EconomicGeology

Vol 76, 1981, pp. 1775-1783

Geology,Mineralogy,and Chemistryof Lateritie Nickel-Cobalt

Depositsnear Kalgoorlie,Western Australia
M. ELIAS,M. J. DONALDSON,AND N. G1ORGETTA
WesternMining CorporationLimited, KambaldaNickel Operations,Kambalda,WesternAustralia6442, Australia

Abstract

In the Kalgoorliearea of WesternAustralia,significantdepositsof Ni-Co laterite are de-

velopedon large ultramaficcomplexesat Siberiaand Bulong.The ultramaficrocksform part
of extensiveArchcangreenstonebeltsin the granitoidterrain of the southeastern Yilgarn
Block,and were lateritizedduring Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary times.
The lateriteprofiledevelopedover serpentinizeddunitc and peridotitcis divided into four
zoneson the basisof morphology,mineralogy,and chemicalcomposition. In the oxidized
bedrockzone,Ni-rich "saproliticserpentine"andsmectitearedevelopedin jointsandfractures
in the bedrock.The overlyingsaprolitezoneconsists predominantlyof "saproliticserpentine"
and may retainbedrockstructures and textures.It is characterized by a decrease of Mg and
an increasein Ni upward.A well-definedclay zoneis commonlydevelopedover the Bulong
saprolitezone.The clayzoneiscomposed essentially
of nontroniteandquartz,andcommonly
containsNi valuesof i to 2 percent.The limohirezoneoccursat the top of the profile and
may consist of an upperhematite-richsectionand a lowergoethite-richsection.The limonite
zone is rich in Fe, A1, and Cr and is formed by residualconcentrationof stableoxides.A
concentration of Mn oxides,commonlycontaininghigh Co and Ni grades,occursat the base
of the limonitezone.Where sufficientlythick, Co and Ni-rich Mn concentrations havebeen
minedfor directsmelterfeed to augmentCo and Ni productionfrom KambaldaNi sulfides.
Physicaland chemicalcharacteristics of the underlyingbed rock are importantcontrolson
the distribution of Ni and Co accumulations.
The modeof occurrence of Ni andthepresence
of Co aresignificant
factorsin theeconomics
of exploitingthesedeposits.

Introduction Although no Western AustralianNi laterites are

ALTHOUGHa major part of the total Ni resourceof
WesternAustraliais in sulfidedeposits,lateritic Ni
neverthelessconstitutesa significantcomponent.The
combination of largeultramaficcomplexes and a pe-
riod of intensivedeep weatheringand laterite for-
mationin the early Tertiary hasled to the develop-
ment of lateritic Ni-Co depositsat many locations
throughoutthe state.Althoughcommonlyencoun-
tered in explorationdrillingfor Ni sulfidesin ultra-
marlcssince1966,the lateriteshaveonlyrarelybeen
investigated
in detail.At Wingelinnanearthe South
Australianborder,extensivedrilling of Ni laterites
proved a reserve of 56 million metric tons at 1.24
percent Ni (Spriggand Rochow,1975), but the de-
positis remoteand hasnot beendeveloped.Deposits
at Ore Bandanorthof Kalgoorliewere investigated most detail. However, as the economies of laterite
in detail by percussion
drilling (Loftus-Hills,1975) mining projectsdependsheavilyon the associated
and were estimated to contain some :30 million metric
tons at 1.:3 percent Ni (Woodall, 1974). A smaller
depositnear Pyke Hill, eastof Leonora,hasan in-
dicatedreserveof 10 to 15 millionmetrictons(Wil-
liamset al., 1976).The Bulongareaeastof Kalgoorlie
hasrecentlybeeninvestigated in detailby the West-
ern Mining CorporationLimited and is currently
being evaluated.
1775
currentlyexploitedon a large scale,small-scalemin-
ing operationshave been establishedrecently in re-
sponseto two specificdevelopments:(1) a require-
ment for siliceous flux for the flash furnace at the
Kalgoorlienickel smelterhas led to the mining of
silicaand Ni-enriehedlateritiecapping,and (2) high
Co prices have led to the exploitationof small Co-
rich Mn depositsas direct smelter feed. Both these
operationshave centeredon a part of the Ora Banda
Ni lateritesnear the locality of Siberia,and Siberia
laterite is usedto refer to thesespecificlaterite types
to distinguishthem from the more widespreadOra
Banda Ni laterites (Loftus-Hills, 1975).
In thispaperw.eare concernedlargelywith exten-
sive Ni laterites,and as the Bulong deposithas the
greatestpotential for development,it is discussedin
Co,
its occurrenceis alsodiscussed
briefly.
Location and Regional Geologic Setting
The Ni lateritesin the Kalgoorlieregion are de-
veloped over Archcan ultramafic rocks which form
part of extensivegreenstonebelts in the predomi-
nantly granitic terrain of the southeastern
Yilgarn
Block (Fig. 1).
1776 ELIAS, DONALDSON,AND GIORGETTA

and extensivevalleysare underlain by lateritic col-

luvium and alluvium, derived from erosion of the
-• Gromte
originally continuouslateritized land surface.The
l'•-• Greenstone region is semi-arid, with an average annual rainfall
• Ultromof•c
ComlDl•x
of about200 mm, generallyresultingfrom infrequent
0 I0 20
shortperiodsof heavy rainfall.
Kilomillers

The Bulong Laterite Deposit

Profilemorphology
The laterite profiledevelopedover ultramaficrocks
at Bulongshowslarge variationsin total thickness,in
thicknessand continuity of individual zones,and in
mineralogicaland chemical characteristics,com-
monly over shortdistances.The total thicknessof the
profile may exceed100 m, with the thickestprofiles
commonlydevelopedover the mostmagnesianrock
types. The complete profile consistsof four zones,
here termed the oxidized bedrock zone, the saprolite
zone,the clay zone,and at the top, the limonite zone.
FIO. 1. GeneralizedArcheangeologyof the Kalgoorlieregion.
Other terms usedfor equivalentzoneselsewhereare
parenthesized in the followingdescription.
Unweatheredbed rock gradesupward into the ox-
The BulongComplex, about 40 km east of Kal- idized bedrock zone (hard saprolite,saprolitic peri-
goorlie,consists of a largenumberof metamorphosed dotite) with the oxidation of primary minerals in
sillsup to 400 m thick of overall peridotiticcompo- joints and fracturesabove about 100 m depth. This
sition intruded into a sequenceof metamorphosed in turn gradesinto the saprolitezone(serpentineore,
calc-alkalinevolcanicsand sediments(Williams, 1977; softsaprolite,softserpentine),which is largelycom-
Moeskops,1977). Many of the sillsare layered, typ- posedof altered primary minerals;originalbedrock
ically comprisinga thick sectionof serpentinizedol- structuresand texturesare commonlywell preserved.
ivine-rich cumulatescapped by thin altered pyrox- The zoneis generallygray-greenand variesfrom 10
enitic and noritic units.The complexhasbeentightly to 50 m thick.
folded, resultingin steeplydipping lithologiccon- The clay zone (intermediatezone,smectite-quartz
tacts. zone,nontronitezone,mottledclay zone)overliesthe
The Siberia Complex, about 100 km north of Kal- saprolitezone but is not always well developed.It
goorlie, is an ultramafic complex associatedwith variesin thicknessup to about15 m and iscommonly
metamorphosed tholeiiticand komatiiticbasaltswhich characterizedby lime-green,or mottled green and
have beea•intruded by granitoid. The mafic-ultra- brown, clays.There is lesspreservationof relic bed-
maficsequence isfoldedintoa complex,south-plung- rock texturesthan in the saprolitezone.
ing syncline.Laterite developmentobscuresmostof The clay zonepasses upwardinto the limonitezone
the ultramafic rocksfrom direct field observation,but (ferruginouszone, laterite sensustricto, ferralite),
preservedtextures in some of the laterite together which varies from 5 to 15 m thick. At the base of this
with limited drill and outcropinformation showthat zone,and extendinginto the upper part of the clay
the ultramafic complex comprisesa seriesof koma- zone, an Mn oxide-rich horizon (asbolite,Mn wad)
tiitic flowsintruded near the baseby a dunite-peri- is commonlydeveloped,particularlyif the clay zone
dotite layeredsill. Developmentof Ni-Co laterite is is absent.The limonite zoneis in many areasreadily
predominantlyassociated with the sill.The ultramafic divisibleby color into a lower, yellow-brown(mus-
rocksof the sill complexhave been metamorphosed tard) geothite-richsection(lateritejaune) and an up-
at low grade,forming serpentine-amphibole-chloriteper, red-brownhematite-richsection(lateriterouge).
assemblages in the peridotitesand serpentinitein the A pisoliticsection(nodularironstone)may be devel-
dunite, with rare relic olivine. oped toward the top of the limonite zone. The pi-
The Bulongand Siberiaareasboth showmoderate solithsare commonlycementednear the surfaceto
topographicrelief, with hillsof resistantironstoneand form a ferricrete layer (iron cap, canga,duricrust,
silica-dominatedlaterite commonly bounded by es- plinthite zone).A few metersof alluvium may cover
carpments("breakaways").Gentlyslopingpediments the in situ laterite.
 LATERITIC Ni-Co DEPOSITS NEAR KALGOORLIE 1777

DEPTH ZONE MODAL MINERALOGY CHEMICAL VARIATION

, i I

TO
WEIGHT % WEIGHT % WEIGHT
FIc. 2. Typicalmineralogicalandchemicalprofilethroughlaterite,BulongComplex.A = antigorite,
C -- calcite and dolomite,G = goethite,H = hematite;K = kaolin, N = nontronite,Q = quartz, S
= spinel(magnetiteand chromite_ maghemite).Major elementsby X-ray fluorescence after fusionto
glass
disc;traceelements
by atomicabsorption
spectrometry
afternitric-perchloric
aciddigestion.
Min-
eralogical
profileconstructed
bycombination
of qualitativeX-raydiffractiondataandchemicalconstraints
providedby analyticdata.

Profilemineralogyand geochemistry drill holebut consists

mostlyof antigoritewith minor
spinel(chromiteor magnetite).Asdescribedby Moes-
The main mineralogicaland chemical features kops (1977), bedrockchemistryis characterizedby
of the Bulong laterite profile are outlined about40 percentMgO and low Fe, A1,and Ca. The
with referenceto a typicalexampleshownin Fig- averageNi contentin unweatheredultramafic rocks
ure 2. is 0.2 to 0.$ percent.
Unweathered bedrock is not encountered in this In the oxidized bedrock zone, smectite and Ni-rich
1778 ELIAS,
DONALDSON,
ANDGIORGETTA

serpentineare developed on joints and fractures. The

Ni-rich serpentine("saproliticserpentine")becomes
predominantin the saprolitezone. Despite consid-
erablechemicalcomposition changes(e.g.,gainin Ni,
lossof Mg) in the alterationof bedrockantigoriteto
saproliticserpentine,particularlynear the top of the
zone, the two mineralsare almostindistinguishable
by X-ray diffraction.Relic chromite,magnetite,and
rarely chlorite and talc are alsopresent.Minor smec-
tite and secondaryopaline or chalcedonicsilica are
common,particularly toward the top of the zone.The
main chemical features of the zone are a consistent
decreasein Mg and an increasein Ni and Si content
upward (Fig. 2).
The transitionto the clay zone is defined by the
abruptdisappearance of serpentinein X-ray diffrac-
tion analysesand its replacementby smectite.The
clay is probablynontronite,as it is Fe rich and has
very low AI and Mg contents,thusprecludingmont-
morillonite (sensustricto) and saponite.Minor relic
chromiteand magnetitealsooccur,and geothitebe-
comes prominent toward the top of the zone. Sec-
ondarysilicacharacteristically accompanies smectite
in the clay zoneand is reflectedin the chemicalpro-
file by an increasein Si content.
The transitioninto the limonite zone is accompa-
nied by a marked increasein Fe, A1, and Cr and a
decreasein Mg and Si contents.The Mn oxide-rich
horizon,if present,is composedof fine-grainedMn
oxidesapparently intimately intergrown with goe-
thite,makingtheindividualMn oxidemineralspecies
difficult to identify by X-ray techniquesalone. The
phasespresentinclude cryptomelaneand Ni-Co an-
aloguesof todorokiteand chalcophanite(discussed
further in a later sectionon Co-rich laterites).
The goethite-richsectionof the limonitezoneprin-
cipally containskaolinitc and goethite, apparently
very finely intergrown,as X-ray diffraction traces
show that even apparently pure kaolinitc contains
appreciable goethite. Minor smectite, hematite,
maghemite,and quartz also occur. The goethiteis
poorlycrystallineand X-ray diffractiondata (method
of Zeissink,1969) indicate that it containsup to 10
mole percent A10(OH) in solid solution.In the he-
matite-richsection,hematitepredominates over goe-
thite, and the sectioncharacteristicallycontainsless
kaolinitcand more quartz than the goethite-richsec-
Lorerite cover tion.Residualchromitemay be stronglyconcentrated
here. Minor concentrationsof Mn oxidesmay occur
Ultromofic with
fully stripped lorerite
mostly
or near the base of the hematite section.
Inlerpreted boundoryof ultromofic The limonite zone is characterizedby a very low
Fault
Mg contentand Fe, AI, and Cr are stronglyenriched
relative to the lower zones. The hematite-rich section
Position of cross-section shown
in Figure 4
0 I 2 3
i I I
Kilometers FIG. •3. Part of the Bulong Complex showingareasof intact
laterite cover and interpreted boundaryof ultramafic.
 LATERITIC Ni-Co DEPOSITS NEAR KALGOORLIE 1779

B
360

340 34O

RL RL
(rn)
33O 33O

07%• NI<I I%

I1%•N1<15%

Ni:•l 5%

0 50
I I

Meters

.........................
•::• ...................
i::i•iii?:i::i::i::i?!
.......
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::: .:.: :.' :g::::::: -:.:-:-:.'.% ..•:•."T..'•.5•::: 350
ß o. o. o/ ' '.'.'.'.'.'.::::::::!: .::::.. - ..:::.- •:•:.•, .•:.::::::.....•:::.. ß ..:,:....:.:

I c•
•o•
FIG. 4. Crosssection(naturalscale)interpretedfrom 5-m-spaced drill holesin the BulongComplex
-
showing:a, nickelisogradsand b, laterite profilezones.Dashedline showsthe outlineof ore zonein a.
Positionof crosssectionis shownin Figure $.

haslowerA1andhigherFe contents
thanthegoethite- thickzonesof Ni andCo enrichmentmay occurad-
rich section. jacent to these mafic units.
Ore distribution Cobalt-Rich Laterites
Althoughthe BulongComplexprobablyhad con- Concentrations
of Co occurin mostlateriteprofiles
tinuouslaterite cover at some time, erosionhas re- throughout
the Bulongand Siberiaareas(e.g., Fig.
moveda significantproportionand extensiveintact 2), mostlyconfinedto the Mn oxide-richhorizonnear
lateriteis now confinedto the northwestern part of the baseof the limonitezoneor in the upper clay
the complex(Fig. $). Evaluationof the lateritic Ni zone.The horizonis generallyirregularand discon-
resources has involvedmainly shallowdrilling to tinuous,rarely exceeding(3m in thickness.Massive
depthsup to 50 m. Mostdrillingwasdoneby con- Mn-Fe oxidesarebestdevelopedwherethe clayzone
ventionalopenhole,air blastrotary,androtaryper- is poorlydevelopedor absent.Nickel is alsoenriched
cussionmethods,with samplesbeing taken every in the Mn oxides but to a lesser extent than is Co.
meter. Drilling conditionsin lateriticterrain vary In the Siberia area, a number of Mn-Co-Ni con-
widely,andproblemswith porousand unconsolidated centrationshave developedto a sufficient extent to
lateriticmaterial,resultingin lossof circulationand beof interestasa distinctoretype.The concentrations
samplecontamination, are frequentlyencountered. occur in lateritized dunite-peridotiteadjacentto a
Thedistribution of Ni gradesandtheirrelationship lateritizeddoleritedike of probableProterozoic
age
to the lateriteprofileare illustrated
in Figure4. The whichcutsthe ultramaficcomplex.The oreshaveCo
highestNf gradesoccurin theclayzone,particularly gradesof between0.1 and 1.0 percent,locallyex-
in the upper clay zonenear the baseof the limonite ceeding2 percent,and Ni gradesof generally1 to
zone, and Ni gradesof 1 to 2 percent are common. (3percent.A geochemical profilethroughan ore pod
The upper part of the saprolitezoneand the lower is shownin Figure 5, and a crosssectionshowingthe
limohirezonehaveNi gradesof 0.7 to 1.0 percent. spatial relationshipwith the lateritized dolerite is
Ore distributionmay be locallycontrolledby the shownin Figure 6. Localizationof theseCo-richores
presence
of maficunitsin theultramaficstratigraphy, hasbeenstronglyinfluencedby bedrockstructures
whichare moreresistant to lateritization.
Unusually suchas faults which have displacedthe dolerite.
1780 ELIAS,DONALDSON,AND GIORGETTA

Mn oxidepisolithsconsistof alternatinglayersof var-

iousMn oxidephasesand chalcedonicsilica.Coatings
of Mn oxidesshowa similar layered structure.
The Mn oxidemineralsare alwaysassociated with
fine-grainedFe oxides(goethite,maghemite,hema-
tite), secondarysilica, minor clays (smectite,kaolin-
ite), and rare relic chromite.X-ray diffractionstudy
and microprobe analysisof hand-picked material
haveindicateda varietyof unusualoxides,principally
Ni and Co analogues of todorokiteandchalcophanite,
aswell ascryptomelane.Microprobeanalyses of some
ore mineralsare givenin Table 1. Theseanalysesare
of Mn oxides in bands about 0.01 mm thick alter-
nating with thin silica bandsto form cavity-filling
botryoidalor stalactiticstructures.
Discussion
16-
Smith(1977)hasdescribedthe generalfeaturesof
laterites in the Archean shield of Western Australia,
18-
stressing the greaterdepth of weatheringin this en-
vironment (about 100 m) compared with modern
20
0 tropical laterites(about 40 m). He has alsodiscussed
Wt% Ni & Co the complex profilesthat develop from subsequent
prolongedweathering, erosional,and depositional
F]c. 5. Geochemical profilethroughan Mn-Co orebody,Siberia
Complex.Positionof the profileis shownin Figure 6. episodes.Lateritization is believed to have occurred
during pluvial climatic conditionsin the Late Cre-
taceousto early Tertiary (van de Graaff et al., 1977),
The Co-richMn oxidesgenerallyoccurasdiscrete althoughpreciseagesare not known.Postlateritiza-
masses within the hostrock,asvoid infillingsin the tion erosion has removed some of the laterite, but the
host,or asthin coatingson the host.Ore in discrete presentarid climate,low topographicrelief, and tec-
masses is pisolitic,and the pisoliths,rangingin size tonicstabilityhaveresultedin the survivalof a large
fromlessthan1 to 10 mm, maybecementedor loose. proportionof the lateritecoverin the Kalgoorliearea.
In a clayhost,suchasmottledclayor clayeygoethite, The generalchemicaland mineralogical processes
the pisolithsare generallyuncemented,whereasin thoughtto apply in formationof Ni lateritesin the
a hostsuchas massive,cementedpisoliticgoethite, areasdescribedhere are summarizedbriefly below.
the Mn oxidepisolithsare cemented.The individual More detailedaccountsof lateritizationas it applies

Iimitere
5 FIG. 6. Crosssectionthroughan Mn-Co orebody,SiberiaComplex,showingCo isograds
and the
relationship
of the orebodyto a steeplydippingdoleritedike.
 LATERITIC Ni-Co DEPOSITSNEAR KALGOORLIE 1781

to ultramaficrocksin generalare given by Webber T^BLE 1. ElectronMicroprobeAnalysesof RepresentativeMn

Oxide Minerals (in wt %)
(1972) and Golightly(1979a).
1. Dissolution
of bed rockbeginsby alterationof Analysis 1 2 5
serpentine(or olivine) in a mildly alkaline environ-
SiO2 0.56 5.19 0.19
ment to form more stablesmectiteclaysor Ni ser- TiO2 0.02 0.02 0.01
pentines.Ionic exchangereactionsare important in MnO2 58.96 44.65 61.55
thisstageof alteration(saproliteformation)suchas: Cr20a 0.01 0.01 0.01
Mg serpentine + Ni+2• Ni serpentine 4- Mg+2. A120,• 0.72 1.95 0.19
FeO 0.62 2.16 0.18
2. With continued leachingof Mg+2in all but stag-
MgO 5.15 2.19 0.61
nant ground-waterconditions,smectiteclays (non- NiO 7.54 14.77 11.61
tronite) may form in a mildly alkaline environment CoC 8.85 10.87 1.78
(pH "-'9):Ni serpentine
• Ni-richnontronite
+ Mg+•
Total 80.01 79.77 75.95
4- silica.The silicamay be either precipitatedor re-
moved in solution.
HaO (= difference) 19.99 20.25 24.07
8. Higher in the profile,abovethe ancientwater
table, nontronite breaks down in more acid conditions 1. Fine-grained
massive
materialin coreof Mn oxide-Feoxide-
andsilicaislostin solution:Ni-rich nontronitem goe- silicastalactiticstructure;averageof 2 spotanalyses
thite + quartz + Si+=+ Ni +=.While someof the Ni 2. Fine-grainedmassiveoxidein secondconcentricring sepa-
is absorbed intothe poorlycrystallinegoethite,much ratedfrom analysis1 areaby ring of chalcedony
5. Fine-grained radiatingblades(about0.01 mm long)forming
of it is apparentlyredepositedlower in the profile, outer rim of samestructure;probablyNi-chalcophanite; average
resultingin the extremeenrichment. of 2 spotanalyses
Data obtainedby usingan ARL SEMQ automated5-spectrom-
Althoughlittle research hasbeencarriedoutonthe eter instrumentat the Universityof WesternAustraliaand cor-
actualstructuralsitesof Ni enrichmentin the Bulong rectedby a versionof Colby's(1971) MAGIC IV program
laterites,elementdistributionpatternsin the Bulong
profile similar to other lateritic Ni depositssuggest
that no majordifferencesexisthere.In the clay zone, removalof Mg in solutionhave produceda residue
Ni appearsto substitute for Fe andMg in the smectite of essentially
puresilicawith a smallamountof clay.
lattice. In the lower limonite zone, Ni is probably Well-developedolivinecumulatetextureof the par-
absorbed in thepoorlyorderedgoethitelattice.Nickel ent rock has been preservedduring silica replace-
in the saprolitezoneprobablysubstitutes for Mg in ment. Golightly(1979a)considers that massivesilica
the serpentinelattice but may alsooccurin the small replacementof serpentinerequiresrestricteddrain-
amount of smectitepresent. age and slightlyacid conditions.
The laterite-formingprocesses and productsof lat- The association of Co with Mn oxides has been
eritization are broadly similar to mostother laterite studiedin soilsby McKenzie (1967). He has shown
Ni deposits,suchas Greenvale,Queensland(Burger, that Mn oxidescontainrelatively large amountsof
1979; Fletcher and Couper, 1975), New Caledonia Co, Ni, and Cu and has suggested that thesetrace
(Troly et al., 1979), Soroako,Indonesia(Golightly, elementscan be introducedboth by coprecipitation
1979b),and the DominicanRepublic(Haldemannet with the Mn and by sorptioninto preexistingMn ox-
al., 1979). Important differencesin theseother de- ide minerals.Mn oxides,involvingboth Mn+• and
posits,however,are that the bulk of the Ni occursin Mn+4,precipitateunderratherhigherEh and/or pH
high Mg silicatesin the saprolitezonesuchas nick- conditionsthan Fe oxides (Krauskopf, 1957; Butt,
eliferousserpentineor talc ("garnierite")and that a 1979).The higherpH towardthe baseof the limonite
clay zone is either poorlydevelopedor lacking.Ac- zone (Smith, 1977) and the rise in Eh abovethe clay
cordingto Golightly(1979a),conditions favorablefor zone (near the water table) apparently combine to
the formationof a clay zone occur where there is form a favorableenvironmentfor the precipitation
episodicor retardedgroundwater circulation,such of Mn oxides,with concomitantscavenging
of Co
as in a wet-dry climate with seasonal leachingor in (and to a lesserextent, Ni). At Siberia,the lateritized
topographicunits with sluggishcirculation(e.g., doleritedike has apparentlyacted as a hydrologic
broadplateausor valleys).However,the Bulongclay barrier, resultingin Eh/pH conditionsfavorablefor
zonehasapparentlyformedin a zonewhereefficient the precipitationof Mn oxidesover a considerable
removalof Mg hasoccurred(Fig. 2), sincenontronite thickness.It may alsohave had the effect of chan-
with little MgO is the predominantclay mineral. neling Ni- and Co-rich groundwatersthroughthe
A variationof the typicallaterite profiledescribed Mn accumulation,
allowingsignificant
concentration
aboveis the replacementof serpentinizeddunitc by of theseelementsby sorption.Complexlaterite pro-
silicaon the Siberiasill. Hydrolysisof serpentineand files in the SiberiaComplexprobablyindicatere-
1782 ELIAS, DONALDSON, AND GIORGETTA
peated lateritization events,raisingthe possibilityof
redistribution of Mn oxides.
Economics of Ni-Co Laterites
Recent developmentsof lateritic Ni-Co deposits
throughoutthe world have suffered acute economic
disadvantages due mainly to the high cost of fuel
necessaryin the metallurgicaltreatment of the ores.
This applies particularly to ores with a high MgO
content derived from the saprolitezone. The con-
centrationof Ni in the well-developedlow MgO clay
zoneof the lateritesfrom Bulonggivesthema distinct
metallurgicaladvantageover depositswith mainly
high MgO saproliteore. Oreswith a low MgO content
are more favorablefor the simplerand cheapertech-
niquesof Ni-Co extractionsuchasacid leachingand
sulfation (Canterford, 1979; O'Kane, 1979).
Significantenrichmentof Co in partsof the laterite
profile is an important factor in the economicsof with Mn oxides which concentrate at the base of the
lateritic Ni projects(O'Kane, 1979), consideringthe limonite zoneand in the upper clay zone,in response
recent sharp price increasesof Co. Small depositsof to rapid Eh-pH changesnearthe ancientwater table.
Co-rich Mn oxides at Siberia, each of about 15,000
metric tons, have been mined and fed to the Kal-
goorlienickelsmelterto supplementNi and Co pro- the lateritizedultramaficcomplexhasresultedin sig-
duction from sulfide ores at Kambalda.
The advantageof the existingNi industryinfra-
structure has allowed the development of a small-
scalelateriticNi miningoperation.At Siberia,a nick-
eliferoussilicaflux is producedfor treatment of sul-
fide oresat the Kalgoorlienickelsmelter.The flux is
a blend of two components:Niorich clay developed
on a lateritizeddoleritedike and an adjoiningsilica-
rich laterite developedover dunite. The two com-
ponentsare mined from one open pit. The flux has
satisfactorilyreplacedthe barren quartz sandprevi-
ouslyusedand concomitantlyaugmentsNi produc-
tion.
The lower Ni gradeof lateriticdepositscompared
to sulfidedepositsis an important factor in the eco-
nomicsof exploitation;however, this is offset to a
certain extent by the advantagesof cheap, open pit
mining techniquesenablinglargetonnagesto be han-
dled. The irregular grade distributionmakesgrade
prediction and ore reserve estimationdifficult, but
shallow percussiondrilling, the main method by
which these deposits are evaluated, is relatively
cheap, enabling a high samplingdensity to be ob-
tainedeconomically.Irregular gradedistributionalso
would require strict mining control to keep dilution
to a minimum.
Althoughthere is at presentno major development
of lateritic Ni depositsin Western Australia,the ad-
vantagesof cheapmining techniquesand existingNi
industryinfrastructurecombinewith higher metal
pricesto make lateritic Ni of the type found in the
Kalgoorliearea more economicallyattractivethan it
hasbeen in the past.
Conclusions
The lateritic Ni-Co depositsof the Kalgoorliearea
showmany similaritiesto other lateritic Ni deposits.
The lower partsof the profile (oxidizedbedrockand
saprolitezones)retain many bedrockfeaturesdespite
significantchemicaland mineralogicalchanges,par-
ticularly in the Mg and Ni contents.The sharptran-
sitionto the overlyingclay zone is characterizedby
completebreakdownof saproliticserpentine,with its
replacementby smectiteclaysand silica. The exis-
tence of a well-developedclay zone at Bulongwith
high Ni gradesis unusualin relationto mostknown
depositsof Ni laterite,and probablyformedin a trop-
ical wet-dry climate where the laterite profile was
sporadicallyor seasonallyleached. Above the clay
zone,breakdownof claysand residualconcentration
of Fe, A1, and Cr oxides formed the limonite zone.
Enrichmentof Co in the profileiscloselyassociated
Concentrations are generallythin and irregular,but
at Siberia the existence of a lateritized mafic dike in
nificant concentrations of Co-rich Mn oxides.
Acknowledgments
M. J. Bird, B. H. Smith,and R. P. A. Perriam were
involvedin the early stagesof laterite reconnaissance
in the areasdescribedhere and deserverecognition
for initial developmentof many of the concepts.The
authors have also drawn freely from unpublished
company reports by M. J. Bird, D. N. Harley,
R. P. A. Perriam, I. R. Scott, and P. Woolrich. K.
Norrishand J. G. Pickeringof CSIRO, Adelaide,as-
sisted with the identification of Mn-Co oxides. The
authorsare grateful to G. D. Loftus-Hillsand B. H.
Smith for criticallyreviewingan earlier draft of the
manuscript.The permissionof the WesternMining
CorporationLimited to publishthis paper is grate-
fully acknowledged.
April 27, 1981
REFERENCES
Burger,P. A., 1979, The Greenvalenickel laterite orebody,in Ev-
ans, D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman, H., eds., Interna-
tional laterite symposium:New York, AIME, p. 24-$7.
Butt, C. R. M., 1979, Geochemistry of a pseudo-gossan, Killara,
Western Australia: Univ. Western Australia, Geol. Dept. Exten-
sion Service Pub., v. 4, p. 14-29.
Canterford,J. H., 1979, The sulphationof oxidizednickel ores,in
Evans, D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman, H., eds., Inter-
nationallaterite symposium:New York, AIME, p. 656-677.
Colby, J. W., 1971, MAGIC IV--A new improved versionof
MAGIC: Electron Probe AnalysisNatl. Conf., 6th, Pittsburgh,
July 1971, Proc.,no. 7.
Fletcher,K., and Couper,J., 1975, Greenvalenickel laterite, North
Queensland,in Knight,C. L., ed., Economicgeologyof Australia
 LATERITIC Ni-Co DEPOSITS NEAR KALGOORLIE 178•3

and Papua-NewGuinea, 1. Metals:Melbourne,AustralasianInst. the productionof nickelfrom laterites,in Evans,D. J. I, Shoe-

Mining MetallurgyMon. 5, p. 995-1001. maker,R. S., and Veltman, H., eds.,Internationallaterite sym-
Golightly,J.P., 1979a, Nickeliferouslaterities:a general descrip- posium:New York, AIME, p. 503-521.
tion, in Evans,D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman,H., eds., Smith, B. H., 1977, Someaspectsof the useof geochemistryin the
Internationallaterite symposium:New York, AIME, p. 3-23. searchfor nickel sulphidesin lateritic terrain in Western Aus-
-- 1979b, Geologyof Soroakonickeliferouslaterite deposits,in tralia: Jour. Geochem.Explor., v. 8, p. 259-281.
Evans,D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman, H., eds., Inter- Sprigg,R. C., and Rochow,K., 1975, Nickeliferousochresin the
nationallaterite symposium:New York, AIME, p. 38-56. Hinckley (W.A.) and Tomkinson(S.A.) Ranges("Daisy Bates"-
van de Graaff, W. J. E., Crowe, R. W. A., Bunting,J. A., and Wingelinnafield), in Knight, C. L. ed., Economicgeologyof
Jackson,M. J., 1977, Relict Early Cainozoicdrainagesin arid Australiaand Papua-New Guinea, 1. Metals: Melbourne,Aus-
Western Australia:Zeitschr.f. Geomorphologie,N.F., v. 21, p. tralasianInst. Mining MetallurgyMon. 5, p. 1008-1009.
$79-400. Troly, G., Esterle,M., Pelletier,B. G., and Reibell,W., 1979,Nickel
Haldemann,E.G., Buchan,R., Blowes,J. H., and Chandler,T., deposits in New Caledonia--some factorsinfluencingtheir for-
1979, Geologyof laterite nickel deposits,Dominican Republic, mation, in Evans,D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman, H.,
in Evans,D. J. I., Shoemaker,R. S., and Veltman, H., eds., eds.,Internationallaterite symposium:New York, AIME, p. 85-
Internationallaterite symposium: New York, AIME, p. 57-84. 117.
Krauskopf,K. B., 1957,The separation of manganese from iron in Webber, B. N., 1972, Supergenenickel deposits:AIME, Trans. v.
sedimentaryprocesses: Geochim.et Cosmochim.Acta, v. 12, p. 252, p. 333-$47.
61-84. Williams,I. R., 1977, Kurnalpi,WesternAustralia,1:250000 geo-
Loftus-Hills,G. D., 1975, Ora Banda lateritic nickel deposits, logicalsheet:AustraliaBur. Mineral Resources, Expl. Notes,
W. A., in Knight,C. L., ed., Economicgeologyof Australiaand 37 p.
Papua-New Guinea, 1. Metals: Melbourne, AustralasianInst. Williams, I. R., Gower, C. F., and Thom, R., 1976, Edjudina,
Mining MetallurgyMon. 5. p. 1010-1011. Western Australia, 1:250000 geologicalsheet:Australia Bur.
McKenzie,R. M., 1967, The sorptionof cobaltby manganesemin- Mineral Resources,Expl. Notes,29 p.
eralsin soils:AustralianJour.Soil Research,v. 5, p. 235-246. Woodall,R., 1974, Nickel resources of Australia--summary:Am.
Moeskops, P. G., 1977, New type of igneouslayeringdue to frac- Assoc.PetroleumGeologists, Mem. 25, p. 399-404.
tionationof Archaeanultramaficmagma:Nature,v. 267,p. 508- Zeissink,H. E., 1969, The mineralogyand geochemistryof a nick-
509. eliferouslaterite profile (Greenvale,Queensland,Australia):Mi-
O'Kane,P. T., 1979, Energyconsumption and economictrendsin neralium Deposita,v. 4, p. 132-152.