Chapter 6.

Nutrition and Digestion

Nutrition

• The ability to feed and the food

substances eaten are broken down to
produce energy is together known as
nutrition. We must eat a balanced diet to
keep our body healthy.
• A balanced diet is a diet that contains all
the six classes of food in the right
proportion.
Balanced diet.

• The six classes of food are:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Vitamins
• Mineral salts and
• Water
Macro and micro nutrients

• Out of these six classes of food

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and water
are called macronutrients since they are
needed in large quantities compared to
the micronutrients which are needed in
small quantities.
• The micronutrients are vitamins and
mineral salts.
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates: consist of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Energy
givers.
• Three types:
• Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and
• Polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are the simplest otherwise known as simple
sugars. e.g. Glucose, Fructose and galactose.
• Glucose is oxidized in human body to provide energy.
Monosaccharides link together to form larger carbohydrate
molecules.
Glucose molecule
Disaccharides

• Disaccharides: are carbohydrates that

consists of two monosaccharides link
together.
• Glucose + galactose > Lactose
• Glucose + Fructose > Sucrose.
Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides
• Long chains of glucose units form polysaccharides.e.g.
Glycogen, Starch and Cellulose .
• Cellulose is found in plants. It is a chain of glucose units
without branches.
• Glycogen: A chain of glucose units with frequent
branches. Animals store glucose in the form of glycogen.
• Starch: less branched chain of glucose units. Plants store
glucose in the form of starch.
• In the digestive tract of humans, starch is broken down
in to glucose.
Structure of starch (polysaccharide)
Glycogen

• Glycogen plays an important role in maintaining

the blood sugar level. When blood sugar level
falls, glycogen stored in the liver is broken down
in the liver to produce glucose molecules which
are released in to the blood stream.
• Glycogen is stored in the muscle cells also, but
they are not used to maintain the blood sugar
level. It is used by muscle cells only.
Cellulose

• Cellulose molecules are polysaccharides,

produced by the plants. It is not digested
in our body, but it acts as roughage,
which provides dietary fiber.
Lipids

• Lipids or fats contain carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen. They are insoluble in water,
but are soluble in organic solvents. Lipids
are a source of energy and serve as an
important storage depot.
• 1 gram of fat will provide double the
amount of energy 1 gram of carbohydrate
gives.
Lipids
Lipids are of 3 classes.
• Triglycerides (Triacyl glycerols or Neutral fats)
• Phospholipids and
• Steroids.
• All are insoluble in water.
• Triglycerides:
• Most common form of fat in our body. They
consist of one molecule of Glycerol linked with 3
molecules of fatty acids.
Structure of triglyceride
Triglycerides

• A fatty acid consists of a chain of Carbon atoms

with a Carboxyl group. In triglycerides, the
carboxyl group is linked to a hydroxyl group of
glycerol.
• Glycerol is a three-carbon compound.
• Triglycerides are stored in fat cells under the
skin and in other parts.
Lipids
• Saturated fatty acids : When all the Carbons in a fatty
acid chain are linked by single bonds with Hydrogen
atoms. Animal fats. Most of them are solid at room
temperature.
• If it contains double bonds, (oils) it is unsaturated and if
it contains more than one double bond it is poly
unsaturated. e.g. Vegetable fats.
• Polyunsaturated fats reduce the risk of developing
atherosclerosis. (cholesterol deposits on the walls of
arteries) it causes heart attacks and strokes.
Cholesterol

• Saturated fatty acids (animal fat) increase

cholesterol production by the liver and as
a result atherosclerosis.
Steroids

• Steroids consist of 4 inter connected rings

of Carbon atoms, e.g. Cholesterol.
• Cholesterol is a component of the plasma
membrane in animal cells. It is a raw
material needed to synthesize other
steroids such as Vitamin D, bile acids, sex
hormones- estrogen and progesterone.
• It is mainly produced by the liver.
Phospholipids

• In phospholipids, glycerol is linked to two

fatty acids and the 3rd hydroxyl group is
linked to a phosphate group. The
phosphate group in turn is linked to a
nitrogen containing molecule, e.g. Cell
membrane.
• Phospholipid
Protein

• Protein is the chief organic material of all

protoplasm. Contains Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen and Nitrogen and sometimes
Sulfur. Subunits of proteins are amino
acids. Or proteins are polymers of amino
acids. Amino acids are used by cells to
produce hormones, enzymes and other
structural proteins.
Amino acids

• Our body contains 22 different types of

amino acids. About 10 amino acids cannot
be produced by human cells and are called
essential amino acids. They should be
provided by the diet. About 12 different
amino acids can be synthesized in our
cells.
Proteins
• Complete proteins provide all the essential
amino acids. E.g. milk, meat, fish, egg, soy
products etc.
• Incomplete proteins lack one or more essential
amino acids. E.g. nuts, seeds, grains legumes
etc.
• Protein is necessary for growth and
development. It is used for energy only if
carbohydrate and fat intake is prohibited.
• Deficiency of protein causes kwashiorkor.
Amino acid structure

• Each amino acid has an amino group –

NH2 group, a carboxyl group- C-O-OH and
an amino acid side chain R. This amino
acid side chain R, can be different in
different amino acids.
Amino acid

• If R = H, it is a glycine
• If R = CH3, it is Alanine.
• In a protein molecule, amino acids are linked by
combination of the amino group from one amino
acid with the carboxyl group of the next amino
acid, with the loss of a molecule of water. This
junction is called, peptide bond or link. As a
result a polypeptide chain is formed.
Amino acids

• If the chain contains less than 50 amino acids it

is a peptide and if it contains more than 50
amino acids, it is a protein. Thousands of
proteins can be formed due to the difference in
“R” in different amino acids. It depends on
which amino acids are present, their number
and arrangement.
Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are substances needed in small
quantities and include vitamins and mineral
salts.
• Vitamins
• Vitamins play an important role in many
metabolic reactions in our body. It maintains
good health. Proper balanced amount of
vitamins and minerals should be taken. They are
needed in small quantities, but if they are
absent, cause deficiency diseases.
Vitamins
• Two types of vitamins:
• Water soluble and fat soluble.
• Vitamin B (8 different vitamins) and Vitamin C
are water soluble.
• They are transported by the blood plasma and
are not stored in our body. Usually excess Vit.B
and C are eliminated through the urine.
• They work with enzymes to promote cellular
reactions to supply energy or to synthesize
cellular materials.
Fat soluble vitamins.

• Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat soluble.

• These can be stored in body fat and
accumulate in the fat reserves causing
adverse effects. Excess of Vit.D causes
weight loss, nausea, kidney stones etc.
• Deficiency of vitamins cause serious
effects in our body.
Deficiency diseases

• Vitamin A
• Night blindness, Xerophthalmia
• Vitamin D
• Rickets in children and Osteomalacia in
adults.
• Vitamin E
• Necessary for reproductive cycle. Anemia
and neurologic effects.
Rickets, Osteomalacia
Deficiency diseases
• Vitamin K
• Necessary for blood clotting. Defective blood
coagulation.
• Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
• Deficiency causes edema, nerve changes, heart
failure and beriberi (severe lethargy and
fatigue, together with complications affecting
the cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, and
gastrointestinal systems).
Vitamin deficiency diseases
• Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
• Causes skin lesions.
• Niacin deficiency causes pellagra
• Vitamin B6 deficiency causes nervous, skin and
muscular disorders and anemia.
• Folic acid – Megaloblastic anemia, GI
disturbances.
• Vitamin B12 – Megaloblastic anemia, pernicious
anemia, damage to nervous system.
Megaloblastic anemia

• Large, dense, oversized red blood cells

Pernicious anemia

• Inhibition of DNA synthesis in red blood

cells results in the formation of large,
fragile megaloblastic erythrocytes.
Pellagra
• Pellegra is a disease caused by a dietary deficiency of, or
a failure to absorb, niacin (vitamin B 3 ) or the amino
acid tryptophan, a precursor of niacin.
• pellagra means "rough skin." Primary symptoms include
the "3 Ds": dementia (mental symptoms), dermatitis
(scaly skin sores), and diarrhea.
•
Deficiency diseases

• Pantothenic acid – fatigue, numbness and

tingling of hands and feet.
• Biotin – Scaly dermatitis.
• Vitamin C deficiency causes Scurvy,
weakness, delayed wound healing,
impaired immune response.
Scurvy
Mineral salts
• Mineral salts are also needed in small quantities.
It can be divided in to major minerals (above
5gms in the body) and trace minerals (less).
• Major mineral salts are Calcium, Phosphorus,
Magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.
• Trace minerals are iron, iodine and fluoride.
• Calcium is necessary for the formation and
proper functioning of bones and teeth. It is
necessary for blood clotting and nerve
transmission. Deficiency causes stunted growth
and less bone mass.
Mineral salts

• Phosphorus is necessary for the formation

of bone and teeth, acid-base balance and
it is an important component of
coenzymes.
• Deficiency causes demineralization of
bones and weakness.
• Magnesium is a component of enzymes.
Deficiency causes neurologic disturbances.
Mineral salts

• Sodium is necessary to maintain the body water

balance and for proper nerve function.
• Deficiency causes muscle cramps and reduced
appetite.
• Potassium has the same role as sodium to
maintain the water balance of the body and
nerve functioning. Deficiency causes muscular
weakness and paralysis.
Mineral salts

• Chloride is necessary for the formation of gastric

juice and for acid base balance. Deficiency
causes muscle cramps, poor growth and reduced
appetite.
• Iron is necessary for the formation of
hemoglobin. It is a component of myoglobin and
enzymes.
• Deficiency causes anemia, weakness, impaired
immune function.
Mineral salts.

• Iodine is necessary for the proper

functioning of the thyroid gland.
Deficiency causes Goiter.
• Fluoride is necessary to maintain good
teeth. Deficiency causes tooth decay.
Goiter
Functional foods.
• Many chemicals present in our food can protect
us from diseases. These chemicals are called
neutraceuticals. Foods that contain
neutraceuticals are called functional foods that
provide health.
• E.g. antioxidants which react with chemicals that
build cholesterol in the walls of arteries.
Antioxidants in the diet reduce heart and artery
disease. Fruits and vegetables contain naturally
occurring antioxidants.