitation because of which universe must have
collapsed by now.
• It means there must be some hidden energy to counter the attractive forces of gravitation.
• This hidden energy is dark energy.

Biology and Basic Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology and Basic Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Food and Nutrition

HEALTH And DISEASES

Technological aspect to Genetics:

Additional Basic Science Class 02

Additional Basic Science Class 05

Additional Basic Science Class 06

You might also like