Villaruel, Sandra D.

January 27, 2020

BSBA BE 1-3 PCM 0006 – Purposive Communication

 Communicative Competence

Concept: Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence as a synthesis of an

underlying system of knowledge and skill needed for communication. Knowledge refers to the

conscious or unconscious knowledge of an individual about language and about other aspects of

language use. According to them, there are three types of knowledge: knowledge of underlying

grammatical principles, knowledge of how to use language in a social context in order to fulfill

communicative functions and knowledge of how to combine utterances and communicative

functions with respect to discourse principles. In addition, their concept of skill refers to how an

individual can use the knowledge in actual communication. According to Canale (1983), skill

requires a further distinction between underlying capacity and its manifestation in real

communication, that is to say, in performance.

Canale and Swai n(1983) described communicative competence as the ability to function

in a truly communicative setting that is, in a dynamic exchange in which linguistic competence

must adapt itself to the total informational input, both linguistic and paralinguistic, of one or

more interlocutors, the nature of communicative competence is not static but dynamic; it is more

interpersonal than intrapersonal and relative rather than absolute. It is also largely defined by

context. Competence can be observed, developed, maintained and evaluated only through

performance.
Canale and Swain’s Model:

Canale and Swain developed theory of communicative competence based on Hymes’

work. Their initial framework was proposed in 1980 and included three main components:

grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Canale later

revised this framework in 1983 by breaking sociolinguistic competence into two separate

components: sociolinguistic competence and discourse competence. The four domains of

communicative competence in Canale and Swain’s Model can be described as follows:

1. Grammatical Competence: refers to the ability to use the language correctly, how well

a person has learned features and rules of the language. This includes vocabulary,

pronunciation, and sentence formation. This type of competence will be understood to

include knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-

grammar semantics, and phonology. The goal includes providing learners with the

knowledge of how to determine and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances.

2. Sociolinguistic Competence: Refers to the learner’s ability to use language correctly in

specific social situations. For example, using proper language forms at a job interview.

Socio-linguistic competence specifies the ways in which utterances are produced and

understood appropriately. Appropriate attitude and register or styles are conveyed by a

particular grammatical form within a given sociocultural context. Basically, it is based

upon such factors as the status of those speaking to each other, the purpose of the

interaction, and the expectations of the players.

3. Discourse competence: Canale (1983) described discourse competence as mastery of

rules that determine ways in which forms and meanings are combined to achieve a

meaningful unity of spoken or written texts. The unity of a text is enabled by cohesion in
 form and coherence in meaning. Cohesion is achieved by the use of cohesion devices

such as pronouns, conjunctions, synonyms, etc. which help to link individual sentences

and utterances to a structural whole. The means for achieving coherence, repetition,

progression, consistency, relevance of ideas etc., enable the organization of meaning, i.e.

establish a logical relationship between groups of utterances.

4. Strategic Competence: Refers to strategies for effective communication when the

learner’s vocabulary proves inadequate for the job, and his or her command of useful

learning strategies. Strategic competence is how well the person uses both verbal forms

and non-verbal communication to compensate for lack of knowledge in the other three

competencies. These strategies include paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, reluctance,

avoidance of words, structures or themes, guessing, changes of register and style,

modifications of messages etc.

REFERENCES:
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second
language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics,1, 1-47. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Merrill_Swain/publication/31260438_Theoretical
Bases_of_Communicative_Approaches_to_Second_Language_Teaching_and_Testing/lin
ks/0c960516b1dadad753000000/Theoretical-Bases-of-Communicative-Approaches-to-
Second-Language-Teaching-and-Testing.pdf

Bagarić, V. (2007). Defining Communicative Competence. 8(1), 94-103. Retrieved from

https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/42651

Fauziati, E. (2015). A State of the Art of Communicative Competence Theory. Ahmad Dahlan
Journal of English Studies (ADJES), 2(2), 1-10. Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c915/4593e8e267b83379f294cf01eeda59b51162.pdf
  Critical Thinking

Concept: Critical thinking is the process of analyzing and assessing thinking with a view to

improving it. Critical thinking presupposes knowledge of the most basic structures in thinking

the elements of thought and the most basic intellectual standards for thinking (universal

intellectual standards). The key to the creative side of critical is in restructuring thinking as a

result of analyzing and effectively assessing it (Paul, R., & Elder, L., 2007).

Critical thinking is the set of intellectual skills, abilities and dispositions. That leads to

content mastery and deep learning. It develops appreciation for reason and evidence. It

encourages to discover and process information, and to do so with discipline. It teaches to think

their way to conclusions, defend positions on complex issues, consider a wide variety of

viewpoints, analyze concepts, theories, and explanations, clarify issues and conclusions, solve

problems, transfer ideas to new contexts, examine assumptions, assess alleged facts, explore

implications and consequences, and increasingly come to terms with the contradictions and

inconsistencies in their own thought and experience. This is the thinking, and alone the thinking,

that masters content. (Paul, R., & Elder, L., 2007).

Richard Paul and Linda Elder postulate that there are at least nine intellectual standards

important to skilled reasoning in everyday life. These are clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance,

depth, breadth, logicalness, significance, and fairness.

Essential Intellectual Standards: An Explication

Clarity: Clarity is a “gateway” standard. If a statement is unclear, one cannot determine whether

it is accurate or relevant. Understandable, the meaning can be grasped; to free from confusion or

ambiguity, to remove obscurities.

Precision: Exact to the necessary level of detail, specific. A statement can be both clear and

accurate, but not precise. Thinking is always more or less precise. It is likely that one does not

fully understand a statement excepts to the extent that he or she can specify it in detail.

Accuracy: Free from errors, mistakes or distortions; true or correct. A statement can be clear but

not accurate; thinking is always more or less accurate. It is useful to assume that a statement’s

accuracy has not been fully assessed except to the extent that one has checked to determine

whether it represents things as they really are.

Relevance: Bearing upon or relating to the matter at hand; implies a close logical relationship

with, and importance to, the matter under consideration. A statement can be clear, accurate, and

precise but not relevant to the question at issue.

Depth: containing complexities and multiple interrelationships, implies thoroughness in thinking

through the many variables in the situation, context, idea, or question. A statement can be clear,

accurate, precise, and relevant, but superficial. Thinking can either function at the surface of

things or probe beneath that surface to deeper matters and issues.

Breadth: encompassing multiple viewpoints, comprehensive in view, wide ranging and

broadminded in perspective. A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and

deep but lack breadth as in an argument from either the conservative or liberal standpoints which

details the complexities in an issue, but only recognizes insights from one perspective.

Logic: the parts make sense together, no contradictions; in keeping with the principles of sound

judgment and reasonability. When the combination of thoughts is mutually supporting and

makes sense in combination, the thinking is logical. When the combination is not mutually

supporting, it is contradictory or does not make sense, the combination is not logical.
Significance: having importance, being of consequence; having considerable or substantial

meaning when reasoning through an issue, one should concentrate on the most important

information and take into account the most important ideas or concepts. It can focus on what is

most substantive, what is of the highest consequence, what has the most important implications;

or it can focus on the trivial and superficial.

Fairness: free from bias, dishonesty, favoritism, selfish-interest, deception or injustice. Humans

naturally think from a personal perspective, from a point of view that tends to privilege their

position. Fairness implies the treating of all relevant viewpoints alike without reference to one’s

own feelings or interests. Because everyone tends to be biased in favor of their own viewpoint, it

is important to keep the intellectual standard of fairness at the forefront of thinking.

REFERENCES:
Patterson,M. (2006) The Minitiure Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Retrieved
from:https://www.academia.edu/10006132/Critical_Thinking.Concepts_and_Tools_by_R
ichard_Paul _and_Linda_Elder
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). A guide for educators to critical thinking competency standards.
Dillon Beach, CA; Foundation for Critical Thinking Retrieved from:
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ986272.pdf

Paul, R., Elder, L., & Bartell, T. (1997). California teacher preparation for instruction in critical
thinking: Research findings and policy recommendations. Sacramento, CA:
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1067269.pdf

Athanassiou, N. (2003) Critical Thinking in the Management Classroom: Bloom’s Taxonomy as

a Learning Tool. Journal of Management Education, 27(5) 1-23. Retrieved from:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.978.1379&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 Bloom’s taxonomy is a method to improve the exchange of ideas among scholars who

were working on ways to discuss comparisons in student achievement within a larger effort to

develop standardized testing (Bloom, 1956). His general approach is called mastery learning.

Bloom’s taxonomy is a six-level classification system that uses observed student behavior to

infer the level of student achievement. Moving from simple to more complexes, the taxonomy’s

levels include knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Although the construct is hierarchical, subsequent classes of behavior include some, but not

necessarily all, of the behaviors found in the lower levels. Thus, this is a hierarchical framework

of conceptual sophistication. This

fuzzy characteristic may actually be

part of the taxonomy’s strength as a

heuristic tool.
Intercultural Communication

Jandt (2003) defined that intercultural communication, in its most general sense, occurs

when one culture produces a message for interpretation by a member of another culture. It can be

interpreted that intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural

perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication events.

Schmidt et al. (2007) gave a definition of intercultural communication saying that it is a

recognition process that people from different cultures reach their goals by trying to understand

each other’s cultural awareness. The difference between intercultural communication and other

types of communication is that intercultural communication is interacting with people from

different cultures.

According to Hofstede et al. (2010), culture is civilization, training and mind. They are

not rules that regulate social behaviors but they help people distinguish one group from another.

Human civilizations create and form culture during the evolution process. In a globalized world,

material and the spirit of civilization gives a novel feeling to everyone. Meanwhile it is

challenging human beings to tolerate the vast cultural differences. The different accounts of

cultures within countries contain regional, ethnic and religious; ethic and religious transcend the

border of politics (Hofstede et al., 2010). There are five important dimensions in Hofstede et al.

(2010) theory that are power distance, individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance,

masculinity versus femininity and long-term orientation versus short-term orientation.

  Power Distance

The first dimension is how people in the organization and society tolerate and handle hierarchy

and distribution of power. Power distance is related to grade. Different countries have different

understanding of power, so there are significant variations. Some cultures put more emphasis on

authority, status, qualifications, but other countries do not emphasis that much. According to

Hofstede et al. (2010), power distance can be defined as less powerful people of institution and

organization in countries that expect and accept the power is distributed unequally. This

dimension is related to organization structure in which hierarchical level can be recognized.

 Individualism versus collectivism

In this dimension it emphasizes the connection between people and groups. The point is to focus

on the relationship awareness in organizations and countries. The extreme ways of individualism

and collectivism can be seen as the opposite side in the global culture. According to Hofstede et

al. (2010), individualism refers the relationship between individuals are loose; people want them

or their families to be cared for by others. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism; it refers

to that people in societies, from when they were born, are expected to integrate strongly in a

group.

 Masculinity versus femininity

This dimension focuses on the questions about values of females and males in societies.

Masculine approach confidence, to be strong, successful and challenging whereas the feminine

approach humility, to be gentle and cooperative. According to Hofstede et al (2010), femininity

refers to that gender roles overlap in society, both men and women should be modest, caring of

life quality and considerate.

  Uncertainty avoidance

This dimension emphasizes the uncertainty issues in unknown future. Uncertainty avoidance is

defined as organizations or groups that encounter uncertainty, when threatened; they attempt to

avoid the degree of uncertainty through safety rules and other facets of escape. People use three

ways: technology, law and religion to resist the uncertainty of the future (Hofstede et al., 2010).

 Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation

According to Hofstede et al. (2010) Long-term orientation is a dimension of national cultures

that emphasize unity; it stands for perseverance and adapting to change current behaviours to be

adapted to future purpose. Short-term orientation focuses on past and present virtues, for instance

face, respect, national pride and social responsibility (Hofstede et al., 2010). In this dimension

long-term orientation mainly represents Confucianism and presents entrepreneurial and

indomitable spirit.

Other Model

In 1976, Edward T. Hall suggested that culture was similar to an iceberg. He proposed

that culture has two components and that only few of culture or the external or surface culture is

easily visible, but the majority of the culture or the internal is hidden below the surface. Hall

defines intercultural communication as a form of communication that shares information across

different cultures and social groups. One framework for approaching intercultural

communication is with high-context and low-context cultures, which refer to the value cultures

place on indirect and direct communication.

High-Context Cultures

A high-context culture relies on implicit communication and nonverbal cues. In high-

context communication, a message cannot be understood without a great deal of background

information. Asian, African, Arab, central European and Latin American cultures are generally

considered to be high-context cultures.

High-context cultures often display the following tendencies, according to C.B.

Halverson’s book Cultural Context Inventory.

 Association: Relationships build slowly and depend on trust. Productivity depends on

relationships and the group process. An individual’s identity is rooted in groups (family,

culture, work). Social structure and authority are centralized.

 Interaction: Nonverbal elements such as voice tone, gestures, facial expression and eye

movement are significant. Verbal messages are indirect, and communication is seen as an

art form or way of engaging someone.

  Territoriality: Space is communal. People stand close to each other and share the same

space.

 Temporality: Everything has its own time, and time is not easily scheduled. Change is

slow, and time is a process that belongs to others and nature.

 Learning: Multiple sources of information are used. Thinking proceeds from general to

specific. Learning occurs by observing others as they model or demonstrate and then

practicing. Groups are preferred, and accuracy is valued.

Low-Context Cultures

A low-context culture relies on explicit communication. In low-context communication,

more of the information in a message is spelled out and defined. Cultures with western European

roots, such as the United States and Australia, are generally considered to be low-context

cultures. Low-context cultures often display the following tendencies, according to Halverson.

 Association: Relationships begin and end quickly. Productivity depends on procedures

and paying attention to the goal. The identity of individuals is rooted in themselves and

their accomplishments. Social structure is decentralized.

 Interaction: Nonverbal elements are not significant. Verbal messages are explicit, and

communication is seen as a way of exchanging information, ideas and opinions.

Disagreement is depersonalized; the focus is on rational (not personal) solutions. An

individual can be explicit about another person’s bothersome behavior.

 Territoriality: Space is compartmentalized. Privacy is important, so people stand farther

apart.
 Temporality: Events and tasks are scheduled and to be done at particular times. Change

is fast, and time is a commodity to be spent or saved. One’s time is one’s own.

 Learning: One source of information is used. Thinking proceeds from specific to

general. Learning occurs by following the explicit directions and explanations of others.

Individual orientation is preferred, and speed is valued.

REFERENCES:

Lui, L. (2012) “Cross-cultural Communication With a focus on Swedish and Chinese

employees” Business Administration Master’s Thesis. 1-64. Retrieved from:

http://kau.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:550204/FULLTEXT01

(2016) Intercultural Communication: High- and Low-Context Cultures. Southern

University Online Learning, Retrieved from:
https://online.seu.edu/articles/high-and-low-context-cultures/