Concept Map As Knwoledge Repository PDF

Concept Mapping – a proposed theoretical model for
implementation as a knowledge repository
Melius Weideman
Faculty of Business Informatics, Cape Technikon
meliusw@yahoo.com
Wouter Kritzinger
Faculty of Business Informatics, Cape Technikon
kritzingerw@ctech.ac.za
A working paper from the “ICT in Higher Education” research project

Based at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa,
and funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York
Abstract
This working paper is an official research output for the Carnegie project, forming part of
subproject 1 (ICT competencies in the workplace). Mind maps are inspected as a
possible knowledge presentation tool, but are found to be unsuitable. Concept maps,
based on Ausubel and Novak’s work, appeared to hold promise as a vehicle for
implementation of the knowledge repository. A number of software programs are
available to assist in the creation of concept maps, and one of them was used in the
preliminary model. A large number of applications of concept maps in education was
found in the literature, with mostly positive research results. Healthcare and related
fields, as well as other less often covered areas were also represented in the literature.
Based on the positive feedback, a preliminary model of a concept map was designed,
and it proved to be relatively easy to construct and use. This result, plus the positive
feedback from the literature survey, prompted the start of the planning phase of the
implementation of the proposed knowledge repository.
Keywords
concept mapping, higher education, knowledge, repository
ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

A UWC research project in partnership with Cape Technikon Printed on: 10 June 2003
Concept Mapping: A literature review and a proposed model
Contents
Abstract i
Keywords i
1 Introduction and Background 4
1.1 Mind Maps 4
Figure 1 5
1.2 Concept Maps 5
Figure 2 6
2 Literature Survey 7
2.1 Available Software 8
2.1.1 IHMC Cmap Tools v2.9.1 8
2.1.2 Inspiration. 8
2.1.3 Kidspirations. 8
2.1.4 EDGE Diagrammer V4.14 8
2.1.5 Semnet Software. 8
2.1.6 MindManager. 8
2.1.7 Smart Ideas 8
2.1.8 Visimap 8
2.1.9 Thinkmap 8
2.2 Educational Applications 8
2.2.1 Adsit 9
2.2.2 Hughes and Hay 9
2.2.3 Ruffini. 9
2.2.4 Cicognani. 9
2.2.5 Canas and others. 9
2.2.6 De Simone and others. 9
2.2.7 Chang and others. 9
2.2.8 Ruiz-Primo and others. 10
2.2.9 Willson and others. 10
2.2.10 Sturm and others. 10
2.2.11 Chang and others. 10
2.2.12 Sungur and others. 10
2.2.13 Kichin. 10
2.3 Healthcare and related Applications 11
2.3.1 Kim and others. 11
2.3.2 Trochim and others 11
2.3.3 Marchand and others 11
2.3.4 Kane and others 11
2.4 Other Focus areas 11
2.4.1 Fong. 11
2.4.2 Bigne and others. 11
2.4.3 Trochim. 11
3 Preliminary Model 12
4 Conclusion 12
5 References 12
6 Further reading 15

A UWC research project in partnership with Cape Technikon
1. Introduction and Background

The Carnegie Corporation of New York invited applications for funding from South
African tertiary institutions in 2000. The University of the Western Cape, in co-operation
with the other four Higher Education Institutes in the Western Cape, submitted a
proposal in response. The proposal, when accepted, was titled: “Information and
communications technologies in Higher Education”, and is now referred to as the
Hicte project. The other institutions involved are The Cape Technikon, Peninsula
Technikon, and the Universities of Cape Town and Stellenbosch.
The Hicte project has been subdivided into three sub-projects:

- ICT competencies in the workplace,
- ICT in the management of tertiary education and
- ICT in the delivery of tertiary education.
This working paper resorts under the first heading above, with the specific aim of
creating a knowledge repository to be used as the major resource in the offering of a
Master’s degree program starting in 2004. As such it is the second deliverable in this
sub-project, the first having been a similar paper on gender equity in the IT workplace. It
is based on a literature review, coupled with a proposed theoretical model to be used as
the knowledge repository.
See Hicte at: http://www.uwc.ac.za/ems/is/hicte/ for more detail on the Carnegie project.
A number of possible vehicles exist on which to build the knowledge repository, as

discussed below.
1.1 Mind Maps

Mind Maps represent one method of classifying and representing information. One
main concept is taken as starting point, and becomes the “central word” or concept.
A further five or 10 main ideas (also called child words) are then plotted around the
central word, with links back to the central word. Another five or 10 ideas can be
added to any one of these child words, creating an ever-growing network of concepts
around the central one (Buzan 1989).
An example of how a mind map could be used to plot the different elements of a
corporate website is given in Figure 1. The homepage is used as the central word in
this example.

Figure 1
A preliminary conclusion reached at this point is that mind mapping does not seem to be
a usable alternative as the main vehicle for the knowledge repository. The material
which is being envisaged as filling the repository will be covering a wide range of topics,
and it is believed that a number of subtopics, not just one, will become evident as the
size of the repository grows.
1.2 Concept Maps

Concept Maps provide a second method to represent information. They have been
defined as follows: “Concept maps are two-dimensional representations of cognitive
structures showing the hierarchies and the interconnections of concepts involved in a
discipline or a subdiscipline” (Martin 1994:11).
Novak developed the idea of concept mapping in the 1960’s, in an attempt to visually
represent the structure of information (Novak 1991:45). The method also indicated
relationships between different sets of information. Such a concept map (also called a
Knowledge Graph) typically consists of network nodes (points or vertices) and links
(edges or arcs). Each node represents a concept, while each link represents a
relationship between concepts (Lanzing 1997). These links could be one-way, two-way
or non-directional.

The main difference between mind maps and concept maps is that the first has only one
central concept, while a concept map could have a number of them.
An example of a simple concept map illustrating nodes and links is given in Figure 2.
Figure 2
The original work done on concept mapping was based on Ausubel’s theory of
meaningful learning. This theory was produced after Ausubel’s work on how learners
learn large amounts of useful information from textual and verbal inputs. Ausubel’s
subsumption theory is based on the premise that the acquisition of new knowledge is
dependant on what is already known (Ausubel 1968).
Trochim claims that planning and evaluation processes can be enhanced considerably
by the use of a concept map. In planning, the setting of major goals, determining of
available resources and capabilities, and many other plan dimensions can be
represented with a concept map. On the evaluation side, dimensions such as programs,
samples, measures, outcomes and settings can be effectively incorporated in a concept
map (Trochim 2003b).
A number of advantages of the use of concept maps for educational purposes are
supplied by some prominent authors:
- users can distinguish between essential and nice-to-know outcomes,
- themes are easy to discover,

- set ways of thinking are challenged,

- concepts which are key to more than one discipline can be identified,
- appropriate instruction materials can be selected,
- conceptual relationships used for intended program and course outcomes can
easily be explained,
- concept maps provide a basis for discussion and
- concept maps support a holistic style of learning.
A number of others were also listed (Allen and others 1993, Dyrud 1994, Edmondson
1993).
It does appear as if concept mapping has a solid application base in education:

“Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions
into existing cognitive structures” (Novak and others 1983).
Questions which could arise in the reader’s mind at this point could be: “Why another
way to represent information? What is wrong with standard web pages?”
According to van Gie, a structural correspondence does exist between a concept

map and a hyperlinked knowledge network. Both can be viewed as a directed or a
knowledge graph (van Schie 2002).
An interesting study was done by Carnot and others by comparing web pages and
concept maps as storage mediums, and inspecting how effectively users search for
information using both interfaces. Their results suggest that concept map based
interfaces lead to higher accuracy in search performance than a typical webpage based
browser (Carnot and others 2003).
A preliminary conclusion reached at this point is that concept mapping could be a usable
alternative as the main vehicle for the knowledge repository. The wide range of topics
and subtopics which is being envisaged would appear to fit in well with the general
structure of a concept map.
2. Literature Survey
The literature search has identified the following researchers as some of the most prolific
authors/researchers in the field of concept mapping: Coivas, Chu, Gowin, Novak, Rico,
Rossi and Trochim. An attempt was made to investigate at least some of their seminal
papers.
The first thread which became evident from the literature was the large number of
software programs that exists to assist the user in creating concept maps. Secondly, a

number of application fields became evident: from educational, through medical to other
fields less often covered such as law and tourism. These elements are covered in
sequence below.
2.1 Available software

The literature search has provided links to a number of software products which could be
used to create and maintain concept maps – some are free, others are commercial
products.
2.1.1 IHMC Cmap Tools v2.9.1

This product is available as a free downloadable program, and has been used to create
the sample concept map available (cmap.coginst.uwf.edu/samples/index.html).
2.1.2 Inspiration.
This product is sold at $69. (www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech108.shtml).
2.1.3 Kidspirations.
This product is sold at $69. (www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech108.shtml).
2.1.4 EDGE Diagrammer V4.14

Between $50 and $790, depending on features.
http://www.pacestar.com/links/trial.htm
2.1.5 Semnet Software.

No price could be found. http://trumpet.sdsu.edu/Semnet.sit
2.1.6 MindManager.
www.mindjet.com.
2.1.7 Smart Ideas

www.smarttech.com
2.1.8 Visimap
www.visimap.com
2.1.9 Thinkmap
www.thinkmap.com
No doubt are there more examples, but the list above is an indication that many products
do exist and that concept mapping is an accepted and established concept.
2.2 Educational Applications

By far the largest number of applications found for concept mapping was in the
educational area. At least 13 articles described in a variety of ways and levels of detail
how concept maps were used to address some area(s) involving teaching or training.

2.2.1 Adsit claims that concept maps are excellent vehicles for curriculum design, both
in student-centred and problem-centred situations. It is claimed that the emphasis of the
knowledge transfer process moves from “what do I want to teach” to “what do I want
students to learn”. (Adsit 2002).
2.2.2 Hughes and Hay did a study on the integration of various course designers’
perspectives in the development of e-learning materials, using concept mapping. A
constructivist methodology was used at Surrey University, where a design team and
other stakeholders produced their own concept maps. These individual maps were then
integrated by the project manager to produce an overall map, and the process produced
positive results which enabled a more holistic approach to the design process (Hughes
and Hay 2001: 557).
2.2.3 Ruffini found that mind and concept maps could be used with positive results in
education. The creation of an online course map was found to be a useful tool for
assisting teachers to organize and communicate course content to the advantage of
their learners (Ruffini 2002:1,17).
Three studies were found on collaboration and concept mapping:
2.2.4 Cicognani found that concept mapping enhances collaborative learning in a study
on the use of concept mapping as a tool to enhance online learning. However, it is
admitted that much research has to be done before strong conclusions can be made on
the value of concept mapping in this field (Cicognani 2000 150, 156).
2.2.5 Canas and others did a study, similar to Cicognani above, on collaborative
learning in Latin America. Although financial support has since been withdrawn, many of
the schools having participated in this project are still using the system (Canas and
others 2003).
2.2.6 De Simone and others focussed on the support of the learning process using
collaborative concept mapping. Three tools were combined in an effort to advance
student learning: collaborative learning, concept mapping and electronic technologies. It
was found that, although students required instruction on the use of these concepts,
concept mapping and collaborative learning complemented each other positively (De
Simone and others 2001:263, 282).
2.2.7 Chang and others completed an interesting study, by running three parallel
sessions where students are encouraged to construct their own concept maps using one
of three possible methods. The effectiveness of “construct-by-self”, “construct-on-
scaffold” and “construct by paper-and-pencil” respectively are compared. It was found

that the second method was more efficient for biology learning (Chang and others
2001:21, 32).
2.2.8 Ruiz-Primo and others looked at the cognitive interpretations of scores generated
by alternative concept mapping techniques. Again three different methods of presenting
incomplete concept maps to students were used and compared (see Chang and others
above). They found that the “construct-a-map” technique was the most content-rich, and
provided the students with the most freedom (Ruiz-Primo and others 2001:133).
2.2.9 Willson and others considered the use of concept mapping in the evaluation of
the effectiveness of a programme which was designed to develop the understanding of
primary teacher’s view of scientific concepts. Concept mapping was found to be a
flexible method, easy to administer. However, post-course support would be necessary
to elevate the level at which about ¾ of the teachers was operating (Willson and others
1994:121, 125).
2.2.10 Sturm and others did an empirical experiment with learning disabled students and
the writing of descriptive essays, using (again) one of three support systems: no-map,
hand-map and computer-map support. The third method produced significantly more
positive attitudes towards writing, while the last two methods increased a number of
factors in a positive direction (Sturm and others 2002:124, 137).
2.2.11 Chang and others did a study on the effect of concept mapping as a graphic
organizer in assisting towards text learning, again using three different concept mapping
approaches. Results proved that one method enhanced text comprehension and
summarization abilities, while another method facilitated summarization abilities (Chang
and others 2002:5, 20).
2.2.12 Sungur and others used 10th graders in a study on their perception of the human
circulatory system. They found that concept mapping instruction provided a positive
effect on the students’ understanding of the topic.
2.2.13 Kinchin found that he use of concept mapping in UK classrooms is not

widespread. It appears that the two main reasons for the existence of this situation are
beliefs of the teachers and the underlying philosophy of the curriculum.
With one exception, these studies all produced some positive results on the use of
concept maps in education. Some reservations were mentioned, and should not be
ignored when viewing the overall picture. However, it does appear that research has
proven that concept mapping as a tool to organize and present educational materials
has value.

2.3 Healthcare and related Applications

2.3.1 Kim and others did a study on physiology tutorials and causal concept mapping.
It was found that concept mapping facilitated the learning process in the educational
environment (Kim and others 2002:61).
2.3.2 Trochim and others used a support employment program for persons with severe
mental illness in a study based on concept mapping. A number of staff members of a
psychiatric rehabilitation agency interpreted a concept map based on their specific
program activity statements. The implications of this methodology were considered, and
it was found that concept mapping can be used to enhance the evaluation of programs
(Trochim and others 1994).
2.3.3 Marchand and others used a set of diabetic patients as subjects in a study on
their cognitive structure before and after having followed an educational programme.
The study has proven that concept maps are a suitable technique to explore patients’
prior knowledge and to visualize what they have learned after having gone through an
educational programme (Marchand and others 2002:90).
2.3.4 Finally, Kane and others investigated concept mapping as a method to improve
health care decision making, and came to the conclusion that it can bring order to a task
that is otherwise difficult for a group or organization to achieve (Kane and others 2002).
As with the research done on the role of concept maps in education above, evidence
seems to indicate that concept maps had a positive effect in all four these programs.
2.4 Other focus areas
2.4.1 Fong claims to have done the first study on the use of concept maps in the law
arena. A group of students completed an assignment using concept maps, and an
analysis of their reactions has shown that concept maps assisted the majority of the
students in understanding the subject (Fong 1999:1, 14).
2.4.2 Bigne and others used concept mapping as a tool in marketing research, to
establish the determinants of loyalty from the consumer’s point of view. It was found that
concept mapping added objectivity to the results of group dynamics, as found in focus
groups (Bigné and others 2002).
2.4.3 Trochim used a slightly different form of concept mapping as an aid in planning
and evaluation, in an attempt to bring order to a task which is difficult for groups or
organizations to accomplish. Although it is admitted that concept mapping is not the
only way in which group conceptualization can be achieved, its pictorial presentation
makes it a very useful procedure for group presentations (Trochim 2003b).

3. Preliminary Model
A preliminary test model was set up, using the software listed in 2.1.1 above. This was
done to test the concept, and evaluate the ease of use of translating a body of
knowledge from an existing format to a concept map. This sample concept map is
available on http://www.mwe.co.za/carnegie.htm.
Including the time taken to get to know the new program, it took approximately 6 hours
to generate this concept map. This includes the time required to find examples of video,
audio and other files on the Internet, as support for the concept map.
4. Conclusion
It appears from the literature that concept mapping is an established procedure, used
especially when information needs to be organized, presented and retrieved by humans.
Education as an application area is most visible, with a large number of studies having
been done on humans interfacing to knowledge via a concept map.
Bar some provisions and qualifications made by researchers in the research covered
here, all results found were positive. Concept maps appear to:
- increase the efficiency of information retrieval,

- increase the efficiency of teaching via better course content communication,
- enhance collaborative learning,
- produce positive attitudes toward learning,
- enhance text comprehension,
- increase students’ understanding of topics and
- bring order to complex tasks.
Furthermore, the relative ease with which the preliminary model was set up proved that
in principle, concept maps would be easy to implement as main vehicle for a knowledge
repository.
These results have urged the author to base further work on the creation of the
proposed knowledge repository on concept mapping.
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Concept Mapping – a proposed theoretical model for

implementation as a knowledge repository

A working paper from the “ICT in Higher Education” research project

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

1. Introduction and Background

The Hicte project has been subdivided into three sub-projects:

A number of possible vehicles exist on which to build the knowledge repository, as

1.1 Mind Maps

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

1.2 Concept Maps

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

- set ways of thinking are challenged,

It does appear as if concept mapping has a solid application base in education:

According to van Gie, a structural correspondence does exist between a concept

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

2.1 Available software

2.1.1 IHMC Cmap Tools v2.9.1

2.1.4 EDGE Diagrammer V4.14

2.1.5 Semnet Software.

2.1.7 Smart Ideas

2.2 Educational Applications

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

Three studies were found on collaboration and concept mapping:

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

2.2.13 Kinchin found that he use of concept mapping in UK classrooms is not

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

2.3 Healthcare and related Applications

2.4 Other focus areas

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

- increase the efficiency of information retrieval,

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

Bigné, J.E. et al. 2002. The concept mapping approach in marketing: an

Buzan, T. 1989. Use your Head. London: BBC Books.

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Edmondson, K.M. 1993. Concept mapping for the development of Medical

Hicte. 2003. University of the Western Cape. http://www.uwc.ac.za/ems/is/hicte/

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

Lanzing, J. 1997. The Concept Mapping Homepage.

Marchand, C. et al. 2002. An analysis, using concept mapping, of diabetic

Martin, D.J. 1994. Concept mapping as an aid to lesson planning: a longitudinal

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Sturm, J.M. and Rankin-Erickson, J.L. 2002. Effects of Hand-Drawn and

Sungur, S., Tekkaya, C. and Geban, O. 2001. The Contribution of Conceptual

Trochim, W.M.K. 2003a. Q & A, What is Concept Mapping?

Trochim, W.M.K. 2003b. An Introduction to concept mapping for planning and

Van Schie, J.P. 2002. Visualization tools for knowledge management.

Willson, M., Williams, D. and Adamczyk, P. 1994. Evaluating Science INSET

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Baldissera, J. A. 1993. Misconceptions Of Revolution In History Textbooks and Their

Bennett, P. W. and K. Fraser 1990. Using Concept Maps to Improve Communication

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

Buchweitz, B. B. 1981. An Epistemological Analysis of Curriculum and an

Chen, H.-H. 1980. Relevance of Gowin's Structure of Knowledge and Ausubel's

Donn, J. S. 1990. The Relationship Between Student Learning Approach and

Edmondson, K. M. 1985. College Students' Conceptions of Their Responsibilities for

Farrokh, K. 1993. A Connectionist Approach to Information Transfer Between Short-

Fisher, K. M. August, 1993. Using SemNet™ as a learning tool in an inquiry-based

ICT in Higher Education Sub project 1: Information Management Competencies

Fisher, K.M. 1993. Metacognitive Tools: Concept Mapping. Proceedings of The