Discrete Structure PDF

discrete structure
E-BOOK
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UNIT - 1
Sets theory and functions
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8/20/2015 scorm content

Sets
A set is a distinct collection of objects. The objects are called elements.
We will develop more fully
The definitions of sets,
The properties of sets,
The operations on sets
Sets are fundamental discrete structures.
Definition
The objects in a set are called elements or members of a set. A set is said to contain its
elements.
Terminology
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file:///D:/NIELIT%20PROJECT/Final%20Product/Discrete%20Structure/unit1/assets/2.html 1/4
Multiset
A multiset is a set where you specify the number of occurrences of each element.
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Setbuild
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Venn diagram
A set can be represented graphically using a Venn diagram.
A Venn diagram or Set Diagram is a diagram that shows all possible logical relations between a
finite collections of sets.
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Terminology and Notation
A set that has no elements is called the empty set or null set and is denoted Ø.
A set that has one element is called a singleton set.
For example: {a}, with brackets, is a singleton set. a, without brackets, is an element of the set
{a}.
Definition
Set Operations
Intersection: The common elements of two sets:
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Union: The set of elements that belong to either of two sets:
Complement: The set of elements (in the universal set) that do not belong to a given set:
Difference or Relative Complement
The set of elements that belong to a set but not to another.
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Symmetric Difference
Given two sets, their symmetric difference is the set of elements that belong to either one or the
other set but not both.
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Properties of Sets
Associative Laws
Commutative Laws
Distributive Laws
Identity Laws
Complement Laws
The analogy between unions and intersections of sets, and addition and multiplication of
numbers, is quite striking.
Like addition and multiplication, the operations of union and intersection are commutative and
associative, and intersection distributes over unions.
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However, unlike addition and multiplication, union also distributes over intersection.
Two additional pairs of laws involve the special sets called the empty set Ø and the universal set
U; together with the complement operator.
The empty set has no members, and the universal set has all possible members (in a particular
context).
As noted above, each of the laws stated in proposition 3 can be derived from the five
fundamental pairs of laws stated above.
As an illustration, a proof is given below for the idempotent law for union.
Proof
The following proof illustrates that the dual of the above proof is the proof of the dual.
Of the idempotent law for union, namely the idempotent law for intersection.
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Properties of relations
Let A and B be sets.
A binary relation from A to B is a subset of A x B.
Let R be a relation. If (a, b) R, we write a R b.
Example
Let us be a set of students.
Let C be a set of courses.
Let R = {(s, c) | student s is taking course c}.
Many students may take the same course.
A single student may take many courses.
Functions as Relations
Functions are a kind of relation.
Let function f : A → B.
If f (a) = b, we could write (a,b) f A x B.
P(A x B) = the set of all relations from A to B.
Let F = the set of all functions from A to B.
F is a proper subset of A x B.
Relations on a Set
A relation on a set A is a relation from A to A.
Examples of relations on R:
R1 = { (a, b) | a ≤ b }
R2 = { (a, b) | b = +sort( a ) }
A relation R on A is:
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Let S be a set of people.
Let R & T be relations on S.
Antisymmetric
Example:
L = { ( a, b ) | a ≤ b }
Transitive:
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Composition
Let R be a relation from A to B.
Let S be a relation from B to C.
The composition is
Let R be a relation on A.
R1 = RRn = Rn1°R
Let R = { (1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3) }
Relations on a Set
The word graph above is used as a verb.
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}.
Let R be a relation from A to B where {(a, b) | a divides b}.
Representing Relations Using Matrices
Let A = {a1, a2… an} be a finite set. Then we can represent a relation R over the set A using an
n by n matrix: Where entry
Example
Is the 3 by 3 zeroone matrix that represents the relation R.?
This representation can be generalized in the obvious way to represent a relation R from A to B
where both A and B are finite sets with m and n elements respectively.
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Then an m by n zeroone matrix can be used to represent the relation R.
We can use the matrix representation to store relations in a computer and efficiently perform
certain operations on relations using matrix operations.
Representing Relations Using Digraphs
While the matrix representation is convenient for working with relations in a computer, a digraph
representation is a more visually appealing way to represent a relation on a finite set.
Let A = { a1, a2, …, a3 } and let R be a relation on A.
For the digraph representation of R, we use a labeled dot to represent each element of A.
Then for each pair (aj, ak) that is in R, we draw an arrow coming out of dot aj and that points to
dot ak.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
R = { (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4) }
Reflexive: The relation represented by a digraph is reflexive if and only if there is a loop at every
vertex.
I reflexive: The relation represented by a digraph is irreflexive if and only if there is not a loop at
any vertex.
Symmetric: The relation represented by a digraph is symmetric if and only if all arrows (other
than loops) come in pairs with reverse direction.
Antisymmetric: The relation represented by a digraph is antisymmetric if and only if there are no
pairs of arrows with reverse direction.
Transitive: The relation represented by a digraph is transitive if and only if there is an edge from
a to b whenever there is a path from a to b for all nodes a and b.
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Equivalence relation
An equivalence relation on a set S, is a relation on S which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
In general an equivalence relation results when we wish to “identify” two elements of a set that
share a common attribute.
The definition is motivated by observing that any process of “identification” must behave
somewhat like the equality relation, and the equality relation satisfies the
Reflexive ( x = x for all x ),
Symmetric ( x = y implies y = x ), and
Transitive (x = y and y = x implies x = z) properties.
Example
Let R be the relation on the set R real numbers defined by x R y if f x – y is an integer.Prove that
R is an equivalence relation on R.
Thus, R is an equivalence relation on R.
Example
Let R be the relation on the set of real numbers R in Example. Prove that if x R x′ and y Y′, then
(x + y) R (x′ + y′).
Proof:
Suppose x R x′ and y R y′.
In order to show that (x + y) R ( x′ + y′ ),
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we must show that (x + y) – ( x′ + y′ ) is an integer.
since, (x + y) – ( x′ + y′ ) = ( x – x′ ) + ( y – y′ )
and since each of x – x′ and y – y′ is an integer (by definition of R),
( x – x′ ) + ( y – y′ ) is an integer.
Thus, (x + y) R ( x′ + y′ ).
Equivalence Classes
Given an equivalence relation R on a set S, we define the equivalence class containing an
element x of S by :
Let R be an equivalence relation on A and let a A. The set [a] = { x|aRx } is called the
equivalence class of a.
The element in the bracket in the above notation is called the Representative of the equivalence
class.
Equivalence Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then the following are equivalent:
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The purpose of any identification process is to break a set up into subsets consisting of mutually
identified elements. An equivalence relation on a set A does precisely this: it decomposes A into
special subsets, called equivalence classes.
These ideas are summed up in Theorem.
When we say several statements, such as P1, P2, and P3 are equivalent, we mean P1 ↔ P2 ↔
P3 is true. N
otice that in order to prove that the statements are mutually equivalent, it is sufficient to prove a
circle of implications, such as P1 → P2 → P3 → P1. This is how we set up the proof of Theorem.
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Partition
A collection S of nonempty subsets of a set A is a partition of A if
If S is a set with an equivalence relation R, then it is easy to see that the equivalence classes of
R form a partition of the set S. More interesting is the fact that the converse of this statement is
true.
Partition Theorem
The equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on A form a partition of A.
Conversely, given a partition on A, there is an equivalence relation with equivalence classes that
are exactly the partition given.
Such decomposition is called a partition.
For example, if we wish to identify two integers if they are either both even or both odd, then we
end up with a partition of the integers into two sets, the set of even integers and the set of odd
integers.
The converse of Theorem allows us to create or define an equivalence relation by merely
partitioning a set into mutually exclusive subsets.
The common “attribute” then might just be that elements belong to the same subset in the
partition.
If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, the set of equivalence classes of R is denoted A/R.
Proof
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UNIT - 2
Mathematical logic
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Mathematical logic

Mathematical Logic Definition
Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of mathematics is its reliance on logic. Explicit
training in mathematical logic is essential to a mature understanding of mathematics.
Familiarity with the concepts of logic is also a prerequisite to studying a number of central areas
of computer science, including databases, compilers, and complexity theory.
Formal Language & Arguments
Within that formal language: Knowledge can be stated concisely and precisely.
The process of reasoning from that knowledge can be made rigorous.
Symbols and strings of symbols, Wellformed formulas, Theorems, Arguments Specific Case(s),
General Rules or Principles, Inductive, Deductive.
Examples in Arguments
Deductive argument: “Alexandria is a port or a holiday resort. Alexandria is not a port. Therefore,
Alexandria is a holiday resort”.
Inductive argument: “Most students who did not do the tutorial questions will fail the exam. John
did not do the tutorial questions. Therefore John will fail the exam”.
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Mathematical logic

Propositional logic
A proposition is a sentence that is either true or false but not both. (In particular, it cannot be a
question.)
Simple types of statements, called propositions, are treated as atomic building blocks for more
complex statements.
Introduction
The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements. These rules are used to
distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments.
Besides the importance of logic in understanding mathematical reasoning, logic has numerous
applications to computer science.
These rules are used in the design of computer circuits, the construction of computer programs,
the verification of the correctness of programs, and in many other ways.
Furthermore, software systems have been developed for constructing some, but not all, types of
proofs automatically.
Propositions
Our discussion begins with an introduction to the basic building blocks of logic propositions. A
proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact) that is either true
or false, but not both.
Consider the following sentences.
Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative sentences.
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Sentences 3and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true nor false.
Note that each of sentences 3 and 4 can be turned into a proposition if we assign values to the
variables.
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called the propositional calculus or propositional
logic.
Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more propositions. New
propositions, called compound propositions, are formed from existing propositions using logical
operators.
EXAMPLE
Find the negation of the proposition “Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory” and
express this in simple English.
Solution
The negation is “It is not the case that Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory.”
This negation can also be expressed as “Vandana’s smartphone does not have at least 32GB of
memory” or even more simply as “Vandana’s smartphone has less than 32GB of memory.”
Table displays the truth table for the negation of a proposition p. This table has a row for each of
the two possible truth values of a proposition p. Each row shows the truth value of ￢ p
corresponding to the truth value of p for this row.
Conjunction
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p Λ q, is the proposition“p
and q.” The conjunction p Λ q is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
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The four rows correspond to the pairs of truth values TT, TF, FT, and FF, where the first truth
value in the pair is the truth value of p and the second truth value is the truth value of q.
Note that in logic the word “but” sometimes is used instead of “and” in a conjunction. For
example, the statement “The sun is shining, but it is raining” is another way of saying “The sun is
shining and it is raining.”
Disjunction
Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p V q, is the proposition“p or
q.”
The disjunction p V q is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
Conditional Statements
Let p and q be propositions.
The conditional statement p → q is the proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional statement p →
q is false when p is true and q is false, and true otherwise.
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In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q
is called the conclusion (or consequence).
The statement p → q is called a conditional statement because p → q asserts that q is true on
the condition that p holds. A conditional statement is also called an implication.
The truth table for the conditional statement p → q is shown in Table. Note that the statement p
→ q is true when both p and q are true and when p is false (no matter what truth value q has).
Because conditional statements play such an essential role in mathematical reasoning, a variety
of terminology is used to express p → q. You will encounter most if not all of the following ways
to express this conditional statement:
Biconditionals
Let p and q be propositions.
The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the proposition “p if and only if q.”
The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and q have the same truth values, and is false
otherwise.
Biconditional statements are also called biimplications.
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That is why we use the words “if and only if” to express this logical connective and why it is
symbolically written by combining the symbols → and ←.
There are some other common ways to express p ↔ q: p is necessary and sufficient for q” “if p
then q, and conversely” “p iff q.”
The last way of expressing the biconditional statement p ↔ q uses the abbreviation “iff” for “if
and only if.” Note that p ↔ q has exactly the same truth value as (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
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Precedence of logical operators
Generally we use parentheses to specify the order in which logical operators in a compound
proposition are to be applied. For instance, (p ∨ q) ∧ (￢r) is the conjunction of p ∨ q and ￢r.
General rule of precedence is that the conjunction operator takes precedence over the
disjunction operator, so that p ∧ q ∨ r means (p ∧ q) ∨ r rather than p ∧ (q ∨ r).
It is an accepted rule that the conditional and biconditional operators → and ↔ have lower
precedence than the conjunction and disjunction operators, ∨ and ∧.
Consequently, p ∨ q → r is the same as (p ∨ q) → r.
We will use parentheses when the order of the conditional operator and biconditional operator is
at issue, although the conditional operator has precedence over the biconditional operator.
Table displays the precedence levels of the logical operators, ￢, ∧, ∨, →, and↔.
Predicate calculus
A predicate is a sentence that contains variables, and when the variables are substituted by
numbers or actual objects, it becomes a proposition.
Predicate calculus on the other hand is analogous to Algebra, which is more complex than
arithmetic but it requires the knowledge of arithmetic.
Predicates define relationships between any number of entities using qualifiers:
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Examples
Predicates
A predicate is a statement that contains a variable, such that for any specific value of the
variable the statement is a proposition.
Usually the allowed values for the variable will come from a specific set, sometimes called the
universe of the variable.
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This will be either explicitly mentioned or clear from context.
A simple example of a predicate is x _ 2 for x 2 R.
Clearly, for any real value of x, this statement is either true or false.
A predicate may have more than one variable, in which case we speak of predicates in two
variables, three variables, and so on, denoted as Q(x, y), S(x, y, z), etc.
Propositional Functions
A statement of the form P(x1, x2. . . xn) is the value of the propositional function P.
Here, (x1, x2. . . xn) is an ntuple and P is a predicate.
Evaluates to true or false.
Takes one or more arguments.
Expresses a predicate involving the argument(s).
Becomes a proposition when values are assigned to the arguments.
Example
Let Q(x, y, z) denote the statement “x2 + y2 = z2”. What is The truth value of Q(3, 4, 5)? What is
the truth value of Q (2, 2, 3)? How many values of (x, y, z) make the predicate true?
There are infinitely many values for (x, y, z) that make this propositional function true.
Universe of Discourse
Universe of discourse is the set of all things we wish to talk about; that is, the set of all objects
that we can sensibly assign to a variable in a propositional function.
Consider the example,
Let Q(x, y, z) denote the statement “x2 + y2 = z2”.
What is the truth value of Q (3, 4, 5)?
What is the truth value of Q (2, 2, 3)?
How many values of (x, y, z) make the predicate true?
Does it make sense to assign to x the value “blue”?
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What would be the universe of discourse for the propositional function P(x) = “The test will be on
x the 23rd” be?
Moreover, each variable in an ntuple may have a different universe of discourse.
Let P(r, g, b, c) = “The rgbvalue of the color c is (r, g, b)”.
For example, P(255, 0, 0, red) is true, while P(0, 0, 255, green) is false.
What are the universes of discourse for (r, g, b, c)?
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Quantifiers
A predicate becomes a proposition when we assign it fixed values. However, another way to
make a predicate into a proposition is to quantify it.
That is, the predicate is true (or false) for all possible values in the universe of discourse or for
some value(s) in the universe of discourse.
We form propositions from predicates by assigning values to the variables or by quantification.
Such quantification can be done with two quantifiers. The universal quantifier, the existential
quantifier and uniqueness quantifier.
Universal quantifier: 8, read, “for all,” or “for every;”
Existential quantifier: 9, read, “there exists;”
Uniqueness quantifier: !, read, “unique.”
Given a predicate in more than one variable we can quantify each (or some) of the variables.
Universal Quantifiers
The universal quantification of a predicate P(x) is the proposition “P(x) is true for all values of x in
the universe of discourse”
If the universe of discourse is finite, say {n1, n2. . . nk}, then the universal quantifier is simply the
conjunction of all elements.
Let P(x) be the predicate “x must take a discrete mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the
predicate “x is a computer science student”.
The universe of discourse for both P(x) and Q(x) is all UNL students. Express the statement
“Every computer science student must take a discrete mathematics course”.
Express the statement “Everybody must take a discrete mathematics course or be a computer
science student”.
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Given a proposition P, the negation of P is the proposition “P is false”. It is true if P is false, and
false if P is true. The negation of P is denoted by ¬P, read as “not P.”
If we know the meaning of P, such as when P stands for “It will rain tomorrow,” the proposition
¬P can be stated more naturally than “not P,” as in “It will not rain tomorrow.”
If the universe of discourse is finite, say {n1, n2. . . nk}, then the universal quantifier is simply the
conjunction of all elements.
Negations
A truth table simply lists the truth values of particular statements in all possible cases.
Something interesting can be observed in we consider the truth values of ¬¬Q, which can be
obtained by using the above table once with P = Q and once with P = ¬Q.
We see that the statements Q and ¬¬Q have the same truth values. In this case we say that the
two statements are equivalent, and write Q , ¬¬Q.
If A , B we can freely use B in the place of A, or A instead of B in our logical derivations. Negation
gets really interesting when the negated proposition is quantified. Then we can assert that
These can be interpreted as the claim that if P(x) is not true for all x E A then it is false for some
x E A and vice versa, and the claim that if P(x) is not false for any x E A then it is true for all x E A
and vice versa.
What this means, in particular, is that if we want to disprove a statement that asserts something
for all x E A, it is sufficient to demonstrate one such x for which the statement does not hold.
On the other hand, if we need to disprove a statement that asserts the existence of an x E A with
a certain property, we actually need to show that for all such x this property does not hold.
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Nested Quantifier
Two quantifiers are nested if one is within the scope of the other.
Existential Quantifier
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The existential quantification of a predicate P(x) is the proposition “There exists an x in the
universe of discourse such that P(x) is true.” It is denoted by
Mean?
What universe(s) of discourse make it true?
Express the statement “there exists a real solution to ax2 + bx − c = 0”
Let P(x) be the statement x = (−b± p (b2−4ac))/2a where the universe of discourse for x is the
set of reals. Note here that a, b, c are all fixed constants.
Question: what is the truth value of ∃xP(x)?
Answer: it is false. For any real numbers such that b2 < 4ac, there will only be complex solutions,
for these cases no such real number x can satisfy the predicate.
Mixing Quantifier
Existential and universal quantifiers can be used together to quantify a predicate statement.
For Example
is perfectly valid. However, you must be careful—it must be read left to right.
For Example
is not equivalent to ∃y∀xP(x, y).Thus, ordering is important.
For Example
∀x∃y Loves (x, y): everybody loves somebody
∃y∀x Loves(x, y): There is someone loved by everyone
Those expressions do not mean the same thing! Note that ∃y∀xP(x, y) ! ∀x∃yP(x, y), but the
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converse does not hold. However, you can commute similar quantifiers; ∃x∃yP(x, y) is
equivalent to ∃y∃xP(x, y) (which is why our shorthand was valid).
Express, in predicate logic, the statement that there are an infinite number of integers.
Express, in predicate logic, the statement that there are an infinite number of integers. Let P(x,
y) be the statement that x < y. Let the universe of discourse be the integers, Z.
Example
Express the statement “there is a number x such that when it is added to any number, the result
is that number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the result is x” as a logical expression.
Solution
Example
Is there a multiplicative inverse law over the nonzero integers? That is, for every integer x does
there exists a y such that xy = 1?
This is false, since we can find a counter example.
Take any integer, say 5 and multiply it with another integer, y.
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Example
Express the statement “there is a number x such that when it is added to any number, the result
is that number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the result is x” as a logical expression.
Solution
Let P(x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”.
Let Q(x, y) be the expression “xy = x”.
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Proposition Equivalence
Binding Variables
When a quantifier is used on a variable x, we say that x is bound. If no quantifier is used on a
variable in a predicate statement, it is called free.
A statement is called a wellformed formula, when all variables are properly quantified.
In the expression ∃x, y∀zP(x, y, z, c) the scope of the existential quantifier is {x, y}, the scope of
the universal quantifier is just z and c has no scope since it is free.
Let P(x) be a predicate. Then the following hold.
This is essentially a quantified version of De Morgan’s Law (in fact if the universe of discourse is
finite, it is exactly De Morgan’s law).
Proposition Equivalence
Proposition equivalence feature three terminologies, they are Contradiction, tautology,

contingency.
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the propositions
that occur in it, is called a Tautology.
A compound proposition that is always false, no matter what the truth values of the propositions
that occur in it, is called a contradiction.
A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.
Boolean operators
Boolean operators were unary and binary. Some of the Boolean operators are tabulated.
Negation operator is a unary operator.
Operators like Conjunction, Disjunction, Exclusive OR, Implication, Biconditional were binary
operators.
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Tautology
A tautology is a proposition that is always true.
Tautology is one of the important techniques used in proving theorems is to replace, or
substitute, one proposition by another one that is equivalent to it.
Contradiction
A contradiction is a proposition that is always false.
Contradiction is one of the important techniques used in proving theorems is to replace, or
Contingency
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A contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Contradiction is one of the important techniques used in proving theorems is to replace, or
Biconditionals
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p⇔q is the proposition “p if and only if
q." These are also called” biimplications".
Two propositions are called equivalent when they have the same truth table.
The contrapositive is equivalent to the original implication.
The converse and inverse are equivalent to each other.
The inverse is not equivalent to the original.
Law of excluded middle
Tautology is called the law of excluded middle, is a direct consequence of our basic assumption
that a proposition is a statement that is either true or false.
Aristotelian logic, might be described as a “2valued” logic, and it is the logical basis for most of
the theory of modern mathematics, at least as it has developed in western culture.
There is, however, a consistent logical system, known as constructivist, or intuitionistic, logic
which does not assume the law of excluded middle.
This results in a 3valued logic in which one allows for a third possibility, namely, other.
In this system proving that a statement is “not true" is not the same as proving that it is “false,"
so that indirect proofs, which we shall soon discuss, would not be valid.
Logically Equivalent
Propositions r and s are logically equivalent if the statement r ⇔ s is a tautology. If r and s are
logically equivalent, we write
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A second notation often used to mean statements r and s are logically equivalent is r ⇔ s.
You can determine whether compound propositions r and s are logically equivalent by building a
single truth table for both propositions and checking to see that they have exactly the same truth
values.
Notice the new symbol r ⇔ s, which is used to denote that r and s are logically equivalent, is
denoted to mean the statement r ⇔ s is a tautology.
In a sense the symbols <>$ and ⇔convey similar information when used in a sentence.
However,
r ⇔ s is generally used to assert that the statement.
r ⇔ s is, in fact, true while the statement.
r ⇔ s alone does not imply any particular truth value.
The symbol is the preferred shorthand for “equivalent to."
Example
(p → q) ^ (q → p) is logically equivalent to p ⇔ q.
The truth values of both propositions are identical.
Examine every possible case in which the statement (p → q) ^ (q → p) may not have the same
truth value as p ⇔ q.
Case1
Suppose (p → q) ^ (q → p) is false and p ⇔ q is true. There are two possible cases where (p →
q) ^ (q → p) is false.
Namely, p → q is false or q → p is false (note that this covers the possibility both are false since
we use the inclusive “or" on logic).
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Case2
If the latter is false, the p and q do not have the same truth value and the there are two possible
ways this may occur that we address below.
Logical Equivalences
Some of the important logical equivalences were
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Mathematical logic
Implication
The proposition r implies the proposition s and write r ⇒ s.
If r → s is a tautology.
We say the proposition r implies the proposition s and write r ⇒ s. if r → s is a tautology.
This is very similar to the ideas previously discussed regarding the ↔ verses ⇔
We use r ⇒ s to imply that the statement r → s is true, while that statement r → s alone does not
imply any particular truth value.
The symbol → is often used in proofs as a shorthand for “implies".
Wellformed Formula (WFF)
A wellformed formula (Syntax of compound proposition)
1. Any statement variable is a WFF.
2. For any WFF α, ¬α is a WFF.
3. If α and β are WFFs, then (α Ù β), (α Ú β), (α → β) and (α⇔β) are WFFs.
4. A finite string of symbols is a WFF only when it is constructed by steps 1, 2, and 3.
Substitution instance
A WFF A is a substitution instance of another formula B if A is formed from B by substituting
formulas for variables in B under condition that the same formula is substituted for the same
variable each time that variable is occurred.
A substitution instance of a tautology is a tautology.
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Mathematical logic
Every compound proposition in the propositional variables p, q, r, ..., is uniquely equivalent to a
proposition that is formed by taking the disjunction of conjunctions of some combination of the
variables p; q; r; … or their negations. This is called the disjunctive normal form of a proposition.
The disjunctive normal form of a compound proposition is a natural and useful choice for
representing the proposition from among all equivalent forms, although it may not be the
simplest representative.
We will find this concept useful when we arrive at the module on Boolean algebra.
Example
p is true and q is false
Solution
p is true and q is false or when p is true and q is true
Solution
Constructing Disjunctive Normal Forms
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Mathematical logic
The conjunctive normal form of a proposition is another “canonical form" that may occasionally
be useful, but not to the same degree as the disjunctive normal form.
The conjunctive normal form of a proposition is the equivalent form that consists of a
“conjunction of disjunctions.
It is easily constructed indirectly using disjunctive normal forms by observing that if you negate a
disjunctive normal form you get a conjunctive normal form.
For example, three applications of De Morgan′s Laws gives.
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UNIT - 3
Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1}.
These are the rules that underlie electronic circuits, and the methods we will discuss are
fundamental to VLSI design.
Boolean algebras are defined over sets
Twovalued Boolean algebra defined over {0,1} or {TRUE, FALSE}
Boolean algebras can be much more general and can be defined over much larger sets
We will soon define Boolean algebras over sets of functions
Definition
A lattice is a poset (A, €) in which any two elements have both a meet and a join.
Lattice: A poset with both meet and join for every pair of elements of the carrier set.
Boolean Algebra: A distributed and complemented lattice. Every lattice has a unique minimum
element and a unique maximum element.
Meet, Join, Unique maximum (1), minimum (0) element are always defined.
Idempotent: x +x =x x. x= x
Commutative: x +y= y+ x x. y= y. x
Associative: x +(y +z)=( x+ y)+ z x. (y. z)=(x. y). z
Absorptive: x .(x+ y)= x x+( x. y)= x
Absorptive properties are fundamental to optimization.
Complementation
If x+y=1 and x.y=0 then x is the complement of y and vice versa.
A lattice is complemented if all elements have a complement.
Definition: Given x,y which are elements of a lattice (A, ≤), x is a complement of y (written y’) if
x+y = 1 and x.y = 0. A lattice is said to be complemented if all elements have a complement.
Complements within a lattice are not necessarily unique.
As an example, the left lattice below is not complemented because, although c and b are
complements, d has no complement. The right lattice below is complemented and e has two
complements, namely f and g.
Distributive Lattice
Let [L; V, Λ] be a lattice (under ≤). .[L; V, Λ]is called a distributive lattice if and only if the
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Boolean Algebra
distributive laws hold; that is, for all a, b, c € L, we have:
a V(bΛc) = (a V b)Λ(a V c) and
a Λ(b V c) = (a Λb)V (a Λc).
Since a lattice L is an algebraic system with binary operations Vand Λ, it is denoted by [L; V, Λ]
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Boolean Algebra

Duality
Every lattice identity is transformed into another identity by interchanging:
+ and
≤ and ≥
0 and 1
Example
x .(x + y) = x → x + (x .y) = x
The principle of duality states that every lattice identity can be transformed into another by
interchanging:
+ with ×, and viceversa.
≤ with ≥, and viceversa.
0 with 1, and viceversa.
As an example, each of the lattice properties P0 through P4 has a dual.
Another example, a dual to the theorem exists that states that in any lattice (A, €), (x+y).(x+z) ≥
x+(y.z).
Principle of Duality
In the axioms of Boolean algebra (1)(10), in an equation that contains V, .,0, or 1, if we
interchange V with ., and/or 0 with 1, then the another equation holds.
In general, this is true. In other words, given an equation in a Boolean algebra, the equation that
is obtained from the equation by interchanging Vwith ., and/or 0 with 1 also holds.
This property is the principle of duality.
Dual Boolean Expressions
Let A be a Boolean expression. The dual AD is defined recursively as follows:
O D = l.
I D = O.
If Xi is a variable, then Xi D = x ii = 1, ... , n).
If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B V C, then A D =B D·C D.
If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B . C, then A D =B D VC D.
If A and B’ are Boolean expressions, and A = B, then A D = (B D)’.

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Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra

Algebraic Systems
The pair (V,≤) is called an algebraic system
V is a set, called the carrier of the system
≤ is a relation onV. V = V 2
(,⇒are similar to ≤)
This algebraic system is called a partially ordered set,or poset for short.
An algebraic system is a mathematical system consisting of a set called the domain and one or
more operations on the domain. If V is the domain and *1 , *2 , …, *n are the operations, [V;*1,
*2 , …, *n ] denotes the mathematical system. If the context is clear, this notation is abbreviated
to V.
Partially Ordered Sets
A poset has two operations, . and + called meet and join (like AND and OR).
Sometimes written (V,≤,.,+) or (V 2 ,≤,.,+) even((V,.,+) since ≤ is implied.
Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1}.
Electronic and optical switches can be studied using this set and the rules of Boolean algebra.
The three operations in Boolean algebra that we will use most are complementation, the
Boolean sum, and the Boolean product.
The complement of an element, denoted with a bar, is defined by 0 = 1and 1 = 0.
The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the following values: 1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 =
1, 0 + 0 = 0.
The Boolean product, denoted by · or by AND, has the following values: 1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1
= 0, 0 · 0 = 0.
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Let B = {0, 1}. Then B n = {(x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n ) | x i € B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the set of all possible ntuples

of 0s and 1s.
The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B, that is, if its only
possible values are 0 and 1.
A function from B n to B is called a Boolean function of degree n.
EXAMPLE
The function F(x, y) = xy from the set of ordered pairs of Boolean variables to the set {0, 1} is a
Boolean function of degree 2 with F(1, 1) = 0, F(1, 0) = 1, F(0, 1) = 0, and F(0, 0) = 0.
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Boolean Algebra
Let B = {0, 1}. The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B.
A function from B n , the set {(x 1 , x 2 , …, x n ) |xi B, 1 i n}, to B is called a Boolean function of
degree n.
Definition: Let (B,) be a Boolean algebra and let x 1 , x 2 , ..., xn be variables taking values on B.

Then the set of Boolean functions on x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n consist of:
The constant functions f(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=b for any element b€ B.
The projection functions f(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=xi for any i=1,2,...,n.
If g and h are Boolean functions on x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n , then so are.
(g+h)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ) = g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )+h(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )
(g. h)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ). h(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )
(g’)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=(g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ))’
A function is a Boolean function on x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n if and only if it can be derived by finite
application of the previous rules.
Definition: The set of Boolean functions f:{0,1}n ! {0,1} are called switching functions.
Minterm
There is a simple method for deriving a Boolean expression for a function that is defined by a
table. This method is based on minterms.
Definition: A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement. A minterm of the Boolean variables
x 1 , x 2 , …, x n is a Boolean product y 1 y 2 …y n , where y i = x i or y i = x i.
Hence, a minterm is a product of n literals, with one literal for each variable.
Example
Consider F(x,y,z)
F(x, y, z) = 1 if and only if:
x = y = z = 0 or
x = y = 0, z = 1 or
x = 1, y = z = 0
Therefore, F(x,y,z)=(x)(y)(z)+(x)(y)z+x(y)(z)
Equivalent
Definition: The Boolean functions F and G of n variables are equal if and only if F(b 1 , b 2 , …, b n )
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Boolean Algebra
= G(b 1 , b 2 , …, b n ) whenever b 1 , b 2 , …, b n belong to B.
Two different Boolean expressions that represent the same function are called equivalent.
For example, the Boolean expressions xy, xy + 0, and xy1 are equivalent.
The complement of the Boolean function F is the function F, where F(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . ,

x n ).
Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n.
The Boolean sum F + G and the Boolean product FG are defined by
(F + G)(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . , x n ) + G(x 1 , . . . , x n ),
(F G)(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . , x n )G(x 1 , . . . , x n ).
Representing Boolean Functions
Any Boolean function can be represented by a Boolean sum of Boolean products of the
variables and their complements.
Every Boolean function can be represented using the three Boolean operators ·,+, and ..
The disjunctive normal form (DNF) or sumofproducts expansion of a degreen. Boolean
function f is the unique sum of minterms of the variables x1,…,xn that represents f.
A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement.
A maxterm is a sum of literals.
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) or productofsums expansion is a productof maxterms
representation.
To find the CNF representation for f, take the DNF representation for complement ¬f,
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Boolean Algebra

Logic Gates
Boolean algebra is used to model the circuitry of electronic devices.
Each input and each output of such a device can be thought of as a member of the set {0, 1}.
A computer, or other electronic device, is made up of a number of circuits.
Each circuit can be designed using the rules of Boolean algebra.
The circuits that give output that depends only on the input, and not on the current state of the
circuit.
In other words, these circuits have no memory capabilities.
Such circuits are called combinational circuits or gating networks.
We construct combinational circuits using three types of elements.
The first is an inverter, which accepts the value of one Boolean variable as input and produces
the complement of this value as its output.
The next type of element we will use is the OR gate. The inputs to this gate are the values of two
or more Boolean variables. The output is the Boolean sum of their values.
The third type of element we will use is the AND gate. The inputs to this gate are the values of
two or more Boolean variables. The output is the Boolean product of their values.
Combinations of Gates
Combinational circuits can be constructed using a combination of inverters, OR gates, and AND
gates.
When combinations of circuits are formed, some gates may share inputs.
This is shown in one of two ways in depictions of circuits.
One method is to use branchings that indicate all the gates that use a given input. The other
method is to indicate this input separately for each gate.
These are circuits composed of Boolean gates whose outputs depend only on their most recent
inputs, not on earlier inputs.
Thus these circuits have no useful memory.
Their state persists while the inputs are constant, but is irreversibly lost when the input signals
change.
Combinational Circuit Examples
Majority voting circuit.
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Boolean Algebra
XOR using OR / AND / NOT.
3input XOR using OR / AND / NOT.
Half adder using OR/AND/NOT.
Full adder from halfadders.
Ripplecarry adders.
Adders
To design a circuit that carries out addition of two positive integers from their binary expansions.
The output will consist of two bits, namely s and c,where s is the sum bit and c is the carry bit.
This circuit is called a multiple output circuit.
We will build a circuit that can be used to find x + y, where x and yare two bits. The input to our
circuit will be x and y, because these each have the value 0 or the value 1.
The output will consist of two bits, namely, s and c, where s is the sum bit and c is the carry bit.
This circuit is called a multiple output circuit because it has more than one output.
Half adder
It adds two bits, without considering a carry from the previous addition.
TABLE Input and Output for the Half Adder.
Full adder
It computes the sum of bit and the carry bit when two bits and carry are added The input are the
bits x and y and the carry ci. The outputs are the sum bit s and the new carry ci+1.
TABLE Input and Output for the Full Adder.
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Boolean Algebra

Minimization of Circuits
The efficiency of a combinational circuit depends on the number and arrangement of its gates.
The process of designing a combinational circuit begins with the table specifying the output for
each combination of input values.
We can always use the sumofproducts expansion of a circuit to find a set of logic gates that will
implement this circuit.
Terms in a sumofproducts expansion that differ in just one variable, so that in one term this
variable occurs and in the other term the complement of this variable occurs, can be combined.
For instance, consider the circuit that has output 1 if and only if x = y = z = 1 or x = z = 1 and y =
0.
The sumofproducts expansion of this circuit is xyz + xyz.
The two products in this expansion differ in exactly one variable, namely, y. They can be
combined as xyz + xyz = (y + y)(xz) = 1 · (xz)= xz.
Hence, xz is a Boolean expression with fewer operators that represents the circuit.
The second circuit uses only one gate, whereas the first circuit uses three gates and an inverter.
We will describe two procedures that simplify sumofproducts expansions.
The goal of both procedures is to produce Boolean sums of Boolean products that represent a
Boolean function with the fewest products of literals such that these products contain the fewest
literals possible among all sums of products that represent a Boolean function.
Finding such a sum of products is called minimization of the Boolean function.
Minimizing a Boolean function makes it possible to construct a circuit for this function that uses
the fewest gates and fewest inputs to the AND gates and OR gates in the circuit, among all
circuits for the Boolean expression we are minimizing.
Minimisation with NAND gates
When designing combinational circuits, efficient is sought by minimizing the number of gates (or
switches) in a circuit.
Many computer circuits make use of another gate called a NAND gate which is used to replace
NOT AND, thereby reducing the number of gates.
The NAND gate receives inputs a and b and the output is denoted by a↑b.
The NAND Gate as a Universal Logic Element:
The NAND gate is a universal gate because it can be used to produce the NOT, the AND, the
OR, and the NOR functions.
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Boolean Algebra
An inverter can be made from a NAND gate by connecting all of the inputs together and
creating, in effect, a single input, for a 2input gate.
An AND function can be generated by the use of NAND gates alone. An OR function can be
produced with only NAND gates. Finally, a NOR function is produced as shown in fig.
The NOR Gate as a Universal Logic Element
Like the NAND gate, the NOR gate can be used to produce the NOT, AND. OR and NAND
functions.
A NOT circuit, or inverter, can be made from a NOR gate by connecting all of the inputs together
to effectively create a single input, with a 2input example. Also, an OR gate can be produced
from NOR gates. An AND gate can be constructed by the use of NOR gates.
In this case the NOR gates G 1 and G 2 are used as inverters, and the final output is as follows:
X=A+B=AB
Fig. shows how NOR gates are used to form a NAND function.
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Boolean Algebra

2 Parallel Binary Adders
A single fulladder is capable of adding two 1bit numbers and an input carry.
To add binary numbers with more than one bit, you must use additional fulladders.
When one binary number is added to another, each column generates a sum bit and a 1 or 0
carry bit to the next column to the left, as illustrated here with 2bit numbers.
To add two binary numbers, a fulladder is required for each bit in the numbers.
So, for 2bit numbers, two adders are needed; for 4bit numbers, four adders are used; and so
on.
The carry output of each adder is connected to the carry input of the next higherorder adder for
a 2bit adder.
Notice that either a halfadder can be used for the least significant position or the carry input of a
full adder can be made 0 (grounded) because there is no carry input to the least significant bit
position.
FourBit Parallel Adders
A group of four bits is called a nibble. A basic 4bit parallel adder is implemented with four full
adder stages.
The LSBs (A1 and B1) in each number being added go into the rightmost fulladder: the higher
order bits are applied as shown to the successively higherorder added, with the MSBs (A and B)
in each number being applied to the leftmost fulladder.
The Carry output of each adder is connected to the carry input of the next higherorder adder as
indicated. These are called internal carries.
Switching Circuits
A network of switches can be used to represent a Boolean expression and an associated truth
table.
Generally the switches are used to control the flow of an electrical current but you might find it
easier to consider switching circuits as a series of water pipes with taps or valves at certain
points.
One of the reasons for using switching circuits rather than logic gates is that designers need to
movee from a combinational circuit towards a design which the manufacturer can use for the
construction of the electronic circuits.
This diagram shows switches A, B, and C which can be open or closed.
If a switch is closed it is shown as 1 in the following table whilst 0 shows that the switch is open.
The switching table for this circuit is as follows:
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Boolean Algebra
A series circuit, often called an AND gate, A V B.
A parallel circuit, often called an AND gate, A Λ B.
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Boolean Algebra

Karnaugh Map:
To reduce the number of terms in a Boolean expression representing a circuit, it is necessary o
find terms to combine.
There is a graphical method, called a Karnaugh map or Kmap,for finding terms to combine for
Boolean functions involving a relatively small number of variables.
A Karnaugh map provides a systematic method for simplifying Boolean expressions and, if
properly used, will produce the simplest SOP or POS expression possible, known as the
minimum expression.
A Karnaugh map is similar to a truth table because it presents all of the possible values of input
variables and the resulting output for each value.
Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, and four and five variables.
2Variable Karnaugh Map
There are four possible minterms in the sumofproducts expansion of a Boolean function in the
two variables x and y.
A Kmap for a Boolean function in these two variables consists of four cells, where a 1 is placed
in the cell representing a minterm if this minterm is present in the expansion.
Cells are said to be adjacent if the minterms that they represent differ inexactly one literal. For
instance, the cell representing xy is adjacent to the cells representing xy and x y. The four cells
and the terms that they represent are shown in Figure.
If there are 1s in two adjacent cells in the Kmap, the minterm represented by these cells can be
combined into a product involving just one of the variables. e. g. x y+x y=(x+x)y.
If 1s are in all four cells, the four minterms can be combined into one term, i.e. 1 involving none
of the variables.
To circle the blocks of cells that can be combined. The goal is to identify the largest possible
blocks, and to cover all the 1’s with the fewest blocks using the largest blocks first and always
using the largest possible blocks.
The 3Variable Karnaugh Map
A Kmap in three variables is a rectangle divided into eight cells. The cells represent the eight
possible minterms in three variables.
Two cells are said to be adjacent if the minterms that they represent differ in exactly one literal.
One of the ways to form a Kmap in three variables is shown in Figure.
The 3variable Karnaugh map is an array of eight cells as shown in Fig. In this case, A, B, and C
are used for the variables although other letters could be used.
Binary values of A and B are along the left side (notice the sequence) and the values of C are
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Boolean Algebra
across the top. The value of a given cell is the binary values of A and B at the left in the same
row combined with the value of C at the top in the same column.
For example, the cell in the upper left corner has a binary value of 000 and the cell in the lower
right corner has a binary value of 101 Fig.( shows the standard product terms that are
represented by each cell in the Karnaugh map.
The 4Variable Karnaugh Map
A Kmap in four variables is a square that is divided into 16 cells. The cells represent the 16
possible minterms in four variables.
The 4variable Karnaugh map is an array of sixteen cells, as shown in Fig. Binary values of A
and B are along the left side and the values of C and D are across the top. The value of a given
cell is the binary values of A and B at the left in the same row combined with the binary values of
C and D at the top in the same column.
For example, the cell in the upper right corner has a binary value of 0010 and the cell in the
lower right corner has a binary value of 1010. Fig. shows the standard product terms that is
represented by each cell in the 4variable Karnaugh map.
Karnaugh map SOP Minimization
For an SOP expression in standard form, a 1 is placed on the Karnaugh map for each product
term in the expression.
Each 1 is placed in a cell corresponding to the value of a product term. For example, for the
product term ABC, a 1 goes in the 10l cell on a 3variable map.
Example: Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:
Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions
Grouping the 1s, you can group 1s on the Karnaugh map according to the following rules by
enclosing those adjacent cells containing 1s. The goal isto maximize the size of the groups and
to minimize the number of groups.
A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 cells, which are all powers of two. In the case of a 3
variable map, 23 = 8 a cell is the maximum group.
Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same group.
Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group in accordance with rule 1.
Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s already in a group can be
included in another group as long as the overlapping groups include noncommon 1s.
Karnaugh map POS Minimization
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Boolean Algebra
The approaches are much the same except that with POS expressions, 0s representing the
standard sum terms are placed on the Karnaugh map instead of 1s.
For a POS expression in standard form, a 0 is placed on the Karnaugh mapfor each sum term in
the expression. Each 0 is placed in a cell corresponding to the value of a sum term. For
example, for the sum term A + B + C, a 0goes in the 0 1 0 cell on a 3variable map.
When a POS expression is completely mapped, there will be a number of 0son the Karnaugh
map equal to the number of sum terms in the standard POSexpression.
The cells that do not have a 0 are the cells for which the expression is 1. Usually, when working
with POS expressions, the 1s are left off. The following steps and the illustration in Fig. show the
mapping process.
Step 1. Determine the binary value of each sum term in the standard POSexpression. This is the
binary value that makes the term equal to 0.
Step 2. As each sum term is evaluated, place a 0 on the Karnaugh map in the corresponding
cell.
Karnaugh Map Simplification of POS Expressions
The process for minimizing a POS expression is basically the same as for an SOP expression
except that you group 0s to produce minimum sum terms instead of grouping 1s to produce
minimum product terms.
The rules for grouping the 0s are the same as those for grouping the 1s that you learned before.
Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following standard POS expression:
FiveVariable Karnaugh maps
Boolean functions with five variables can be simplified using a 32cell Karnaugh map. Actually,
two 4variable maps (16 cells each) are used to construct a 5variable map.
A Karnaugh map for five variables (ABCDE) can be constructed using two4variable maps with
which you are already familiar. Each map contains 16cells with all combinations of variables B,
C, D, and E. One map is for A = 0 and the other is for A = 1, as shown in fig..
The best way to visualize cell adjacencies between the two 16cel1maps is to imagine that the A
= 0 map is placed on top of the A = 1 map.
Each cell in the A = 0 map is adjacent to the cell directly below it in the A =1 map.
"Don′t Care" Conditions
In some circuits we care only about the output for some combinations of input values, because
other combinations of input values are not possible or never occur.
This gives us freedom in producing a simple circuit with the desired output because the output
values for all those combinations that never occur can be arbitrarily chosen.
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Boolean Algebra
The values of the function for these combinations are called don′t care conditions.
For example, recall that in the BCD code there are six invalid combinations: 1010, 1011, 1100,
1101, 1110, and 1111. Since these unallowed states will never occur in an application involving
the BCD code,they can be treated as "don′t care" terms with respect to their effect on the output.
That is, for these "don′t care" terms either a 1 or a 0 may be assigned to the output: it really
does not matter since they will never occur.
The "don′t care" terms can be used to advantage on the Karnaugh map. Fig. shows that for
each "don′t care" term, an X is placed in the cell.
When grouping the 1 s, the Xs can be treated as 1s to make a larger grouping or as 0s if they
cannot be used to advantage. The larger a group, the simpler the resulting term will be.
The truth table in Fig.describes a logic function that has a 1 output only when the BCD code for
7,8, or 9 is present on the inputs. If the "don′t cares" are used as 1s, the resulting expression for
the function is A + BCD,as indicated in part (b). If the "don′t cares" are not used as 1s, the
resulting expression is ABC + ABCD: so you can see the advantage of using "don′t care" terms
to get the simplest expression.
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UNIT - 4
Number Theory
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Number Theory

The principle of Induction
More generally, we may apply the principle of induction whenever the universe of discourse is a
set of integers of the form f{k, k + 1, k + 2…} where k is some fixed integer.
Let P(n) be a predicate over f{k, k + 1, k + 2…}, where k belongs to Z. If
(1) P(k), and
P(n) v P(n + 1) then vnP(n).
In this context the “for all n", of course, means for all n >= k.
While the principle of induction is a very useful technique for proving propositions about the
natural numbers, it isn′t always necessary.
Why does the principle of induction work? This is essentially the domino effect. Assume you
have shown the premises. In other words you know P(0) is true and you know that P(n) implies
P(n + 1) for any integer n >=0.
Using Mathematical Induction. Steps
Prove the basis step.
Prove the inductive step.
Assume P(n) for arbitrary n in the universe. This is called the induction hypothesis.
Prove P(n + 1) follows from the previous steps.
The First Principle of Mathematical Induction
If a set of positive integers has the property that, if it contains the integer k, then it also contains
k + 1, and if this set contains 1 then it must be the set of all positive integers.
More generally, a property concerning the positive integers that is true for n = 1, and that is true
for the integer n + 1 whenever it is true for the integer n, must be true for all positive integers.
We use the well ordering principle to prove the first principle of mathematical induction.
Proof:
Let S be the set of positive integers containing the integer 1, and the integer k + 1 whenever
it contains k.
Assume also that S is not the set of all positive integers.
As a result, there are some integers that are not contained in S and thus those integers must
have a least element α by the well ordering principle.
Notice that α =! 1 since 1 ϵ S. But α 1 ϵ S and thus using the property of S, α ϵ S.
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Example 1
Example 2
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Number Theory

The Second Principle of Mathematical Induction
A set of positive integers that has the property that for every integer k, if it contains all the
integers 1 through k then it contains k + 1 and if it contains 1 then it must be the set of all
positive integers.
More generally, a property concerning the positive integers that is true for n = 1, and that is true
for all integers up to n + 1 whenever it is true for all integers up to n, must be true for all positive
integers.
The second principle of induction is also known as the principle of strong induction. Also, the first
principle of induction is known as the principle of Weak induction.
To prove the second principle of induction, we use the first principle of induction.
Proof. Let T be a set of integers containing 1 and such that for every positive integer k, if it
contains 1, 2, … k, then it contains k + 1.
Let S be the set of all positive integers k such that all the positive integers less than or equal to k
are in T. Then 1 is in S, and we also see that k + 1 is in S.
Thus S must be the set of all positive integers. Thus T must be the set of all positive integers
since S is a subset of T.
Example 1
Prove: Every integer n≥2 can be expressed as a product of one or more prime numbers. A
prime number is defined to be an integer greater than one that is only divisible by itself and one.
Proof. Recall that a prime number is an integer ≥ 2 that is only divisible by itself and 1. (The
number 1 is not considered to be prime.)
Let P(n) be the predicate “n can be expressed as a product of prime numbers."
Basis Step, n = 2: Since 2 is prime, 2 can be expressed as a product of prime numbers in a
trivial way (just one factor). Thus, P(2) is true.
Induction Step: Let n be an integer with n ≥ 2. Suppose that every integer j, 2 ≤ j ≤ n, can be
expressed as a product of prime numbers.
The integer n + 1 is either a prime number or it is not.
Example 2
In this example, the first principle of induction would be virtually impossible to apply, since the
integer n is not a factor of n + 1 when n ≥ 2.
That is, knowing the factors of n doesn′t tell us anything about the factors of n + 1.
Case 1. If n + 1 is a prime number, then it is a product of prime numbers in a trivial way.
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Case 2. If n + 1 is not a prime number, then n + 1 = a . b where a and b are positive integers,
both different from n + 1 and 1.
Thus, 2 ≤ a ≤ n and 2 ≤ b ≤ n. By the induction hypothesis, a and b can each be expressed as a
product of prime numbers, say a = p1p2… pr and b = q1q2… qs.
Since n + 1 = a .b = p1p2…pr q1q2 …qs, n + 1 can also be expressed as a product of prime
numbers, namely, the product of primes that multiply to give a times the product of primes that
multiply to give b.
By the second principle of mathematical induction, every n ≥ 2 can be expressed as a product of
prime numbers.
Example 3
Example 4
In Example 2, the predicate, P(n), is 5n+5 ≤ n 2 , and the universe of discourse is the set of
integers n >= 6. Notice that the basis step is to prove P(6).
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Number Theory
You might also observe that the statement P(5) is false, so that we can′t start the induction any
sooner.
In this example we are proving an inequality instead of equality.
This actually allows you more “fudge room", but sometimes that extra freedom can make it a bit
more difficult to see what to do next.
In this example, the hardest part, conceptually, is recognize that we need another inequality, 5 ≤
2n+1, which holds whenever n >= 2.
A good approach to showing f(n+1) ≤ g(n+1) is to start with f(n+1), think of a way express f(n +
1) in terms of f(n) so that you can use the induction hypothesis, Then find ways to get to g(n + 1)
using further equities or inequalities (that go in the right direction!).
In the induction step we use the fact that if you know a ≤ b, then a + 5 ≤ b + 5. The induction
hypothesis gives us an inequality. Then we add 5 to both sides of that inequality prove P(n + 1).
Example 5
Prove: A set with n elements, n _ 0, has exactly 2 n subsets.
Proof. Let P(n) be the statement “A set with n elements has 2n subsets."
Basis Step, n = 0: The only set with 0 elements is the empty set Ø , which has exactly one
subset, namely Ø. We also have 2 0 = 1, therefore a set with 0 elements has exactly 20
subsets. Thus P(0).
Induction Step: Let n belongs to N. Assume P(n): every set with n elements has 2n subsets.
Use the induction hypothesis to prove a set with n + 1 elements has 2n+1 subsets.
Suppose A is a set with n + 1 elements, say, A = {a1, a2,… an, an+1}.
Let B be the subset {a1,a2,…,an} of A.
Since B has n elements, we can apply the induction hypothesis to B, which says that B has
exactly 2n subsets.
Each subset S of B corresponds to exactly two subsets of A, namely, S and S U {a n+1 }.
But every subset of A is of one of these two forms; hence, A has exactly twice as many
subsets as B. Thus, A has exactly 2 _ 2n = 2n+1 subsets.
By the principle of mathematical induction it follows that a set with n elements has exactly 2n
subsets for all n >= 0.
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Number Theory

The Greatest Common Divisor
The greatest common divisor of two integers a and b is the greatest integer that divides both a
and b.
Two integers a and b, not both 0, can have only finitely many divisors, and thus can have only
finitely many common divisors.
In this section, we are interested in the greatest common divisor of a and b. Note that the
divisors of a and that of | a | are the same.
We denote the greatest common divisor of two integers a and b by (a, b). We also define (0, 0) =
0.
The Greatest Common Divisor : Example
The greatest common divisor of 24 and 18 is 6. In other words (24, 18) = 6.
The greatest common divisor of 9 and 16 is 1, thus they are relatively prime.
There are couples of integers (e.g. 3 and 4, etc...) whose greatest common divisor is 1 so we
call such integers relatively prime integers.
Note that every integer has positive and negative divisors. If a is a positive divisor of m, then a
is also a divisor of m.
Therefore by our definition of the greatest common divisor, we can see that (a, b) = (| a |, | b |).
The Greatest Common Divisor : Theorem 1
The theorem states that if we divide two integers by their greatest common divisor, then the
outcome is a couple of integers that are relatively prime.
If (a, b) = d then (a/d, b/d) = 1.
Proof. We will show that a=d and b=d have no common positive divisors other than
Assume that k is a positive common divisor such that k | a/d and k | b/d. As a result, there are
two positive integers m and n such that a/d = km and b/d = kn
Thus we get that a = kmd and b = knd
Hence kd is a common divisor of both a and b. Also, kd >= d. However, d is the greatest
common divisor of a and b. As a result, we get that k = 1.
The greatest common divisor of two integers does not change when we add a multiple of one of
the two integers to the other.
Let a; b and c be integers. Then (a, b) = (a + cb, b)
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Proof. We will show that every divisor of a and b is also a divisor of a + cb and b and vise versa.
Hence they have exactly the same divisors. So we get that the greatest common divisor of a and
b will also be the greatest common divisor of a + cb and b.
Let k be a common divisor of a and b. By Theorem 1, k | (a + cb) and hence k is a divisor of
a+cb.
Now assume that l is a common divisor of a+cb and b. Also by Theorem 1 we have , l | ((a + cb)
cb) = a
As a result, l is a common divisor of a and b and the result follows.
The Greatest Common Divisor : Definition
Let a1, a2,…,an be integers, not all 0. The greatest common divisor of these integers is the
largest integer that divides all of the integers in the set. The greatest common divisor of a1, a2,
…, an is denoted by (a1, a2,…, an).
The integers a1, a2,…,an are said to be mutually relatively prime if (a1, a2,…,an) = 1.
Example. The integers 3, 6, 7 are mutually relatively prime since (3, 6, 7) = 1 although (3, 6) = 3.
The integers a1, a2,…,an, are called pairwise prime if for each i != j, we have (ai, aj) = 1.
Example The integers 3, 14, 25 are pairwise relatively prime. Notice also that these integers are
mutually relatively prime.
Notice that if a1, a2,…,an are pairwise relatively prime then they are mutually relatively prime.
This theorem proves that the greatest common divisor of two integers can be written as a linear
combination of the two integers.
The greatest common divisor of two integers a and b, not both 0 is the least positive integer
such that ma + nb = d for some integers m and n.
Proof. Assume without loss of generality that a and b are positive integers. Consider the set of all
positive integer linear combinations of a and b. This set is non empty since a = 1 . a + 0 . b and b
= 0 . a + 1 . b are both in this set.
Thus this set has a least element d by the wellordering principle.
Thus d = ma + nb for some integers m and n. We have to prove that d divides both a and b and
that it is the greatest divisor of a and b. By the division algorithm, we have a = dq + r, 0 . r < d
Thus we have r = a dq = a q(ma + nb) = (1 qm)a qnb
We then have that r is a linear combination of a and b. Since 0 _ r < d and d is the least positive
integer which is a linear combination of a and b, then r = 0 and a = dq.
As a result, we conclude that if (a, b) = 1 then there exist integers m and n such that ma + nb =
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Number Theory
1.
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Number Theory

The Euclidean Algorithm
A systematic method that determines the greatest common divisor of two integers. This method
is called the Euclidean algorithm.
If a and b are two integers and a = bq + r where also q and r are integers, then (a, b) = (r, b). we
have (bq + r, b) = (b, r)
The above lemma will lead to a more general version of it. We now present the Euclidean
algorithm in its general form. It states that the greatest common divisor of two integers is the last
non zero remainder of the successive division.
Let a = r 0 and b = r 1 be two positive integers where a >= b. If we apply the division algorithm
successively to obtain that
Notice that, we will have a remainder of 0 eventually since all the remainders are integers and
every remainder in the next step is less than the remainder in the previous one. we see that
Note that
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Number Theory
Hence (4147, 10672) = 29:
We now use the steps in the Euclidean algorithm to write the greatest common divisor of two
integers as a linear combination of the two integers.
The following example will actually determine the variables m and The following algorithm can
be described by a general form but for the sake of simplicity of expressions we will present an
example that shows the steps forobtaining the greatest common divisor of two integers as a
linear combination of the two integers.
Example: 1
Example 2
Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor of two positive integers has number of
divisions less than or equal five times the number of decimal digits in the minimum of the two
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Number Theory
integers.
Let a and b be two positive integers where a > b. Applying the Euclidean algorithm to find the
greatest common divisor of two integers with a = r0 and
Example 3
Notice that each of the quotients q1, q2,…, qn1 are all greater than 1 and qn >= 2 and this is
because rn < rn1. Thus we have
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Number Theory

Equivalence relation
An equivalence relation on a set S, is a relation on S which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
In general an equivalence relation results when we wish to “identify” two elements of a set that
share a common attribute.
The definition is motivated by observing that any process of “identification” must behave
somewhat like the equality relation, and the equality relation satisfies the reflexive (x = x for all
x), symmetric (x = y implies y = x), and transitive (x = y and y = z implies x = z) properties.
Example 1
Example 2
Equivalence Classes
Given an equivalence relation R on a set S, we define the equivalence class containing an
element x of S by:
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Number Theory
Let R be an equivalence relation on A and let a ϵ A. The set [a] = {x|aRx} is called the
equivalence class of a.
The element in the bracket in the above notation is called the Representative of the
equivalence class.
Equivalence Theorem
Equivalence Theorem Explanation
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then the following are equivalent:
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Number Theory
The purpose of any identification process is to break a set up into subsets consisting of mutually
identified elements.
An equivalence relation on a set A does precisely this: it decomposes A into special subsets,
called equivalence classes.
Looking back at the example given, we see the following equivalence classes:
These ideas are summed up in Theorem. When we say several statements, such as P1, P2, and
P3 are equivalent, we mean P1 P2 P3 is true.
Notice that in order to prove that the statements are mutually equivalent, it is sufficient to prove a
circle of implications, such as P1 ! P2 > P3 > P1. This is how we set up the proof of Theorem.
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Number Theory

Partition
A collection S of nonempty subsets of a set A is a partition of A if
If S is a set with an equivalence relation R, then it is easy to see that the equivalence classes of
R form a partition of the set S. More interesting is the fact that the converse of this statement is
true.
Partition Theorem
The equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on A form a partition of A.
Conversely, given a partition on A, there is an equivalence relation with equivalence classes that
are exactly the partition given.
The definition along with theorem describes formally the properties of an equivalence relation
that motivates the definition. Such decomposition is called a partition.
For example, if we wish to identify two integers if they are either both even or both odd, then we
end up with a partition of the integers into two sets, the set of even integers and the set of odd
integers.
The converse of Theorem allows us to create or define an equivalence relation by merely
partitioning a set into mutually exclusive subsets.
The common “attribute” then might just be that elements belong to the same subset in the
partition.
If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, the set of equivalence classes of R is denoted A/R.
Suppose R is an equivalence relation on A and S is the set of equivalence classes of R.
If S is an equivalence class, then S = [a], for some a ϵ A; hence, S is nonempty, since aRa by the
reflexive property of R.
By partition Theorem 1, if S = [a] and S0 = [b] are in S, then [a] = [b] iff [a] ∩ [b] ≠ Ø.
Since this is a biconditional, this statement is equivalent to [a] ≠ [b] iff [a] ∩ [b] = Ø.
Since each equivalence class is contained in A, S {S|S ϵ S} C A. But, as we just saw, every
element in A is in the equivalence class it represents, so A,U S{S|S ϵ S}. This shows S{S|S ϵ S} =
A.
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Number Theory

Intersection of Equivalence Relations
If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on a set A then R1 ∩ R2 is also an equivalence relation
on A.
To prove this, it suffices to show the intersection of
Reflexive relations is reflexive,
Symmetric relations is symmetric, and
Transitive relations is transitive.
Example
Let m be a positive integer. The relation a ≡ b (mod m), is an equivalence relation on the set of
integers.
Proof. Reflexive. If a is an arbitrary integer, then a − a = 0 = 0 · m. Thus a ≡ a (mod m).
Symmetric. If a ≡ b (mod m), then a − b = k · m for some integer k. Thus, b − a = (−k) · m is also
divisible by m, and so b ≡ a (mod m).
Transitive. Suppose a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m). Then a − b = k · m and b − c = l · m for
some integers k and l. Then a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = k · m + l · m = (k + l) m is also divisible by
m. That is, a ≡ c (mod m).
Infimum
If a ϵA is a lower bound for B if for every b ϵB, a R b. Also, a is called a greatest lower bound (or
infimum) for B if
a is a lower bound for B, and
x R a for every lower bound x for B.
In the example (Hasse diagram), consider B = {2,3}. Both 6 and 12 are upper bounds of this
subset and 6 is the sup(B).
The only lower bound of B is 1 and inf(B) = 1.
Now let B = {4,6}. Sup{B) = 12 and Inf(B) = 2. Consider the set C = {2,3,5}. There is no upper
bound for C, and 1 is a lower bound and also inf(C).
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Number Theory

Fibonacci numbers
Fibonacci numbers, the mathematics associated with them is interesting and because
(surprisingly) they are intimately related with the complexity analysis of the Euclidean algorithm.
Here are the first 16 Fibonacci numbers:
The convention is to start numbering at zero, so that we have listed the Oth, the 1st, ..., and the
15th Fibonacci number.
We denote the nth Fibonacci number by Fn for each non negative integer n.
There is an easy method for obtaining the Fibonacci numbers. First, F. = O, F1 = 1, and then for
all n >=2, Fn=Fn1+Fn2
Fibonacci numbers and Mathematical Induction
Since the nth Fibonacci number is defined in terms of smaller Fibonacci numbers, it is natural to
try to build proofs about these numbers using induction.
However, the nth Fibonacci number is not defined solely in terms of its immediate predecessor,
but rather in terms of two predecessors. Consequently, we need a strengthening of our induction
machine.
Algorithm INDUCTION
STEP 1. Verify the base case.
STEP 2. Assume that Pk is true for an arbitrary value of k.
STEP 3. Verify that Pk + 1 is true, using the assumption that Pk is true.
Fibonacci numbers and Complete Induction
Sometimes the truth of Pk+1 depends on the truth of more than one of the preceding Pj’s or
depends on the truth of Pj, where j < k. There is still hope for the method of induction if we use
the following principle, which is known as Complete Induction.
Suppose that Pn is a proposition that depends upon the positive integer n. Then Pn is true for all
n >= N, (where N is some fixed integer) provided that
PN is true, and
if PN, PN+1,. ... and PN are all true, then so is PN+1.
There are two changes here. First we’ve introduced an unspecified constant N.
In the original version of induction we always mentioned the base case P1 although we admitted
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Number Theory
that the base case might start off at Po.
Fibonacci numbers and Complete Induction
The second difference between induction and complete induction is in the inductive hypothesis.
In this second version we assume that PN, PN +1,. . ., and PN are all true. Since we assume
more, it should be easier to use this form. The algorithmic version of complete induction.
Algorithm INDUCTION
STEP 1. (The base cases). Verify that PN, PN+1,. . . . l PN +jj are valid for some constants N
and j (depending upon the problem).
STEP 2. (The inductive hypothesis). Assume that PN, PN+1,. . . . and PN are all true for an
arbitrary value of k.
STEP 3. (The inductive step). Verify that PN+1 is true, using the inductive hypothesis.
There is one more change, introduced in this algorithm, namely the constant j in Step 1. At times
we shall need to check more than one base case, depending on the proof we construct, to show
that pk + 1 is true. The value of j depends upon the number of Pk,Pk+1,. . . . Pk that we refer
back to in our verification of Pk + 1.
Fibonacci numbers: Theorem
Every integer n >1 has a prime divisor.
The statement gives the starting point of the proposition N = 2. This statement is true for n = 2,
since 2 is a prime number and divides itself. Similarly, the statement is valid for n = 3, since 3 is
a prime.
We check that it is also true fern =4=2.2. The inductive hypothesis tells us to assume the truth of
the statement for n = 2,3, ..., k, for some arbitrary value of k.
To accomplish the inductive step, we must prove the result that the integer (k + 1) has a prime
divisor. Now either (k + 1) is a prime or it isn’t. If (k + 1) is a prime, then it has itself as a prime
divisor.
If (k + 1) is not a prime, then k + 1 = bc, where b and c satisfy 1< b < (k + 1) and 1 < c < (k + 1).
Consider b. By the inductive hypothesis, since 1< b < (k + 1), we may assume that b has a prime
divisor, say p. Then k+l
Every integer n >1 has a prime divisor.
We see that (k + 1)/p is an integer, since it is expressed as the product of two integers.
This means that p is a divisor of (k + 1) and so (k + 1) has a prime divisor, namely p. q Note that
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Number Theory
we could not have used the standard form of induction in this problem because the truth of the
assertion Pk+1 depends not on the truth of Pk, but on the truth of Pb, where b is less than k.
Since our proof depends upon only one earlier case, P~ with 1 < b < (k + 1), our base case
needed only one value, namely N = 2 and j = O, although to get a feel for the problem we
checked three base cases. We now use complete induction to establish some facts about the
Fibonacci numbers.
Fibonacci numbers: Rabbitoutofthehat tricks
Find an integer N such that FN> (3/2)N. Prove by induction that
Which is rabbitoutofthehat tricks with the Fibonacci numbers.
A pair of rabbits requires one month to mature to the age when it can reproduce. Suppose that
the rabbits then mate and produce another pair in every subsequent month, and that the pair of
offspring is always conveniently one male and one female, who then form a new breeding pair.
If in the first month we have one pair of rabbits, how many pairs do we have at the beginning of
the nth month? For simplicity, we assume no death or loss of fertility. We call the resulting
number R. At the beginning of the first month we have one pair, so RI = 1.
At the beginning of the second month we still have one pair, but during the second month they
produce a pair of bunnies. Thus Rz = 1 and R3 = 2. During the third month the original pair
produces another pair of bunnies, but the new pair of bunnies doesn’t reproduce yet. So R4 = 3.
Then R5 = 5.
We might as well argue the general case That is, let’s determine R. in terms of previous values
of R. At the beginning of the nth month we have all the rabbit pairs that we had at the beginning
of the (n – l)st month, R.~, plus some new bunny pairs.
The number of new bunny pairs is the number of rabbit pairs that are at least one month old.
The rabbit pairs that are this old are precisely those that were around in the (n – 2)nd month,
Rn2.. In symbols then Rn=Rn1 + Rn2
Now we see that the R. are exactly the same as the Fibonacci numbers and that R. = F. for all
positive n. Fibonacci numbers arise in other natural settings.
For example, the spacing of leaves on some plants and some arrangements of flower petals and
seeds are closely related to the Fibonacci numbers. Mollusk shells spiral in curves derived from
Fibonacci numbers.
Ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers, like 5/3, 3/8, and & are considered aesthetically
pleasing. The squares in Figure 4.1 each have sides equal to a Fibonacci number. They
combine to make rectangles with sides in ratios of 34 to 21, 21 to 13, 13 to 8, 8 to 5, 5 to 3, 3 to
2, and 2 to 1. In fact, for large values of n, Fn/Fn 1 gets arbitrarily close to a constant.
Fibonacci Squares
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Number Theory
The Fibonacci numbers are even thought to be useful in predicting highs and lows on the stock
market. These numbers have so many interesting and varied properties that there is a
mathematics research journal, the Fibonacci Quarterly, dedicated to results about Fibonacci
numbers.
The defining property is useful for proving results about Fibonacci numbers by induction. But
one thing seems missing from our knowledge. Is there a formula for Fn? Or to calculate, say,
F17 must we determine all the smaller Fibonacci numbers? Yes and maybe no, respectively. We
shall write down a formula for F., but we stress that in most situations the inductive definition that
Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 is the most helpful fact to know.
Fibonacci Numbers Contradictions
To calculate F. by adding as shown above appears to require that we store all of FO, Fl . . . Fn
1. Is it possible to calculate F. by addition without storing all the previous values in n different
memory locations? What is the minimum number of memory locations that you need to calculate
F. in this way.
The second way we now have to calculate Fn is using the formula in previous stated theorem.
This requires two exponentiation, one division and one subtraction as well as an approximation
of the square root of 5.
There are a variety of additional methods known for calculating F., including an addition method
that is analogous to the FASTEXP algorithm, that is, one that does not require the determination
of ail intermediate Fibonacci numbers.
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UNIT - 5
Algebraic Methods
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Algebraic Methods

Groups
Abstract algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Such a structure consists of a set together
with one or more binary operations, which are required to satisfy certain axioms.
A group is a set with an associated binary operation satisfying certain mathematical properties.
This simple algebraic structure has very rich applications because the elements of the set need
not be just numbers – they can be matrices, planes, translations, rotations, reflections, in fact
functions or operations of any kind.
Group theory has been applied in field as diverse as crystallography and game theory In
crystallography and in quantum mechanics, Groups serve as the natural language to describe
the arrangement of molecules and the behaviour of particles.
A striking example is the discovery of the Ωbaryon, an elementary particle belonging to a family
of ten particles. It was the last member to be discovered. After the first nine members were
discovered and their behaviour was modelled using group theory, it was thought there should be
another particle in the family.
This in turn lead to a search and the Ωbaryon was discovered in 1964. It was like someone
telling you there is a gold coin in your pocket; you are unaware of its existence but when you put
your hand in the pocket, you find it there, as if by magic.
A group G is a finite or infinite set together with a binary operation or composition that satisfies
the four fundamental properties of closure, associativity, the identity property, and the inverse
property.
Basics of Counting
The operation with respect to which a group is defined is often called the "group operation," and
a set is said to be a group "under" this operation if the following four properties are satisfied.
Closure: If a and b are two elements in G, then the product a×b is also in G.
Associativity: The defined operation is associative, i.e., for all a, b, c in G, (a × b) × c = a × (b
× c).
Existence of Identity: There is an identity element, often denoted by e, such that e × a = a ×e
= a for all a belonging to G.
Existence of Inverse: Each element must have an inverse, that is for each element a in G,
there must exist an element b in G such that a×b =b
The number of elements in the set is called the order of the group. If the set is infinite, the group
is called an infinite group.
CARD SHUFFLING
A perfect shuffle is one in which the deck is cut precisely in two equal parts and cards are
interleaved. Example: if these cards are 1, 2 ...52, then two halves are 1, 2... 26 and 27, 28 ...52.
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Algebraic Methods
After a perfect shuffle the order of the cards is either 1, 27, 2, 28... 26, 52 or 27,1, 28,
2,......,52,26. Eight perfect shuffles restore a deck of 52 cards to the original order.
Group theorists have studied generalisation of shuffles on decks of arbitrary number of cards in
detail. (Magic Tricks, Card Shuffling and Computer Memories by S. Brent Morris) In addition to
their use in designing many card tricks, the group theoretic results from studying shuffles have
been used to designing dynamic RAM and also in algorithms for shuffling tasks in parallel
computers with multiple processors.
In the Rubik’s cube, the cube is formed of 27 small cubes. Each face consists of 9 small
squares, which we may call facets. Since a cube has 6 faces, we have 54 facets in all. Each
facet is coloured with one of six different colours, there being exactly nine facets of each colour.
The facets can be moved into different positions by various rotations. The problem consists of
applying suitable rotations so that each of the six faces has all the nine facets of one colour.
It is possible to ′solve′ the Rubik cube without knowledge of groups. But the fast algorithms,
which solve a cube from any initial position in 20 moves or less use group theory. A well known
book on solving the Rubik’s cube is Rubik’s Cubic Compendium by Erno Rubik, Tamas Varga,
Gerzson Keri, Gyorgy Marx and Tamas Vekerdy; and another one is Notes on Rubik’s Magic
Cube by David Singmaster. The more recent Adventures in Group Theory: Rubik’s Cube,
Merlin’s Machine and Other Mathematical Toys by David Joyner has a description of many
puzzles, their solving strategies and the underlying group theoretic framework.
Groups are a particularly simple algebraic structure, having only one operation and three
axioms. Most algebraic structures have more than one operation, and are required to satisfy a
long list of axioms.
Other algebraic structures
Field is an algebraic structure with addition and multiplication, which obey all of the usual rules of
elementary algebra. Examples of fields include the rational numbers Q, the real numbers R, and
the complex numbers C.
A ring is a more general algebraic structure with addition and multiplication. A good example of a
ring is the set of all nXn matrices under the operations of matrix addition and matrix
multiplication.
A vector space is an algebraic structure with operations of addition and multiplication by scalars.
The scalars are required to be elements of a field, such as the real numbers R. The basic
example of a vector space is the set Rn of all vectors with n entries.
A module is similar to a vector space, except that the scalars are only required to be elements of
a ring. For example, the set Zn of ndimensional vectors with integer entries forms a module,
where “scalar multiplication" refers to multiplication by integer scalars.
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Properties of groups
Uniqueness of identity element
The identity element of a group is unique. For suppose that there are two identity elements, say
e1 and e2. (This means that g ◦ e1 = e1 ◦ g = g for all g, and also g ◦ e2 = e2 ◦ g = g for all g.)
Then e1 = e1 ◦ e2 = e2.
Uniqueness of inverse
The inverse of a group element g is unique. For suppose that h and k are both additive inverses
of g. (This means that g◦h = h◦g = e and g◦ k = k ◦ g = e – we know now that there is a unique
identity element e). Then h = h ◦ e = h ◦ (g ◦ k) = (h ◦ g) ◦ k = e ◦ k = k, where we use the
associative law in the third step.We denote the inverse of g by g1.
Composing more than two elements
As long as the associative law holds, the result of composing any number of elements is
independent of the way that the product is bracketed: for example, a ◦ ((b ◦ c) ◦ d) = (a ◦ b) ◦ (c ◦
d).
Since the associative law holds in a group, we have:
Proposition Let g1,...,gn be elements of a group G. Then the composition g1 ◦ g2 ◦ ··· ◦ gn is
welldefined, independent of the way it is bracketed.
Cancellation laws
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Order
The order of an element g in a group is defined as follows:
If gn = 1 for some positive integer n, then the smallest such n is called the order of g.
If no such n exists, we say that g has infinite order.
The implies g = g −1 by the Cancellation Law.)
Consider the additive group of the ring Z. The element 1 has infinite order, since there is no
positive integer n such that n · 1 = 0 identity element always has order 1. If an element g has
order 2, then it is equal to its inverse (for g2 = 1 = gg−1.
Assume that the equation xyz = 1 holds in a group G. Does it follow that yzx = 1? That yxz = 1?
Justify your answer.
Solution: xyz = 1 implies that x(yz) = 1. Let yz = a . Then we have xa = 1 and so ax = 1 since a is
invertible and a−1 = x. It follows that (yz)x = 1. Hence yzx = 1.
On the other hand, if xyz = 1, it is not always true that yxz = 1. To see this, let G be the group of
2×2 real matrices and let
Let G be a nonempty set closed under an associative product, which in addition satisfies:
There exists an e ∈ G such that ae = a for all a ∈ G.
Given a ∈ G, there exists an element y (a) ∈ G such that ay (a) =e.
Prove that G must be a group under this product.
Solution: Given a ∈ G. Since right inverse exists, there exists y(a) ∈ G such that ay(a) = e.
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Then, y(a) = y(a)e = y(a)(ay(a)) =(y(a)a)y(a). Also, there exists t ∈ G such that y(a)t = e. This
implies that (y(a)a)y(a)t = e then (y(a)a)e = e Hence y(a)a = e. So every right inverse is also a
left inverse. Now for any a ∈ G we have ea = (ay(a))a = a(y(a)a) = ae = a as e is a right identity.
Hence e is a left identity.
If G is a group of even order, prove that it has an element a ≠ e satisfying a 2 = e.
Solution: Define a relation on G by g ∼ h if and only if g = h or g = h −1 for all g, h ∈ G.
It is easy to see that this is an equivalence relation. The equivalence class containing g is {g,
gsup>−1} and contains exactly 2 elements if and only if g 2 ≠ e. Let C1, C2, · · · , Ck be the
equivalence classes of G with respect to ∼ . Then |G| = |C1| + |C2| + · · · + |Ck| Since each |Ci |
∈ {1, 2} and |G| is even the number of equivalence classes Ci , with |Ci | = 1 is even. Since the
equivalence class containing {e} has just one element, there must exist another equivalence
class with exactly one element say {a}. Then e≠a and asup>−1 = a. i.e. a 2 = e.
Prove that in any group the orders of ab and of ba are equal.
Solution: Let (ab) k = 1. Then abab · · · ab = 1 This implies a(ba)(ba)· · ·(ba)b = 1
We have a(ba) k−1 b = 1 ⇒ (ba)k−1 = a−1b−1 =(ba)−1
We obtain (ba) k−1 (ba) = 1 which implies (ba)k = 1. Similarly if (ba) l = 1, then (ab) l = 1. Hence
orders of ab and ba are the same.
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Sub groups
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Cosets
We have introduced the product, sum, and subtraction rules for counting. You may wonder
whether there is also a Cosets for counting. In fact, there is such a rule, which can be Useful
when solving certain types of enumeration problems.
THE COSETS There are n/d ways to do a task if it can be done using a procedure that can be
carried out in n ways, and for every way w, exactly d of the n ways correspond to way w.
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Lagrange’s theorem
The number of elements in a group G is called the order of G and denoted o(G).
Given a subgroup H of G, the number of cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G and
denoted [G : H].
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Recap – Problems
If a ∈ G define CG(a) = { x ∈ G | xa = ax }. Show that CG(a) is a subgroup of G. The group
CG(a) is called the centralizer of a in G.
Solution: Let x, y ∈ CG(a). If ya = ay, then ay−1 = y−1a hence y−1 ∈ CG(a) and moreover (xy)a
= x(ya) = x(ay) = a(xy). Hence xy ∈ CG(a). (Observe that CG(a) = CG({a})
Show that the intersection of two normal subgroups of G is a normal subgroup of G.
Solution: It is clear that the intersection of two subgroups of G is a subgroup of G.
Let N and M be normal subgroups of G.
Then for any g ∈ G and any n ∈ N and any m ∈ M we have gng−1 ∈ N and gmg−1 ∈ M.
Let w ∈ N ∩M. Since w ∈ N we have gwg−1 ∈ N and since w ∈ M we have gwg−1 ∈ M. Hence
gwg−1 ∈ N ∩ M for any g ∈ G i.e. N ∩ M is a normal subgroup of G.
If H is a subgroup of G such that the product of any two right cosets of H in G is again a right
coset of H in G, prove that H is normal in G.
Solution: Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of H in G. By assumption HaHb is a right coset of H
in G. The set Ha Hb contains the element ab. So the right coset should contain ab. Since there is
only one right coset of H in G containing ab, which is Hab, we have HaHb = Hab for all a, b ∈ G.
Hence HaH = Ha for all a ∈ G. i.e.
If H is a subgroup of G such that the product of any two right cosets of H in G is again a right
coset of H in G, prove that H is normal in G.
Solution: Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of H in G. By assumption HaHb is a right coset of H
in G. The set Ha Hb contains the element ab. So the right coset should contain ab. Since there is
only one right coset of H in G containing ab, which is Hab, we have HaHb = Hab for all a, b ∈ G.
Hence HaH = Ha for all a ∈ G. i.e. h1ah2 is equal to h3a for some h3 ∈ H. But h1ah2 = h3a
implies ah2a−1 = h1−1h3. So for any h2 ∈ H and any a ∈ G ah2a−1 = h1−1h3 ∈ H i.e. H is
normal in G and So on..
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UNIT - 6
Combination
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Combination

Combinations
Combinatorics, the study of arrangements of objects, is an important part of discrete
mathematics. This subject was studied as long ago as the seventeenth century, when
combinatorial questions arose in the study of gambling games.
Combinations have been applied in all facets of computing from web technology to mathematical
biology.
What is combinatorics?
Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of finite or countable discrete
structure
Question: Suppose that a password on a computer system consists of six, seven, or eight
characters. Each of these characters must be a digit or a letter of the alphabet. Each password
must contain at least one digit. How many such passwords are there?
The techniques needed to answer this question forms what we call as the counting problem. We
will show you how this is done later on in the module.
Combination is the number of ways of picking k unordered outcomes from n possibilities.`
There are two techniques used in counting
Sum rule
Product rule
The product rule applies when a procedure is made up of separate tasks.
The product rule: Suppose that a procedure can be broken down into a sequence of two tasks. If
there are n1 ways to do the first task and for each of these ways of doing the first task, there are
n2 ways to do the second task, then there are n1n2 ways to do the procedure.
Another definition: Let m be the number of ways to do task 1 and n the number of ways to do
task 2 (with each number independent of how the other task is done), and assume that no way
to do task 1 simultaneously also accomplishes task 2.
The product rule: The task “do both” task 1 and task 2 can be done in mn ways.
A new company with just two employees, Sanchez and Patel, rents a floor of a building with 12
offices. How many ways are there to assign different offices to these two employees?
The procedure of assigning offices to these two employees consists of assigning an office to
Sanchez, which can be done in 12 ways, then assigning an office to Patel different from the
office assigned to Sanchez, which can be done in 11 ways. By the product rule, there are 12 · 11
= 132 ways to assign offices to these two employees.
The chairs of an auditorium are to be labeled with an uppercase English letter followed by a
positive integer not exceeding 100. What is the largest number of chairs that can be labeled
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differently?
The procedure of labeling a chair consists of two tasks, namely, assigning to the seat one of the
26 uppercase English letters, and then assigning to it one of the 100 possible integers. The
product rule shows that there are 26 · 100 = 2600 different ways that a chair can be labeled.
Therefore, the largest number of chairs that can be labeled differently is 2600.
There are 32 microcomputers in a computer center. Each microcomputer has 24 ports. How
many different ports to a microcomputer in the center are there?
The procedure of choosing a port consists of two tasks, first picking a microcomputer and then
picking a port on this microcomputer. Because there are 32 ways to choose the microcomputer
and 24 ways to choose the port no matter which microcomputer has been selected, the product
rule shows that there are 32 · 24 = 768 ports.
How many different bit strings of length seven are there?
Solution: Each of the seven bits can be chosen in two ways, because each bit is either 0 or 1.
Therefore, the product rule shows there are a total of 27 = 128 different bit strings of length
seven.
What is the value of k after the following code, where n1, n2, . . . , nm are positive integers, has
been executed?
Solution: The initial value of k is zero. Each time the nested loop is traversed, 1 is added to k. Let
Ti be the task of traversing the ith loop. Then the number of times the loop is traversed is the
number of ways to do the tasks T1, T2,... , Tm. The number of ways to carry out the task Tj, j =
1, 2,..., m, is nj, because the j th loop is traversed once for each integer ij with 1 ≤ ij ≤ nj . By the
product rule, it follows that the nested loop is traversed n1n2 · · · nm times. Hence, the final
value of k is n1n2 · · · nm.
THE SUM RULE If a task can be done either in one of n1 ways or in one of n2 ways, where none
of the set of n1 ways is the same as any of the set of n2 ways, then there are n1 + n2 ways to do
the task.
Suppose that either a member of the mathematics faculty or a student who is a mathematics
major is chosen as a representative to a university committee. How many different choices are
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there for this representative if there are 37 members of the mathematics faculty and 83
mathematics majors and no one is both a faculty member and a student? Solution: There are 37
ways to choose a member of the mathematics faculty and there are 83 ways to choose a
student who is a mathematics major. Choosing a member of the mathematics faculty is never
the same as choosing a student who is a mathematics major because no one is both a faculty
member and a student. By the sum rule it follows that there are 37 + 83 = 120 possible ways to
pick this representative.
A student can choose a computer project from one of three lists. The three lists contain 23, 15,
and 19 possible projects, respectively. No project is on more than one list. How many possible
projects are there to choose from?
Solution: The student can choose a project by selecting a project from the first list, the second
list, or the third list. Because no project is on more than one list, by the sum rule there are 23 +
15 + 19 = 57 ways to choose a project.
Each user on a computer system has a password, which is six to eight characters long, where
each character is an uppercase letter or a digit. Each password must contain at least one digit.
How many possible passwords are there?
Let P be the total number of possible passwords, and let P6, P7, and P8 denote the number of
possible passwords of length 6, 7, and 8, respectively. By the sum rule, P = P6 + P7 + P8.We will
now find P6, P7, and P8. Finding P6 directly is difficult. To find P6 it is easier to find the number
of strings of uppercase letters and digits that are six characters long,including those with no
digits, and subtract from this the number of strings with no digits. By the product rule, the
number of strings of six characters is 366, and the number of strings with no digits is 266.
Hence,
Some facts about IPv4
Valid computer addresses are in one of 3 types:
A class A IP address contains a 7bit .netid. 6= 17, and a 24bit .hostid.
A class B address has a 14bit netid and a 16bit hostid.
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A class C addr. has 21bit netid and an 8bit hostid.
The 3 classes have distinct headers (0, 10, 110)
Hostids that are all 0s or all 1s are not allowed. How many valid computer addresses are there?
(# addrs) = (# class A) + (# class B) + (# class C)
(# class A) = (# valid netids) . (# valid host IDs)
(# valid class A netids) = 27 1 = 127.
(# valid class A hostids) = 224 2 = 16, 777, 214.
Continuing in this fashion we find the answer is: 3, 737, 091, 842 (3.7 billion IP addresses)
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Principle of Subtraction
Suppose that a task can be done in one of two ways, but some of the ways to do it are common
to both ways. In this situation, we cannot use the sum rule to count the number of ways to do the
task.
If we add the number of ways to do the tasks in these two ways, we get an over count of the
total number of ways to do it, because the ways to do the task that are common to the two ways
are counted twice. To correctly count the number of ways to do the two tasks, we must subtract
the number of ways that are counted twice.
The Subtraction Rule If a task can be done in either n1 ways or n2 ways, then the number of
ways to do the task is n1 + n2 minus the number of ways to do the task that are common to the
two different ways.
The subtraction rule is also known as the principle of inclusion–exclusion, especially when it is
used to count the number of elements in the union of two sets. Suppose that A1 and A2 are
sets. Then, there are |A1| ways to select an element from A1 and |A2| ways to select an element
from A2.
The number of ways to select an element from A1 or from A2, that is, the number of ways to
select an element from their union, is the sum of the number of ways to select an element from
A1 and the number of ways to select an element from A2, minus the number of ways to select
an element that is in bothA1 and A2. Because there are |A1 ∪ A2| ways to select an element in
either A1 or in A2, and |A1 ∩ A2| ways to select an element common to both sets, we have |A1
∪ A2| = |A1| + |A2| − |A1 ∩ A2|.
Hypothetical rules for passwords
Passwords must be 2 characters long. Each password must be a letter a z, a digit 0 9, or one
of the 10 punctuation characters!@#$%^& _ (). Each password must contain at least 1 digit or
punctuation character.
Solution
A legal password has a digit or punctuation character in position 1 or position 2. These cases
overlap, so the principle applies.
(# of passwords w. OK symbol in position 1) = (10 + 10) . (10 + 10 + 26)
(# of passwords w. OK symbol in position 2) = 20 . 46
(# of passwords w. OK symbol in both places) = 20 . 20
Ans: 920 + 920 400 = 1, 440
A computer company receives 350 applications from computer graduates for a job planning a
line of new Web servers. Suppose that 220 of these applicants majored in computer science,
147 majored in business, and 51 majored both in computer science and in business. How many
of these applicants majored neither in computer science nor in business?
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Solution: To find the number of these applicants who majored neither in computer science nor in
business, we can subtract the number of students who majored either in computer science or in
business (or both) from the total number of applicants.
Let A1 be the set of students who majored in computer science and A2 the set of students who
majored in business. Then A1 ∪ A2 is the set of students who majored in computer science or
business (or both), and A1 ∩ A2 is the set of students who majored both in computer science
and in business. By the subtraction rule the number of students who majored either in computer
science or in business (or both) equals |A1 ∪ A2| = |A1| + |A2| − |A1 ∩ A2| = 220 + 147 − 51 =
316.
We conclude that 350 − 316 = 34 of the applicants majored neither in computer science nor in
business.
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The Division Rule
We have introduced the product, sum, and subtraction rules for counting. You may wonder
whether there is also a division rule for counting. In fact, there is such a rule, which can be
Useful when solving certain types of enumeration problems.
There are n/d ways to do a task if it can be done using a procedure that can be carried out in n
ways, and for every way w, exactly d of the n ways correspond to way w.
Division rule in terms of sets and functions
“If the finite set A is the union of n pairwise disjoint subsets each with d elements, then n = |A|/d.”
“If f is a function from A to B where A and B are finite sets, and that for every value y ∈ B there
are exactly d values x ∈ A such that f (x) = y (in which case, we say that f is dtoone), then |B| =
|A|/d.”
How many different ways are there to seat four people around a circular table, where two
seating’s are considered the same when each person has the same left neighbor and the same
right neighbor?
We arbitrarily select a seat at the table and label it seat 1. We number the rest of the seats in
numerical order, proceeding clockwise around the table. Note that are four ways to select the
person for seat 1, three ways to select the person for seat 2, two ways to select the person for
seat 3, and one way to select the person for seat 4. Thus, there are 4! = 24 ways to order the
given four people for these seats.
However, each of the four choices for seat 1 leads to the same arrangement, as we distinguish
two arrangements only when one of the people has a different immediate left or immediate right
neighbor. Because there are four ways to choose the person for seat 1, by the division rule there
are 24/4 = 6 different seating arrangements of four people around the circular table.
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THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE
Suppose that a flock of 20 pigeons flies into a set of 19 pigeonholes to roost. Because there are
20 pigeons but only 19 pigeonholes, a least one of these 19 pigeonholes must have at least two
pigeons in it. To see why this is true, note that if each pigeonhole had at most one pigeon in it, at
most 19 pigeons, one per hole, could be accommodated.
This illustrates a general principle called the pigeonhole principle, which states that if there are
more pigeons than pigeonholes, then there must be at least one pigeonhole with at least two
pigeons in it (see Figure). Of course, this principle applies to other objects besides pigeons and
pigeonholes.
THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE If k is a positive integer and k + 1 or more objects are placed
into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing two or more of the objects.
Proof: We prove the pigeonhole principle using a proof by contraposition.
Suppose that none of the k boxes contains more than one object. Then the total number of
objects would be at most k. This is a contradiction, because there are at least k + 1 objects.
Theorem: A function f from a set with k + 1 or more elements to a set with k elements is not one
toone.
Proof: Suppose that for each element y in the codomain of f we have a box that contains all
elements x of the domain of f such that f (x) = y. Because the domain contains k + 1 or more
elements and the codomain contains only k elements, the pigeonhole principle tells us that one
of these boxes contains two or more elements x of the domain. This means that f cannot be
onetoone.
There are 280 students in the class. Without knowing anybody’s birthday, what is the largest
value of n for which we can prove that at least n students must have been born in the same
month? Ans |280/12| = |23.3| = 24
Show that for every integer n there is a multiple of n that has only 0s and 1s in its decimal
expansion.
Solution: Let n be a positive integer. Consider the n + 1 integers 1, 11, 111, . . . , 11 . . . 1 (where
The last integer in this list is the integer with n + 1 1s in its decimal expansion). Note that there
Are n possible remainders when an integer is divided by n? Because there are n + 1 integers in
this list, by the pigeonhole principle there must be two with the same remainder when divided by
n. The larger of these integers less the smaller one is a multiple of n, which has a decimal
Expansion consisting entirely of 0s and 1s.
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The generalized pigeonhole principle
If N objects are placed into k Boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least [N/k]
objects.
Proof: We will use a proof by contraposition. Suppose that none of the boxes contains more
Than [N/k] − 1 objects. Then, the total number of objects is at most
Where the inequality [N/k] < (N/k) + 1 has been used. This is a contradiction because there Are a
total of N objects?
What is the minimum number of students required in a discrete mathematics class to be sure
that at least six will receive the same grade, if there are five possible grades, A, B, C, D, and F?
Solution: The minimum number of students needed to ensure that at least six students receive
the same grade is the smallest integer N such that [N/5] = 6. The smallest such integer is N = 5 ·
5 + 1 = 26. If you have only 25 students, it is possible for there to be five who have received
each grade so that no six students have received the same grade. Thus, 26 is the minimum
number of students needed to ensure that at least six students will receive the same grade.
What is the least number of area codes needed to guarantee that the 25 million phones in a
state can be assigned distinct 10digit telephone numbers? (Assume that telephone numbers
are of the form NXXNXXXXXX, where the first three digits form the area code, N represents a
digit from 2 to 9 inclusive, and X represents any digit.)
Solution: There are eight million different phone numbers of the form NXXXXXX (as shown In
Example 8 of Section 6.1). Hence, by the generalized pigeonhole principle, among 25 million
Telephones, at least [25,000,000/8,000,000] = 4 of them must have identical phone numbers.
Hence, at least four area codes are required to ensure that all 10digit numbers are different.
During a month with 30 days, a baseball team plays at least one game a day, but no more than
45 games. Show that there must be a period of some number of consecutive days during which
the team must play exactly 14 games.
Solution: Let aj be the number of games played on or before the j th day of the month. Then a1,
a2, . . . , a30 is an increasing sequence of distinct positive integers, with 1 ≤ aj ≤ 45. Moreover,
a1 + 14, a2 + 14, . . . , a30 + 14 is also an increasing sequence of distinct positive integers, with
15 ≤ aj + 14 ≤ 59. The 60 positive integers a1, a2, . . . , a30, a1 + 14, a2 + 14, . . . , a30 + 14 are
all less than or equal to 59. Hence, by the pigeonhole principle two of these integers are equal.
Because the integers aj , j = 1, 2, . . . , 30 are all distinct and the integers aj + 14, j = 1, 2, . . . ,
30 are all distinct, there must be indices i and j with ai = aj + 14. This means that exactly 14
games were played from day j + 1 to day i
Assume that in a group of six people, each pair of individuals consists of two friends or two
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enemies. Show that there are either three mutual friends or three mutual enemies in the group.
Solution: Let A be one of the six people. Of the five other people in the group, there are either
three or more who are friends of A, or three or more who are enemies of A. This follows from the
generalized pigeonhole principle, because when five objects are divided into two sets, one of the
sets has at least [5/2] = 3 elements. In the former case, suppose that B, C, and D are friends of
A. If any two of these three individuals are friends, then these two and A form a group of three
mutual friends. Otherwise, B, C, and D form a set of three mutual enemies. The proof in the
latter case, when there are three or more enemies of A, proceeds in a similar manner.
The Ramsey number R(m, n), where m and n are positive integers greater than or equal to 2,
denotes the minimum number of people at a party such that there are either mutual friends or n
mutual enemies, assuming that every pair of people at the party are friends or enemies. The
Example shows that R(3, 3) ≤ 6. We conclude that R(3, 3) = 6 because in a group of five
Many counting problems can be solved by finding the number of ways to arrange a specified
number of distinct elements of a set of a particular size, where the order of these elements
matters. Many other counting problems can be solved by finding the number of ways to select a
particular number of elements from a set of a particular size, where the order of the elements
Selected does not matter.
For example, in how many ways can we select three students from a group of five students to
stand in line for a picture? How many different committees of three students can be formed from
a group of four students? Permutations and combinations offer methods to answer questions
such as these.
A permutation of a set S of objects is a sequence containing each object once. An ordered
arrangement of r distinct elements of S is called an r permutation.
In how many ways can we select three students from a group of five students to stand in line for
a picture? In how many ways can we arrange all five of these students in a line for a picture?
Solution: First, note that the order in which we select the students matters. There are five ways
to select the first student to stand at the start of the line. Once this student has been selected,
there are four ways to select the second student in the line. After the first and second students
have been selected, there are three ways to select the third student in the line. By the product
rule, there are 5 · 4 · 3 = 60 ways to select three students from a group of five students to stand
in line for a picture.
To arrange all five students in a line for a picture, we select the first student in five ways, the
second in four ways, the third in three ways, the fourth in two ways, and the fifth in one way.
Consequently, there are 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 120 ways to arrange all five students in a line for a
picture.
The number of rpermutations of a set with n elements is denoted by P(n, r). If n is a positive
integer and r is an integer with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, then there are P(n, r) = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1) r
permutations of a set with n distinct elements.
Proof: We will use the product rule to prove that this formula is correct. The first element of the
permutation can be chosen in n ways because there are n elements in the set. There are n – 1
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ways to choose the second element of the permutation, because there are n – 1 elements left in
the set after using the element picked for the first position. Similarly, there are n − 2 ways to
choose the third element, and so on, until there are exactly n − (r − 1) = n − r + 1 ways to choose
the rth element. Consequently, by the product rule, there are n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1) r
permutations of the set.
Note that P(n, 0) = 1 whenever n is a nonnegative integer because there is exactly one Way to
order zero elements. That is, there is exactly one list with no elements in it, namely the Empty
list.
How many ways are there to select a firstprize winner, a secondprize winner, and a thirdprize
winner from 100 different people who have entered a contest?
Solution: Because it matters which person wins which prize, the number of ways to pick the three
prize winners is the number of ordered selections of three elements from a set of 100 elements,
that is, the number of 3permutations of a set of 100 elements. Consequently, the answer is
P(100, 3) = 100 · 99 · 98 = 970,200.
Suppose that there are eight runners in a race. The winner receives a gold medal, the second
place finisher receives a silver medal, and the thirdplace finisher receives a bronze medal. How
many different ways are there to award these medals, if all possible outcomes of the race can
occur and there are no ties?
Solution: The number of different ways to award the medals is the number of 3permutations of
a set with eight elements. Hence, there are P(8, 3) = 8 · 7 · 6 = 336 possible ways to award the
medals.
Suppose that a saleswoman has to visit eight different cities. She must begin her trip in a
specified city, but she can visit the other seven cities in any order she wishes. How many
possible orders can the saleswoman use when visiting these cities?
Solution: The number of possible paths between the cities is the number of permutations of
seven elements, because the first city is determined, but the remaining seven can be ordered
arbitrarily. Consequently, there are 7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040 ways for the saleswoman
to choose her tour. If, for instance, the saleswoman wishes to find the path between the cities
with minimum distance, and she computes the total distance for each possible path, she must
consider a total of 5040 paths!
How many permutations of the letters ABCDEFGH contain the string ABC?
Solution: Because the letters ABC must occur as a block, we can find the answer by finding the
number of permutations of six objects, namely, the block ABC and the individual letters D, E, F,
G, and H. Because these six objects can occur in any order, there are 6! = 720 permutations of
the letters ABCDEFGH in which ABC occurs as a block.
An rcombination of elements of a set is an unordered selection of r elements from the set.
Thus, an rcombination is simply a subset of the set with r elements.
The number of rcombinations of a set with n distinct elements is denoted by C(n, r). C(n, r) is
called a binomial coefficient. The number of rcombinations of a set with n distinct elements is
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denoted by C(n, r). The number of rcombinations of a set with n elements, where n is a
nonnegative integer and r is an integer with 0 ≤ r ≤ n, equals C(n, r) =n!/(r! (n − r)!)
The number of rcombinations of a set with n distinct elements is denoted by C(n, r). The
number of rcombinations of a set with n elements, where n is a nonnegative integer and r is an
integer with 0 ≤ r ≤ n, equals C(n, r) =n!/(r! (n − r)!)
The P(n, r) rpermutations of the set can be obtained by forming the C(n, r) rcombinations of
the set, and then ordering the elements in each rcombination, which can be done in P(r, r)
ways. Consequently, by the product rule, P(n, r) = C(n, r) · P(r, r).
This implies that C(n, r) = P(n, r)/P(r, r) = n!/(n − r)! divided by r!/(r − r)! =n!/(r! (n − r)!)
How many poker hands of five cards can be dealt from a standard deck of 52 cards? Also, how
many ways are there to select 47 cards from a standard deck of 52 cards?
Solution: Because the order in which the five cards are dealt from a deck of 52 cards does not
matter, there are C(52, 5) = 52!/ 5!47! Different hands of five cards that can be dealt. To
compute the value of C(52, 5), first divide the numerator and denominator by 47! to obtain C(52,
5) =(52 · 51 · 50 · 49 · 48)/(5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1)
Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r ≤ n. Then C(n, r) = C(n, n − r).
How many ways are there to select five players from a 10member tennis team to make a trip to
a match at another school?
Solution: The answer is given by the number of 5combinations of a set with 10 elements. By
Theorem 2, the number of such combinations is C(10, 5) = 10! / 5! 5! = 252.
A group of 30 people have been trained as astronauts to go on the first mission to Mars. How
many ways are there to select a crew of six people to go on this mission (assuming that all crew
members have the same job)?
Solution: The number of ways to select a crew of six from the pool of 30 people is the number of
6combinations of a set with 30 elements, because the order in which these people are chosen
does not matter. By Theorem 2, the number of such combinations is C(30, 6) =30!/6! 24! = (30 ·
29 · 28 · 27 · 26 · 25)/( 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1) = 593,775
How many strings of length r can be formed from the uppercase letters of the English alphabet?
Solution: By the product rule, because there are 26 uppercase English letters, and because
each letter can be used repeatedly, we see that there are 26r strings of uppercase English
letters of Length r.
Suppose that a cookie shop has four different kinds of cookies. How many different ways can six
cookies be chosen? Assume that only the type of cookie, and not the individual cookies or the
order in which they are chosen, matters.
Solution: The number of ways to choose six cookies is the number of 6combinations of a set
with four elements. From Theorem 2 this equals C(4 + 6 − 1, 6) = C(9, 6). Because C(9, 6) =
C(9, 3) = 9 · 8 · 7 1 · 2 · 3 = 84, There are 84 different ways to choose the six cookies.
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Permutations with Indistinguishable Objects
Some elements may be indistinguishable in counting problems. When this is the case, care must
be taken to avoid counting things more than once
How many different strings can be made by reordering the letters of the word SUCCESS?
Solution: Because some of the letters of SUCCESS are the same, the answer is not given by the
number of permutations of seven letters. This word contains three Ss, two Cs, one U, and one E.
To determine the number of different strings that can be made by reordering the letters, first
note that the three Ss can be placed among the seven positions in C(7, 3) different ways,
leaving four positions free. Then the two Cs can be placed in C(4, 2) ways, leaving two free
positions.
The U can be placed in C(2, 1) ways, leaving just one position free. Hence E can be placed in
C(1, 1) way.
Consequently, from the product rule, the number of different strings that can be made is C(7,
3)C(4, 2)C(2, 1)C(1, 1) = 7!/(3! 4!) · 4!/(2! 2!) · 2!/ (1! 1!) ·1!/ (1! 0!) = 7!/ (3! 2! 1! 1!) = 420
The number of different permutations of n objects, where there are n1 indistinguishable objects
of type 1, n2 indistinguishable objects of type 2, . . . , and nk indistinguishable objects of type k,
is n! / (n1! n2! · · · nk!)
Proof: To determine the number of permutations, first note that the n1 objects of type one can
be placed among the n positions in C(n, n1) ways, leaving n − n1 positions free.
Then the objects of type two can be placed in C(n − n1, n2) ways, leaving n − n1 − n2 positions
free. Continue placing the objects of type three, . . . , type k − 1, until at the last stage, nk objects
of type k can be placed in C(n − n1 − n2 −· · ·−nk−1, nk) ways. Hence, by the product rule, the
total number of different permutations is C(n, n1)C(n − n1, n2) · · · C(n − n1 −· · ·−nk−1, nk) =
n!/ (n1! (n − n1)!). (n − n1)!/ (n2! (n − n1 n2)!) · · ·(n − n1 −· · ·−nk−1)!/(nk! 0!) = n!/ (n1! n2! · · ·
nk!)
Combinatorics and probability theory share common origins. The theory of probability was first
developed more than 300 years ago, when certain gambling games were analyzed.
Although probability theory was originally invented to study gambling, it now plays an essential
role in a wide variety of disciplines. For example, probability theory is extensively applied in the
study of genetics, where it can be used to help understand the inheritance of traits. Of course,
probability still remains an extremely popular part of mathematics because of its applicability to
gambling, which continues to be an extremely popular human endeavor.
An experiment is a procedure that yields one of a given set of possible outcomes. The sample
space of the experiment is the set of possible outcomes. An event is a subset of the sample
space. Laplace’s definition of the probability of an event with finitely many possible outcomes will
now be stated.
DEFINITION 1 If S is a finite nonempty sample space of equally likely outcomes, and E is an
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event, that is, a subset of S, then the probability of E is p(E) = |E|/|S|. The probability of an event
can never be negative or more than one! According to Laplace’s definition, the probability of an
event is between 0 and 1. To see this, note that if E is an event from a finite sample space S,
then 0 ≤ |E| ≤ |S|, because E ⊆ S. Thus, 0 ≤ p(E) = |E|/|S| ≤ 1.
An urn contains four blue balls and five red balls. What is the probability that a ball chosen at
random from the urn is blue?
Solution: To calculate the probability, note that there are nine possible outcomes, and four of
these possible outcomes produce a blue ball. Hence, the probability that a blue ball is chosen is
4/9.
In a lottery, players win a large prize when they pick four digits that match, in the correct order,
four digits selected by a random mechanical process.A smaller prize is won if only three digits
are matched. What is the probability that a player wins the large prize? What is the probability
that a player wins the small prize?
Solution: There is only one way to choose all four digits correctly. By the product rule, there are
104 = 10,000 ways to choose four digits. Hence, the probability that a player wins the large prize
is 1/10,000 = 0.0001.
Players win the smaller prize when they correctly choose exactly three of the four digits. Exactly
one digit must be wrong to get three digits correct, but not all four correct. By the sum rule, to
find the number of ways to choose exactly three digits correctly, we add the number of ways to
choose four digits matching the digits picked in all but the ith position, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
To count the number of successes with the first digit incorrect, note that there are nine possible
choices for the first digit (all but the one correct digit), and one choice for each of the other digits,
namely, the correct digits for these slots. Hence, there are nine ways to choose four digits where
the first digit is incorrect, but the last three are correct.
Similarly, there are nine ways to choose four digits where the second digit is incorrect, nine with
the third digit incorrect, and nine with the fourth digit incorrect. Hence, there is a total of 36 ways
to choose four digits with exactly three of the four digits correct. Thus, the probability that a
player wins the smaller prize is 36/10,000 = 9/2500 = 0.0036.
There are many lotteries now that award enormous prizes to people who correctly choose a set
of six numbers out of the first n positive integers, where n is usually between 30 and 60. What is
the probability that a person picks the correct six numbers out of 40?
Solution: There is only one winning combination. The total number of ways to choose six
numbers out of 40 is C(40, 6) = 40!/(34! 6!) = 3,838,380. Consequently, the probability of picking
a winning combination is 1/3,838,380 ≈ 0.00000026. (Here the symbol ≈ means approximately
equal to.
What is the probability that the numbers 11, 4, 17, 39, and 23 are drawn in that order from a bin
containing 50 balls labeled with the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 50 if (a) the ball selected is not returned
to the bin before the next ball is selected and (b) the ball selected is returned to the bin before
the next ball is selected?
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Solution: (a) By the product rule, there are 50 · 49 · 48 · 47 · 46 = 254,251,200 ways to select
the balls because each time a ball is drawn there is one fewer ball to choose from.
Consequently, the probability that 11, 4, 17, 39, and 23 are drawn in that order is 1/254,251,200.
This is an example of sampling without replacement. (b) By the product rule, there are 505 =
312,500,000 ways to select the balls because there are 50 possible balls to choose from each
time a ball is drawn. Consequently, the probability that 11, 4, 17, 39, and 23 are drawn in that
order is 1/312,500,000. This is an example of sampling with replacement.
A sequence of 10 bits is randomly generated. What is the probability that at least one of these
bits is 0?
Solution: Let E be the event that at least one of the 10 bits is 0. Then E is the event that all the
bits are 1s. Because the sample space S is the set of all bit strings of length 10, it follows that
p(E) = 1 − p(E) = 1 −1/1024 =1023/1024 Hence, the probability that the bit string will contain at
least one 0 bit is 1023/1024.
The Monty Hall ThreeDoor Puzzle Suppose you are a game show contestant. You have a
Chance to win a large prize. You are asked to select one of three doors to open; the large prize
is behind one of the three doors and the other two doors are losers. Once you select a door, the
Game show host, who knows what is behind each door, does the following. First, whether or not
You selected the winning door, he opens one of the other two doors that he knows is a losing
Door (selecting at random if both are losing doors). Then he asks you whether you would like to
Switch doors. Which strategy should you use? Should you change doors or keep your original
Selection, or does it not matter?
Solution: The probability you select the correct door (before the host opens a door and asks you
Whether you want to change) is 1/3, because the three doors are equally likely to be the correct
Door. The probability this is the correct door does not change once the game show host opens
One of the other doors, because he will always open a door that the prize is not behind.
The probability that you selected incorrectly is the probability the prize is behind one of the Two
doors you did not select. Consequently, the probability that you selected incorrectly is 2/3. If you
selected incorrectly, when the game show host opens a door to show you that the prize is Not
behind it, the prize is behind the other door. You will always win if your initial choice was
Incorrect and you change doors.
So, by changing doors, the probability you win is 2/3. In other Words, you should always change
doors when given the chance to do so by the game show host. This doubles the probability that
you will win.
To understand recurrence relations let us start from the basics.
A sequence is a discrete structure used to represent an ordered list. For example, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 is
a sequence with five terms and 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 , . . . , 3n, . . . is an infinite sequence. DEFINITION
1 A sequence is a function from a subset of the set of integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, . .
.} or the set {1, 2, 3, . . .}) to a set S. We use the notation an to denote the image of the integer
n. We call an a term of the sequence.
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation that expresses an in terms of one or
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more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely, a0, a1, . . . , an−1, for all integers n with n
≥ n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer. A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation
if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation b.
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1, a2, and a3?
Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5. It then follows that a2
= 5 + 3 = 8 and a3 = 8 + 3 = 11.
The initial conditions for a recursively defined sequence specify the terms that precede the first
term where the recurrence relation takes effect. For instance, the initial condition in Example 5 is
a0 = 2,
The Fibonacci sequence, f0, f1, f2, . . . , is defined by the initial conditions f0 = 0, f1 = 1, And the
recurrence relation fn = fn−1 + fn−2 For n = 2, 3, 4 . . .
Compound Interest
Suppose that a person deposits $10,000 in a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year
with interest compounded annually. How much will be in the account after 30 years?
Solution: To solve this problem, let Pn denote the amount in the account after n years. Because
the amount in the account after n years equals the amount in the account after n−1 years plus
interest for the nth year, we see that the sequence {Pn} satisfies the recurrence relation Pn = Pn
−1 + 0.11Pn−1 = (1.11)Pn−1.
The initial condition is P0 = 10,000. We can use an iterative approach to find a formula for Pn.
Note that
When we insert the initial condition P0 = 10,000, the formula Pn = (1.11)n10,000 is obtained.
Inserting n = 30 into the formula Pn = (1.11)n10,000 shows that after 30 years the account
Contains P30 = (1.11)3010,000 = $228,922.97
A common problem in discrete mathematics is finding a closed formula, a recurrence relation, or
some other type of general rule for constructing the terms of a sequence. Sometimes only a few
terms of a sequence solving a problem are known; the goal is to identify the sequence.
Find formulae for the sequences with the following first five terms: (a) 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16 (b) 1,
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3, 5, 7, 9 (c) 1, −1, 1, −1, 1.
Solution: (a) We recognize that the denominators are powers of 2. The sequence with an = 1/2n,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . is a possible match. This proposed sequence is a geometric progression with a =
1 and r = 1/2. (b) We note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term. The
sequence with an = 2n + 1, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . is a possible match. This proposed sequence is an
arithmetic progression with a = 1 and d = 2. (c) The terms alternate between 1 and −1. The
sequence with an = (−1)n, n = 0, 1, 2 . . . is a possible match. This proposed sequence is a
geometric progression with a = 1 and r = −1.
How can we produce the terms of a sequence if the first 10 terms are 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4?
Solution: In this sequence, the integer 1 appears once, the integer 2 appears twice, the integer 3
appears three times, and the integer 4 appears four times. A reasonable rule for generating this
sequence is that the integer n appears exactly n times, so the next five terms of the sequence
would all be 5, the following six terms would all be 6, and so on. The sequence generated this
way is a possible match.
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Recursively Defined Functions
We use two steps to define a function with the set of nonnegative integers as its domain:
BASIS STEP: Specify the value of the function at zero.
RECURSIVE STEP: Give a rule for finding its value at an integer from its values at smaller
integers.
Such a definition is called a recursive or inductive definition. Note that a function f (n) from the
set of nonnegative integers to the set of a real numbers is the same as a sequence a0, a1, . . .
where ai is a real number for every nonnegative integer i. So, defining a realvalued sequence
a0, a1, . . . using a recurrence relation, as was done in Section 2.4, is the same as defining a
function from the set of nonnegative integers to the set of real numbers.
Suppose that f is defined recursively by
Recursively defined functions are well defined. That is, for every positive integer, the value of the
function at this integer is determined in an unambiguous way. This means that given any positive
integer, we can use the two parts of the definition to find the value of the function at that integer,
and that we obtain the same value no matter how we apply the two parts of the definition. This is
a consequence of the principle of mathematical induction.
Consider this problem, which was originally posed by Fibonacci, in the thirteenth century in his
book Liber abaci. A young pair of rabbits (one of each sex) is placed on an island. A pair of
rabbits does not breed until they are 2 months old. After they are 2 months old, each pair of
rabbits produces another pair each month, as shown in Figure 1. Find a recurrence relation for
the number of pairs of rabbits on the island after n months, assuming that no rabbits ever die
Solution: Denote by fn the number of pairs of rabbits after n months. We will show that fn, n = 1,
2, 3, . . . , are the terms of the Fibonacci sequence. The rabbit population can be modeled using
a recurrence relation. At the end of the first month, the number of pairs of rabbits on the island is
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f1 = 1. Because this pair does not breed during the second month, f2 = 1 also. To find the
number of pairs after n months, add
The Fibonacci numbers appear in many other places in nature, including the number of petals
on flowers and the number of spirals on seedheads. the number on the island the previous
month, fn−1, and the number of newborn pairs, which equals fn−2, because each newborn pair
comes from a pair at least 2 months old.
Consequently, the sequence {fn} satisfies the recurrence relation fn = fn−1 + fn−2 for n ≥ 3
together with the initial conditions f1 = 1 and f2 = 1. Because this recurrence relation and the
initial conditions uniquely determine this sequence, the number of pairs of rabbits on the island
after n months is given by the nth Fibonacci number.
A popular puzzle of the late nineteenth century invented by the French Mathematician Edouard
Lucas, called the Tower of Hanoi, consists of three pegs mounted on Aboard together with disks
of different sizes. Initially these disks are placed on the first peg In order of size, with the largest
on the bottom (as shown in Figure). The rules of the puzzle Allow disks to be moved one at a
time from one peg to another as long as a disk is never placed On top of a smaller disk. The
goal of the puzzle is to have all the disks on the second peg in Order of size, with the largest on
the bottom.
Solution: Begin with n disks on peg 1.We can transfer the top n − 1 disks, following the rules of
the puzzle, to peg 3 using Hn−1 moves (see Figure for an illustration of the pegs and disks at
this point). We keep the largest disk fixed during these moves. Then, we use one move to
transfer the largest disk to the second peg. We can transfer the n − 1 disks on peg 3 to peg 2
using Hn−1 additional moves, placing them on top of the largest disk, which always stays fixed
on the bottom of peg 2.
Moreover, it is easy to see that the puzzle cannot be solved using fewer Schemes for efficiently
backing up computer files on multiple tapes or other media are based on the moves used to
solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. steps. This shows that Hn = 2Hn−1 + 1. The initial condition is
H1 = 1, because one disk can be transferred from peg 1 to peg 2, according to the rules of the
puzzle, in one move
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Code word Enumeration
A computer system considers a string of decimal digits a valid Code word if it contains an even
number of 0 digits. For instance, 1230407869 is valid, Whereas 120987045608 is not valid. Let
an be the number of valid ndigit code words. Find a recurrence relation for an.
Solution: Note that a1 = 9 because there are 10 onedigit strings, and only one, namely, the
string 0, is not valid.A recurrence relation can be derived for this sequence by considering how a
valid ndigit string can be obtained from strings of n − 1 digits. There are two ways to form a
valid string with n digits from a string with one fewer digit.
First, a valid string of n digits can be obtained by appending a valid string of n − 1 digits With a
digit other than 0. This appending can be done in nine ways. Hence, a valid string With n digits
can be formed in this manner in 9an−1 ways.
Second, a valid string of n digits can be obtained by appending a 0 to a string of length N − 1
that is not valid. (This produces a string with an even number of 0 digits because the Invalid
string of length n − 1 has an odd number of 0 digits.) The number of ways that this can Be done
equals the number of invalid (n − 1)digit strings. Because there are 10n−1 strings of Length n −
1, and an−1 are valid, there are 10n−1 − an−1 valid ndigit strings obtained by Appending an
invalid string of length n − 1 with a 0.
Because all valid strings of length n are produced in one of these two ways, it follows that There
are An = 9an−1 + (10n−1 − an−1) = 8an−1 + 10n−1 Valid strings of length n.
Many recursive algorithms take a problem with a given input and divide it into one or more
Smaller problems. This reduction is successively applied until the solutions of the smaller
problems Can be found quickly.
These procedures follow an important algorithmic paradigm known “Divide et impera”
(translation: “Divide and conquer” Julius Caesar
As divideandconquer, and are called divideandconquer algorithms, because they divide a
problem into one or more instances of the same problem of smaller size and they conquer The
problem by using the solutions of the smaller problems to find a solution of the original Problem,
perhaps with some additional work.
Divide and Conquer examples
For instance, we perform a binary search by reducing the search for an element in a list to the
search for this element in a list half as long. We successively apply this reduction until one
element is left.
When we sort a list of integers using the merge sort, we split the list into two halves of equal size
and sort each half separately.We then merge the two sorted halves. Another example of this
type of recursive algorithm is a procedure for multiplying integers that reduces the problem of
the multiplication of two integers to three multiplications of pairs of integers with half as many
bits. This reduction is successively applied until integers with one bit are obtained.
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DivideandConquer Recurrence Relations
Suppose that a recursive algorithm divides a problem of size n into a subproblems, where each
subproblem is of size n/b (for simplicity, assume that n is a multiple of b; in reality, the smaller
problems are often of size equal to the nearest integers either less than or equal to, or greater
than or equal to, n/b).
Also, suppose that a total of g(n) extra operations are required in the conquer step of the
algorithm to combine the solutions of the subproblems into a solution of the original problem.
Then, if f (n) represents the number of operations required to solve the problem of size n, it
follows that f satisfies the recurrence relation f (n) = af (n/b) + g(n). This is called a divideand
conquer recurrence relation.
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Finding the Maximum and Minimum of a Sequence
Consider the following algorithm for locating the maximum and minimum elements of a
sequence a1, a2, . . . , an. If n = 1, then a1 is the maximum and the minimum. If n > 1, split the
sequence into two sequences, either where both have the same number of elements or where
one of the sequences has one more element than the other. The problem is reduced to finding
the maximum and minimum of each of the two smaller sequences. The solution to the original
problem results from the comparison of the separate maxima and minima of the two smaller
sequences to obtain the overall maximum and minimum.
Let f (n) be the total number of comparisons needed to find the maximum and minimum
elements of the sequence with n elements. We have shown that a problem of size n can be
reduced into two problems of size n/2, when n is even, using two comparisons, one to compare
the maxima of the two sequences and the other to compare the minima of the two sequences.
This gives the recurrence relation f (n) = 2f (n/2) + 2 when n is even.
Merge Sort
The merge sort algorithm splits a list to be sorted with n items, where n is even, into two lists with
n/2 elements each, and uses fewer than n comparisons to merge the two sorted lists of n/2
items each into one sorted list.
Consequently, the number of comparisons used by the merge sort to sort a list of n elements is
less thanM(n), where the function M(n) satisfies the divideandconquer recurrence relation M(n)
= 2M(n/2) + n.
Generating functions are used to represent sequences efficiently by coding the terms of a
sequence as coefficients of powers of a variable x in a formal power series. Generating functions
can be used to solve many types of counting problems, such as the number of ways to select or
distribute objects of different kinds, subject to a variety of constraints, and the number of ways to
make change for a dollar using coins of different denominations. Generating functions can be
used to solve recurrence relations by translating a recurrence relation for the terms of a
sequence into an equation involving a generating function.
The generating function for the sequence a0, a1, . . . , ak, . . . of real numbers is the infinite
Series
What is the generating function for the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1?
Solution: The generating function of 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 is 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5. By Theorem we
have (x6 − 1)/(x − 1) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 when x ≠ 1. Consequently, G(x) = (x6 − 1)/(x −
1) is the generating function of the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1. [Because the powers of x are only
place holders for the terms of the sequence in a generating function, we do not need to worry
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that G(1) is undefined.
Let m be a positive integer. Let ak = C(m, k), for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m. What is the generating
function for the sequence a0, a1, . . . , am?
Solution: The generating function for this sequence is G(x) = C(m, 0) + C(m, 1)x + C(m, 2)x2 +· ·
·+C(m, m)xm. The binomial theorem shows that G(x) = (1 + x)m.
Generating functions can be used to solve a wide variety of counting problems. In particular,
they can be used to count the number of combinations of various types. Find the number of
solutions of e1 + e2 + e3 = 17, where e1, e2, and e3 are nonnegative integers with 2 ≤ e1 ≤ 5, 3
≤ e2 ≤ 6, and 4 ≤ e3 ≤ 7.
Solution: The number of solutions with the indicated constraints is the coefficient of x17 in the
expansion of (x2 + x3 + x4 + x5)(x3 + x4 + x5 + x6)(x4 + x5 + x6 + x7). This follows because we
obtain a term equal to x17 in the product by picking a term in the first sum xe1 , a term in the
second sum xe2 , and a term in the third sum xe3 , where the exponents e1, e2, and e3 satisfy
the equation e1 + e2 + e3 = 17 and the given constraints.
It is not hard to see that the coefficient of x17 in this product is 3. Hence, there are three
solutions. (Note that the calculating of this coefficient involves about as much work as
enumerating all the solutions of the equation with the given constraints. However, the method
that this illustrates often can be used to solve wide classes of counting problems with special
formulae, as we will see. Furthermore, a computer algebra system can be used to do such
computations.)
Generating functions can be used to solve a wide variety of counting problems. In particular,
they can be used to count the number of combinations of various types. Find the number of
solutions of e1 + e2 + e3 = 17, Where e1, e2, and e3 are nonnegative integers with 2 ≤ e1 ≤ 5, 3
≤ e2 ≤ 6, and 4 ≤ e3 ≤ 7.
In how many different ways can eight identical cookies be distributed among three distinct
Children if each child receives at least two cookies and no more than four cookies?
Solution: Because each child receives at least two but no more than four cookies, for each child
There is a factor equal to (x2 + x3 + x4) in the generating function for the sequence {cn}, where
cn is the number of ways to distribute n Cookies. Because there are three children, this
generating function is (x2 + x3 + x4)3.
We need the coefficient of x8 in this product. The reason is that the x8 terms in the expansion
Correspond to the ways that three terms can be selected, with one from each factor, that have
Exponents adding up to 8. Furthermore, the exponents of the term from the first, second, and
Third factors are the numbers of cookies the first, second, and third children receive,
respectively. Computation shows that this coefficient equals 6. Hence, there are six ways to
distribute the Cookies so that each child receives at least two, but no more than four, cookies.
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THE PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION–EXCLUSION
Let A1,A2, . . . , An be finite sets. Then
Proof: We will prove the formula by showing that an element in the union is counted exactly once
by the righthand side of the equation. Suppose that a is a member of exactly r of the sets
A1,A2, . . . , An where 1 ≤ r ≤ n. This element is counted C(r, 1) times by _|Ai |. It is Counted C(r,
2) times by _|Ai ∩ Aj |. In general, it is counted C(r,m) times by the summation Involving m of the
sets Ai . Thus, this element is counted exactly C(r, 1) − C(r, 2) + C(r, 3)−· · ·+(−1)r+1C(r, r)
Times by the expression on the righthand side of this equation. We have C(r, 0) − C(r, 1) + C(r,
2)−· · ·+(−1)rC(r, r) = 0.
Hence, 1 = C(r, 0) = C(r, 1) − C(r, 2)+· · ·+(−1)r+1C(r, r). Therefore, each element in the union is
counted exactly once by the expression on the righthand side of the equation. This proves the
principle of inclusion–exclusion.
The inclusion–exclusion principle gives a formula for the number of elements in the union of n
sets for every positive integer n. There are terms in this formula for the number of elements in
the intersection of every nonempty subset of the collection of the n sets. Hence, there are 2n − 1
terms in this formula.
Give a formula for the number of elements in the union of four sets.
Solution: The inclusion–exclusion principle shows that
Note that this formula contains 15 different terms, one for each nonempty subset of
{A1,A2,A3,A4}.
A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken a course in French,
and 114 have taken a course in Russian. Further, 103 have taken courses in both Spanish and
French, 23 have taken courses in both Spanish and Russian, and 14 have taken courses in both
French and Russian.
If 2092 students have taken at least one of Spanish, French, and Russian, how many students
have taken a course in all three languages?
Solution: Let S be the set of students who have taken a course in Spanish, F the set of students who have
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taken a course in French, and R the set of students who have taken a course in Russian. Then
Suppose that there are 1807 freshmen at your school. Of these, 453 are taking a course in
Computer science, 567 are taking a course in mathematics, and 299 are taking courses in both
Computer science and mathematics. How many are not taking a course either in computer
science Or in mathematics?
Solution: To find the number of freshmen who are not taking a course in either mathematics Or
computer science, subtract the number that are taking a course in either of these subjects From
the total number of freshmen. Let A be the set of all freshmen taking a course in computer
Science, and let B be the set of all freshmen taking a course in mathematics. It follows That |A| =
453, |B| = 567, and |A ∩ B| = 299. The number of freshmen taking a course in Either computer
science or mathematics is |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| = 453 + 567 − 299 = 721. Consequently,
there are 1807 − 721 = 1086 freshmen who are not taking a course in computer Science or
mathematics.
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UNIT - 7
Graph Theory
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Graph Theory

Graph Theory
Graph theory is a branch of mathematics concerned about how networks can be encoded and
their properties measured. It has been enriched in the last decades by growing influences from
studies of social and complex networks.
History of Graph Theory
Königsberg bridge problem
The history of graph theory may be specifically traced to 1735, when the Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler solved the Königsberg bridge problem.
The Königsberg bridge problem was an old puzzle concerning the possibility of finding a path
over every one of seven bridges that span a forked river flowing past an island but without
crossing any bridge twice (see the diagram).
Euler argued that no such path exists; his proof involved only references to the physical
arrangement of the bridges, but essentially he proved the first theorem in graph theory.
What is Graph Theory?
Branch of mathematics concerned with networks of points connected by lines. The subject of
graph theory had its beginnings in recreational math problems (see number game), but it has
grown into a significant area of mathematical research with applications in chemistry, operations
research, social sciences, and computer science.
Undirected Graphs
Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of mathematics is its reliance on logic. Explicit
training in mathematical logic is essential to a mature understanding of mathematics.
Adjacency
Adjacency: Two vertices u and v are adjacent if there exists an edge (u,v) that connects them.
Incidence: An edge (u,v) is said to be incident upon nodes u and v
Loops: An edge e = (u,u) that links a vertex to itself is known as a selfloop or reflexive tie.
Example
As an example, the graph undirected depicted in Figure 5 has vertex set V={a,b,c,d,e.f} and
edge set E = {{a,b},{b,c},{c,d},{c,e},{d,e},{e,f}}
Formal definition of graph
A graph G = (V ,E) consists of V , a nonempty set of vertices (or nodes) and E, a set of edges.
Each edge has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is said
to connect its endpoints.
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The set of vertices V of a graph G may be infinite. A graph with an infinite vertex set or an infinite
number of edges is called an infinite graph, and in comparison, a graph with a finite vertex set
and a finite edge set is called a finite graph.
Multigraphs
Graphs that may have multiple edges connecting the same vertices are called multigraphs.
When there are m different edges associated to the same unordered pair of vertices {u, v}, we
also say that {u, v} is an edge of multiplicity m.
That is, we can think of this set of edges as m different copies of an edge {u, v}.
Example Subgraph
A graph G1 is a subgraph of another graph G if and only if the vertex and edge sets of G1 are,
respectively, subsets of the vertex and edge sets of G.
EXAMPLE Each of the three graphs G1, G2 and G3 shown on the right of Figure is a subgraph
of the graph G on the left in this figure. (The subgraphs do not have to be drawn the same way
they appear in the presentation of G.
Subgraph
Figure depicts a graph g and two subgraphs G1 and G2 . The last graph in this figure, G3, is not
a subgraph of G because the two vertices of degree 3 in G are not adjacent.
Directed graph
A directed graph (or digraph) (V ,E) consists of a nonempty set of vertices V and a set of
directed edges (or arcs) E. Each directed edge is associated with an ordered pair of vertices.
The directed edge associated with the ordered pair (u, v) is said to start at u and end at v.
Path graph
Informally, a path is a sequence of edges that begins at a vertex of a graph and travels from
vertex to vertex along edges of the graph. As the path travels along its edges, it visits the
vertices along this path, that is, the endpoints of these edges.
Paths and circuits
Let n be a nonnegative integer and G an undirected graph. A path of length n from u to v in G is
a sequence of n edges e 1 , · · · , en of G such that e 1 is associated with {x 0 , x 1 }, e 2 is associated
with {x 1 , x 2 }, and so on, with enassociated with {x n−1 , x n }, where x 0 = u and x n = v.
When the graph is simple, we denote this path by its vertex sequence x 0 , x 1 , · · · , x n . Because

listing these vertices uniquely determines the path. The path is a circuit if it begins and ends at
the same vertex and has length greater than zero. The path or circuit is said to pass through the
vertices x 1 , x 2 , · · · , x n or traverse the edges e 1 , e 2 , · · · , en. A path or circuit is simple if it dose
not contain the same edge more than once.
Path graph
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Graph Theory
In the simple graph shown in Figure, a, d, c, f , e is a simple path of length 4, because {a, d}, {d,
c}, {c, f }, and {f, e} are all edges. {a, d}, {d, c}, {c, f }, {f, e}.However, d, e, c, a is not a path,
because {e, c} is not an edge. Note that b, c, f , e, b is a circuit of length 4 because {b, c}, {c, f },
{f, e}, and {e, b} are edges, and this path begins and ends at b. The path a, b, e, d, a, b, which is
of
length 5, is not simple because it contains the edge {a, b} twice.
Paths and circuits
Let n be a nonnegative integer and G a directed graph. A path of length n from u to v in G is a
sequence of edges e 1 , e 2 , · · · , en of G such that. e 1 is associated with (x 0 , x 1 ), e 2 is
associated with (x 1 , x 2 ), and son on, with en associated with (x n−1 , x n ), where x 0 = u and x n = v.
When there are no multiple edges in the directed graph. this path is denoted by its vertex
sequence x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , · · · , x n . A path of length greater than zero that begins and ends at the
same vertex is called a circuit or cycle. A path or circuit is called simple if. it does not contain the
same edge more than once.
Simple Graphs
Graphs in which there is no more than one edge between any two vertices and in which no edge
goes from vertex to the same vertex are called simple.
Degree of a vertex
Degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges incident on it. In a directed
graph, the out degree of a vertex is the number of edges leaving it and the in degree is the
number of edges entering it.
Degree of vertex 2 is 3.
The degree of vertex 2 is 2 and the in degree of vertex 4 is 1
Find the degree of the following graphs.
A has degree 0, B has degree 1, C has degree 2 and D has degree 3.
In any graph, the sum of the degrees of the vertices equals twice the number of edges.
Find the Degree of A, B, C, and D
Degree
A graph has exactly four vertices, each of degree 3. How many edges does this graph have?
The sum of degrees of the vertices is 12.
By the theorem, this number is twice the number of edges,
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Graph Theory
So The number of edges is = 12/2 = 6
Weighted Graph
A weighted graph is a graph for which each edge has an associated weight, usually given by a
weight function w: E → R
Walk, Path and Cycle Weighted Graph
A walk is an sequence of nodes (V 1 , V 2 ,..., vL) such that {(V 1 , V 2 ), (V 1 , V 2 ),..., (V 1 , V 2 )} E, e.g.

(V 2 , V 3 ,V 6 , V 5 ,V 3 ).
A simple path is a walk with no repeated nodes, e.g. (V 1 , V 4 ,V 5 , V 2 ,V 3 ).
A cycle is an walk (V 1 , V 2 ,..., v L ) where V 1 =v L with no other nodes repeated and L>3, e.g. (V 1 ,

V 2 ,V 5 , V 4 ,V 1 ).
A graph is called cyclic if it contains a cycle; otherwise it is called acyclic.
The relation between walk path and cycle is shown.
Complete graph
A complete graph is an undirected/directed graph in which every pair of vertices is adjacent.
If (u, v ) is an edge in a graph G, we say that vertex v is adjacent to vertex u.
4 nodes and (4*3)/2 edges
V nodes and V*(V–1)/2 edges
Draw a complete graph with four vertices.
A complete graph is an undirected/directed graph in which every pair of vertices is adjacent.
If (u, v) is an edge in a graph G, we say that vertex v is adjacent to vertex u.
Connected graph
An undirected graph is connected if you can get from any node to any other by following a
sequence of edges OR any two nodes are connected by a path.
Strongly connected
A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a directed path from any node to any other
node.
Bipartite graph
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A bipartite graph is an undirected graph G = (V,E) in which V can be partitioned into 2 sets V 1
and V 2 such that ( u,v) ∈ E implies either u ∈ V 1 and v ∈ V 2 OR v ∈ V 1 and u ∈ V 2 .
Map and Coloring
A map is a partition of the plane into connected regions.
A coloring of a simple graph is the assignment of a color to each vertex of the graph. Can we
color the regions of every map using at most four colors so that neighboring regions have
different colors?
Map Coloring → graph coloring. A region → A vertex. Adjacency → An edge
Strongly connected
Scheduling and Coloring
Two committees cannot hold meetings at the same time if two committees have common
member.
Model:
One committee being represented by a vertex.
An edge between two vertices if two corresponding committees have common member.
Two adjacent vertices cannot receive the same color.
Map and Coloring
Scheduling problem is equivalent to graph coloring problem.
Incidence and adjacency
Two vertices u and v in an undirected graph G are called adjacent (or neighbors) in G if u and v
are endpoints of an edge e of G. Such an edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v and
e is said to connect u and v.
The vertices u and v are called endpoints of the edge {u, v}.
Strongly connected
Complete Graphs A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by Kn, is a simple graph that
contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct vertices. The graphs Kn, for n = 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, are displayed.
A simple graph for which there is at least one pair of distinct vertex not connected by an edge is
called noncomplete.
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Graph representation
Carrying out graph algorithms using the representation of graphs by lists of edges, or by
adjacency lists, can be cumbersome if there are many edges in the graph
To simplify computation, graphs can be represented using matrices.
Two types of matrices commonly used to represent graphs will be presented here.
One is based on the adjacency of vertices, and the other is based on incidence of vertices and
edges.
Adjacency matrix
Suppose that G = (V ,E) is a simple graph where |V| = n.
Suppose that the vertices of G are listed arbitrarily as V 1 , V 2 , . . . , vn.
The adjacency matrix A (or AG) of G, with respect to this listing of the vertices, is the n x n zero–
one matrix with 1 as its (i, j)th entry when vi and vj are adjacent, and 0 as its (i, j)th entry when
they are not adjacent In other words, if its adjacency matrix is A = [aij], then aij = 1 if{vi , vj } is an
edge of G, aij = 0 otherwise.
Use an adjacency matrix to represent the pseudograph shown.
Draw a graph with the adjacency matrix.
The adjacency matrix of a simple graph is symmetric, that is, aij = aji , because both of these
entries are 1 when vi and vj are adjacent, and both are 0 otherwise.
Furthermore, because a simple graph has no loops, each entry aii, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, is 0.
Adjacency matrices can also be used to represent undirected graphs with loops and with
multiple edges.
A loop at the vertex vi is represented by a 1 at the (i, i)th position of the adjacency matrix.
When multiple edges connecting the same pair of vertices vi and vj, or multiple loops at the
same vertex, are present, the adjacency matrix is no longer a zero–one matrix, because the (i, j
) the entry of this matrix equals the number of edges that are associated to {vi , vj }.
All undirected graphs, including multigraphs and pseudographs, have symmetric adjacency
matrices.
Use an adjacency matrix to represent the pseudograph shown.
Another way to represent a graph is to use adjacency lists, which specify the vertices that are
adjacent to each vertex of the graph.
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Graph Theory
Use adjacency lists to describe the simple graph given.
Use adjacency lists to describe the simple graph given.
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Incidence matrix
Another common way to represent graphs is to use incidence matrices.
Let G = (V ,E) be an undirected graph.
Suppose that V 1 , V 2 , . . . , vn are the vertices and e 1 , e 2 , . . . , em are the edges of G.
Where mij = 1 when edge ej is incident with vi, mij = 0 otherwise.
Represent the graph shown in Figure below with an incidence matrix.
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Graph Theory
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Graph Theory

Euler path
The town of Königsberg, Prussia (now called Kaliningrad and part of the Russian republic),was
divided into four sections by the branches of the Pregel River.
These four sections included the two regions on the banks of the Pregel, Kneiphof Island, and
the region between the twobranches of the Pregel. In the eighteenth century seven bridges
connected these regions.
The townspeople took long walks through town on Sundays. They wondered whether it
waspossible to start at some location in the town, travel across all the bridges once without
crossing any bridge twice, and return to the starting point.
Euler path and circuit
Euler studied this problem using the multigraph obtained when the four regions are represented
by vertices and the bridges by edges. This multigraph is also shown.
First, Euler pointed out that the choice of route inside each land mass is irrelevant. The only
important feature of a route is the sequence of bridges crossed.
This allowed him to reformulate the problem in abstract terms (laying the foundations of graph
theory), eliminating all features except the list of land masses and the bridges connecting them.
In modern terms, one replaces each land mass with an abstract "vertex" or node, and each
bridge with an abstract connection, an "edge", which only serves to record which pair of vertices
(land masses) is connected by that bridge. The resulting mathematical structure is called a
graph.
Next, Euler observed that (except at the endpoints of the walk), whenever one enters a vertex by
a bridge, one leaves the vertex by a bridge.
In other words, during any walk in the graph, the number of times one enters a nonterminal
vertex equals the number of times one leaves it.
Now, if every bridge has been traversed exactly once, it follows that, for each land mass (except
for the ones chosen for the start and finish), the number of bridges touching that land mass must
be even (half of them, in the particular traversal, will be traversed "toward" the landmass; the
other half, "away" from it).
However, all four of the land masses in the original problem are touched by an odd number of
bridges (one is touched by 5 bridges, and each of the other three are touched by 3).
Since, at most, two land masses can serve as the endpoints of a putative walk, the proposition of
a walk traversing each bridge once leads to a contradiction.
An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G. An Euler path in G is
a simple path containing every edge of G. The figure shows the concept of Euler paths and
circuits.
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Which of the undirected graphs in Figure have an Euler circuit? Of those that do not, which have
an Euler path?
Solution:
The graph G 1 has an Euler circuit, for example, a, e, c, d, e, b, a.
Neither of the graphs G 2 or G 3 has an Euler circuit (the reader should verify this).
However, G 3 has an Euler path, namely, a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b.
G 2 does not have an Euler path.
Which of the directed graphs in Figure have an Euler circuit? Of those that do not, which have
an Euler path?
Solution:
The graph H 2 has an Euler circuit, for example, a, g, c, b, g, e, d, f, a.
Neither H 1 nor H 3 has an Euler circuit (as the reader should verify).
H 3 has an Euler path, namely, c, a, b, c, d, b. but H 1 does not
A connected multigraph with at least two vertices has an Euler circuit if and only if each of
its vertices has even degree.
An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G. An Euler path
in G is a simple path containing every edge of G. The figure shows the concept of Euler
paths and circuits.
Many puzzles ask you to draw a picture in a continuous motion without lifting a pencil so
that no part of the picture is retraced. We can solve such puzzles using Euler circuits and
paths.
For example, can Mohammed’s scimitars, shown in Figure, be drawn in this way, where the
drawing begins and ends at the same point?
Solution:
We can solve this problem because the graph G shown in Figure has an Euler circuit.
It has such a circuit because all its vertices have even degree.
First, we form the circuit a, b, d, c, b, e, i, f, e, a.
We obtain the subgraph H by deleting the edges in this circuit and all vertices that become
isolated when these edges are removed.
Then we form the circuit d, g, h, j, i, h, k, g, f, d in H.
After forming this circuit we have used all edges in G.
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Graph Theory
Splicing this new circuit into the first circuit at the appropriate place produces the Euler
circuit a, b, d, g, h, j, i, h, k, g, f, d, c, b, e, i, f, e, a.
This circuit gives a way to draw the scimitars without lifting the pencil or retracing part of
the picture.
A connected multigraph has an Euler path but not an Euler circuit if and only if it has
exactly two vertices of odd degree.
Which graphs shown in Figure have an Euler path?
Solution:
G 1 contains exactly two vertices of odd degree, namely, b and d.
Hence, it has an Euler path that must have b and d as its endpoints.
One such Euler path is d, a, b, c, d, b.
Similarly:
G 2 has exactly two vertices of odd degree, namely, b and d.
So it has an Euler path that must have b and d as endpoints.
One such Euler path is b, a, g, f, e, d, c, g, b, c, f, d.
G 3 has no Euler path because it has six vertices of odd degree.
Euler paths and circuits can be used to solve many practical problems.
For example, many applications ask for a path or circuit that traverses each street in a
neighborhood, each road in a transportation network, each connection in a utility grid, or each
link in a communications network exactly once.
Finding an Euler path or circuit in the appropriate graph model can solve such problems.
For example, if a postman can find an Euler path in the graph that represents the streets the
postman needs to cover, this path produces a route that traverses each street of the route
exactly once.
If no Euler path exists, some streets will have to be traversed more than once.
The problem of finding a circuit in a graph with the fewest edges that traverses every edge at
least once is known as the Chinese postman problem in honor of Guan Meigu, who posed it in
1962.
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Hamilton paths and circuits
A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton
path, and a simple circuit in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a
Hamilton circuit.
That is, the simple path x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x n−1 , x n in the graph G = (V ,E) is a Hamilton path
if V = {x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x n−1 , x n } and
xi = xj for 0 ≤ i < j ≤ n, and the simple circuit.
x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x n−1 , x n , x 0
(with n > 0) is a Hamilton circuit
if x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x n−1 , x n is a Hamilton path.
Which of the simple graphs in Figure have a Hamilton circuit or, if not, a Hamilton path?
Solution:
G 1 has a Hamilton circuit: a, b, c, d, e, a.
There is no Hamilton circuit in G 2 (this can be seen by noting that any circuit containing
every vertex must contain the edge {a, b} twice), but G 2 does have a Hamilton path,
namely, a, b, c, d.
G 3 has neither a Hamilton circuit nor a Hamilton path, because any path containing all
vertices must contain one of the edges {a, b}, {e, f}, and {c, d} more than once.
Show that neither graph displayed in Figure has a Hamilton circuit.
Solution:
There is no Hamilton circuit in G because G has a vertex of degree one, namely, e.
Now consider H
Because the degrees of the vertices a, b, d, and e are all two, every edge incident with
these vertices must be part of any Hamilton circuit.
It is now easy to see that no Hamilton circuit can exist in H, for any Hamilton circuit would
have to contain four edges incident with c, which is impossible.
Applications of Hamilton Circuits
Hamilton paths and circuits can be used to solve practical problems.
For example, many applications ask for a path or circuit that visits each road intersection in a
city, each place pipelines intersect in a utility grid, or each node in a communications network
exactly once.
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Finding a Hamilton path or circuit in the appropriate graph model can solve such problems.
The famous traveling salesperson problem or TSP (also known in older literature as the traveling
salesman problem) asks for the shortest route a traveling salesperson should take to visit a set
of cities.
This problem reduces to finding a Hamilton circuit in a complete graph such that the total weight
of its edges is as small as possible.
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Travelling salesman problem
An important problem involving weighted graphs asks for a circuit of shortest total length that
visits every vertex of a complete graph exactly once.
This is the famous traveling salesperson problem, which asks for an order in which a
salesperson should visit each of the cities on his route exactly once so that he travels the
minimum total distance.
Consider a four city TSP for which The cost between the city pairs are as shown in the figure.
Find the tour of the salesman so that the cost of travel is minimal.
The traveling salesperson problem asks for the circuit of minimum total weight in a weighted,
complete, undirected graph that visits each vertex exactly once and returns to its starting point.
This is equivalent to asking for a Hamilton circuit with minimum total weight in the complete
graph, because each vertex is visited exactly once in the circuit.
The most straightforward way to solve an instance of the traveling salesperson problem is to
examine all possible Hamilton circuits and select one of minimum total length.
How many circuits do we have to examine to solve the problem if there are n vertices in the
graph?
Once a starting point is chosen, there are (n − 1)! Different Hamilton circuits to examine,
because there are n − 1 choices for the second vertex, n − 2 choices for the third vertex, and so
on.
Because a Hamilton circuit can be traveled in reverse order, we need only examine (n − 1)!/2
circuits to find our answer. Note that (n − 1)!/2 grows extremely rapidly.
Trying to solve a traveling salesperson problem in this way when there are only a few dozen
vertices is impractical.
For example, with 25 vertices, a total of 24!/2 (approximately 3.1 × 1023) different Hamilton
circuits would have to be considered.
(Approximately 3.1 × 1023) different Hamilton circuits would have to be considered.
If it took just one nanosecond (10−9 second) to examine each Hamilton circuit, a total of
approximately ten million years would be required to find a minimumlength Hamilton circuit in
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Graph Theory
this graph by exhaustive search techniques.
Because the traveling salesperson problem has both practical and theoretical importance, a
great deal of effort has been devoted to devising efficient algorithms that solve it.
However, no algorithm with polynomial worstcase time complexity is known for solving this
problem.
Furthermore, if a polynomial worstcase time complexity algorithm were discovered for the
traveling salesperson problem, many other difficult problems would also be solvable using
polynomial worstcase time complexity algorithms.
A practical approach to the traveling salesperson problem when there are many vertices to visit
is to use an approximation algorithm.
These are algorithms that do not necessarily produce the exact solution to the problembut
instead are guaranteed to produce a solution that is close to an exact solution.
Brute force approach
List all of the possible Hamilton circuits
Calculate the total weights for each of the possible Hamilton circuit
Choose an optimal circuit (cheapest, shortest, or fastest…)
Therefore: optimal circuits are C,B,A,D,C or C,D,A,B,C
If the problem asks to start at A then the optimal circuits are D,C,B,A or A,B,C,D,A
Nearest neighbor problem
From the starting vertex, go to its nearest neighbor (the edge has the smallest weight)
Repeating step 1 with the next vertex and the next vertex until there is no more vertex to visit.
From the last vertex, return to the starting point
Start at C, pick CB = 15
From B, pick BD = 10
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Graph Theory
From D, pick DA = 30
No more vertex left, so connect A and C, with AC = 70
Therefore, the route is C,B,D,A,C = 125
The BruteForce Algorithm: optimal but inefficient algorithm
The NearestNeighbor Algorithm and Repetitive NearestNeighbor: Efficient but not optimal
algorithms
The Repetitive NearestNeighbor Algorithm
Apply the Nearest Neighbor Algorithm to each of the vertices to calculate the total weights.
Choose the best circuit.
If there is a designated starting vertex, rewrite the circuit using that vertex as the reference point.
The Repetitive NearestNeighbor Algorithm
Apply the Nearest Neighbor Algorithm to each of the vertices to calculate the total weights.
Choose the best circuit. If there is a designated starting vertex, rewrite the circuit using that
vertex as the reference point.
One of the best routes is C,B,D,A,C = 125
Or if rewrite with starting point A: A,C,B,D,A.
Planar Graphs
Consider the problem of joining three houses to each of three separate utilities, as shown in
Figure. Is it possible to join these houses and utilities so that none of the connections cross?
This problem can be modeled using the complete bipartite graph K3.3. The original question can
be rephrased as: Can K3.3 be drawn in the plane so that no two of its edges cross?
A graph is called planar if it can be drawn in the plane without any edges crossing (where a
crossing of edges is the intersection of the lines or arcs representing them at a point other than
their common endpoint).Such a drawing is called a planar representation of the graph.
Is the graph (shown in Figure with two edges crossing) planar?
The graph is planar because it can be redrawn without crossings, as shown.
Is the graph, shown in Figure, planar?
The graph is planar, because it can be drawn without any edges crossing, as shown
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Graph Theory

Trees
A connected graph that contains no simple circuits is called a tree. Trees were used as long ago
as 1857, when the English mathematician Arthur Cayley used them to count certain types of
chemical compounds.
Since that time, trees have been employed to solve problems in a wide variety of disciplines.
Trees are particularly useful in computer science, where they are employed in a wide range of
algorithms.
For instance, trees are used to construct efficient algorithms for locating items in a list.
They can be used in algorithms, such as Huffman coding, that construct efficient codes saving
costs in data transmission and storage.
Trees can be used to study games such as checkers and chess and can help determine winning
strategies for playing these games.
Trees can be used to model procedures carried out using a sequence of decisions.
Constructing these models can help determine the computational complexity of algorithms
based on a sequence of decisions, such as sorting algorithms.
A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple circuits. Because a tree cannot have a
simple circuit, a tree cannot contain multiple edges or loops. Therefore any tree must be a
simple graph.
An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique simple path between any two of its
vertices.
A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the root and every edge is
directed away from the root.
Spanning Trees
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Graph Theory
Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a subgraph of G that is a tree containing every
vertex of G. Find a spanning tree of the simple graph G shown. Solution:
Finally, remove edge {c, g} to produce a simple graph with no simple circuits. This subgraph is a
spanning tree, because it is a tree that contains every vertex of G. The sequence of edge
removals used to produce the spanning tree is illustrated in Figure.
Cut set
A cut set is a minimal set of edges that, when broken, breaks the graph into two completely
separate parts (two groups of nodes. Minimal means that a cut set cannot contain another
smaller cut set that would break the graph into the same two parts.
Suppose I am given a tree. A fundamental cut set w.r.t. that tree is a cut set that only contains
one branch of the tree. There may be many fundamental cut sets w.r.t. a given tree.
Spanning Trees
Finding fundamental cut sets
Redraw the graph with the tree in a straight line.
For each tree edge, form its fundamental cut set as follows:
That tree edge is a member of this fundamental cut set
Cut that edge…what two groups of nodes are separated?
The fundamental cut set also contains all edges in the cotree that connect these two groups.
Cut sets
Minimum cut problems arise in many context:
Study of network reliability (smallest number of edges that can fail).
Study of network optimization (find a maximum flow).
Clustering problems (edges like association’s rules).
Matching problems.
The Minimal Spanning Tree Problem
Consider the undirected network as shown in the figure.
The graph consists of nodes and edges, and each edge has an associated length.
An edge is the line segment connecting two nodes and has the same length in either direction.
The Minimal Spanning Tree problem is to select a set of edges so that there is a path between
each node.
The sum of the edge lengths is to be minimized.
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Graph Theory
Minimum spanning
sort the edges of G in increasing order by length
keep a subgraph S of G, initially empty
for each edge e in sorted order.
if the endpoints of e are disconnected in S.
add e to S
return S
Prim’s Algorithm
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Graph Theory
Page 151 of 189

UNIT - 8
First state machines & languages
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Introduction
Words in the English language can be combined in various ways.
The grammar of English tells us whether a combination of words is a valid sentence.
An alphabet is a set of symbols
{ a, b }
Sentences are strings of symbols
a, b, aa, ab, ba, a......
A language is a set of sentences
L = (aaa, abaa, aaba, bbb )
For instance, the frog writes neatly is a valid sentence, because it is formed from a noun phrase,
the frog, made up of the article the and the noun frog, followed by a verb phrase, writes neatly,
made up of the verb writes and the adverb neatly.
We do not care that this is a nonsensical statement, because we are concerned only with the
syntax, or form, of the sentence, and not its semantics, or meaning.
We
also
note that
the
combination of words swims quickly mathematics is not a valid sentence because it does not
follow the rules of English grammar.
The sentences of a formal language using a grammar. The use of grammars helps when we
consider the two classes of problems that arise most frequently in applications to programming
languages:
How can we determine whether a combination of words is a valid sentence in a formal
language?
How can we generate the valid sentences of a formal language?
Before giving a technical definition of a grammar, we will describe an example of a grammar that
generates a subset of English.
This subset of English is defined using a list of rules that describe how a valid sentence can be
produced.
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Definition
A vocabulary (or alphabet) V is a finite, nonempty set of elements called symbols. A word (or
sentence) over V is a string of finite length of elements of V . The empty string or null string,
denoted by λ, is the string containing no symbols.
The set of all words over V is denoted by V A language over V is a subset of V*.
A phrasestructure grammar G = (V, T, S, P) consists of a vocabulary V , a subset T of V
consisting of terminal symbols, a start symbol S from V , and a finite set of productions P. The
set V − T is denoted by N. Elements of N are called nonterminal symbols.
Every production in P must contain at least one non terminal on its left side.
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Types of PhraseStructure Grammars
Phrasestructure grammars can be classified according to the types of productions that are
allowed.
We will describe the classification scheme introduced by Noam Chomsky.
we will see that the different types of languages defined in this scheme correspond to the
classes of languages that can be recognized using different models of computing machines.
A type 0 grammar has no restrictions on its productions.
A type 1 grammar can have productions of the form w 1 → w 2 , where w 1 = lAr and w 2 = lwr,
where A is a nonterminal symbol, l and r are strings of zero or more terminal or nonterminal
symbols, and w is a nonempty string of terminal or nonterminal symbols.
It can also have the production S → λ as long as S does not appear on the righthand side of
any other production.
A type 2 grammar can have productions only of the form w 1 → w 2 , where w 1 is a single symbol

that is not a terminal symbol.
A type 3 grammar can have productions only of the form w 1 → w 2 with w 1 = A and either w 2 =

aB or w 2 = a, where A and B are nonterminal symbols and a is a terminal symbol, or with w 1 = S
and w 2 = λ.
Context Free Grammar Example
Type 2 grammars are called contextfree grammars because a nonterminal symbol that is the
left side of a production can be replaced in a string whenever it occurs, no matter what else is in
the string.
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A language generated by a type 2 grammar is called a contextfree language.
When there is a production of the form lw1r → lw2r (but not of the form w1 → w2), the grammar
is called type 1 or contextsensitive because w1 can be replaced by w2 only when it is
surrounded by the strings l and r.
A language generated by a type 1 grammar is called a contextsensitive language. Type 3
grammars are also called regular grammars. A language generated by a regular grammar is
called regular. The relationship between regular languages and finitestate machines.
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Derivation Trees
A derivation in the language generated by a contextfree grammar can be represented
graphically using an ordered rooted tree, called a derivation, or parse tree. The root of this tree
represents the starting symbol.
The internal vertices of the tree represent the nonterminal symbols that arise in the derivation.
The leaves of the tree represent the terminal symbols that arise. If the production A → w arises
in the derivation, where w is a word, the vertex that represents A has as children vertices that
represent each symbol in w, in order from left to right.
Backus–Naur Form
There is another notation that is sometimes used to specify a type 2 grammar, called the
Backus–Naur form (BNF) The specification of the programming language ALGOL.
The productions in a type 2 grammar have a single nonterminal symbol as their lefthand side.
Instead of listing all the productions separately, The same nonterminal symbol on the lefthand
side into one statement. Instead of using the symbol→in a production.
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Strings and Languages
Vocabulary (V):
a finite set of symbols, e.g., V = {0, 1}
String (w): a finite sequence of symbols from V , e.g., w 1 = 010 and w 2
Empty String (λ): The string of length 0.
Conactenation (VW):
vw is string v, then string w.
w n : string w repeated n times,
e.g., 0 3 = 000
V*: all possible strings using V.
Language (L): A subset of all possible strings V*
Example: L = {1 m0 n | m ∈N ∧ n ∈ N}
PhraseStructure Grammars
A phrasestructure grammar G consists of:
vocabulary V , divided into two subsets:
Terminal symbols T and Nonterminal symbols N
Start symbol S ∈N a finite set of productions P
Each production has the form x → y,
where x ∈ V + and y ∈ V*.
This means we can derive string uyv from string uxz.
A string w is an element of the language generated by G if w can be derived from S by applying
a sequence of productions.
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Alphabets and Languages
Definition:
A vocabulary (or alphabet) V is a finite, nonempty set of symbols.
A word or sentence over V is a finite string of symbols from V.
The empty string or null string, denoted by l, is the string containing no symbols.
The set of all words over V is denoted by V*.
A language over V is a subset of V*.
Language Examples
Let V={0,1}
00110, 11111, 00, and 11 are words over V
012, a234, and 222 are not words over V
V* = {0,1,00,01,10,11,000,…}
V* = {0,1,00,01,10,11,000,…}
In other words, V* is the set of all binary strings
The set of strings consisting of only 0s is a language over V*
{1,10,100,1000,10000,…} is a language over V*
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Concatenation
Definition:
Let V be a vocabulary, and A and B be subsets of V*.
The concatenation of A and B, denoted by AB, is the set of all strings of the form xy, where x ∈A
and y∈B.
Example:
Let A = {0, 10}, and B = {1,12}.
Then
AB = {01, 012, 101, 1012}
BA = {10, 110, 120, 1210}
AA = {00, 010, 100, 1010}
AAA = A(AA) = {000, 0010, 0100, 01010, 1000, 10010, 10100, 101010}
Concatenation: An
Let V be a vocabulary, and A a subset of V*. Then A0 = {l} , and for n>0, we can define
Example:
Let A = {0, 10}.
Then
A 0 = { l }
A 1 = A0A = {l} A = A = {0,10}
A 2 = A1A = {00, 010, 100, 1010}
A 3 = A2A = {000, 0010, 0100, 01010, 1000, 10010, 10100, 101010}
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Kleene Closure
Definition:
Let V be a vocabulary, and A a subset of V*.
The Kleene closure of A, denoted by A*, is the set consisting of concatenations of an arbitrary
number of strings from A. That is,
A+ is the set of nonempty strings over A. In other words,
Example:
Let A={0, 1}.
Then
A 0 = {l}
A 1 = {0,1}
A 2 = {00, 01, 10, 11}
A 3 = {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111}
A* = {0,1}* = {All binary strings}
Let B={111}.
Then
B 0 = {l}
B 1 = {111}
B 2 = {111111111}
B* is the set of strings with 3n 1s, for every n≥0.
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Regular Sets
Definition:
A regular set is a set that can be generated starting from the empty set, empty string, and single
elements from the vocabulary, using concatenations, unions, and Kleene closures in arbitrary
order.
We will give a more precise definition after we define a regular expression.
Properties of Regular Sets
Pumping Lemma for Regular Sets
Applying Pumping Lemma
Closure Properties of Regular Sets
Emptiness of L(M)
Finiteness of L(M)
Equivalence of two FAs
Properties of Regular Sets Example
Closed under union, concatenation, and Kleene closure.
Closed under complementation: If L is regular,
Then
Intersection:
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Regular Expressions:
Definition:
The regular expressions over a set I are defined recursively by:
∅ (the empty set) is a regular expression,
λ(the set containing the empty string) is a regular expression,
x is a regular expression for all x∈I,
(AB) , (A ∪ B) , and A* are regular expressions if A and B are regular expressions
A regular set is a set represented by a regular expression.
Examples: 001*, 1(0 ∪ 1)0, (0 ∪ 1)*11, and AB*C are regular expressions
The regular set defined by the regular expression 01* is the set of strings starting with a 0
followed by 0 or more 1s.
The regular set defined by (10)* is the set of strings containing 0 or more copies of 10.
The regular set defined by 0(0 ∪ 1)*1 is the set of all binary strings beginning with 0 and ending
with 1.
The regular set defined by (0 ∪ 1)1(0 ∪ 1) is the set of strings {010, 011, 110, 111}.
Regular Expression Applications
Regular expressions are actually used quite often in computer science.
For instance, if you are editing a file with vi, and want to see if it contains the string blah followed
by a number followed by any character followed by the letter Q, you can use the regular
expression
This works because vi uses regular expressions for searching.
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Finite State of Machines
Many kinds of machines, including components in computers, can be modeled using a structure
called a finitestate machine.
Several types of finitestate machines are commonly used in models.
All these versions of finitestate machines include a finite set of states, with a designated starting
state, an input alphabet, and a transition function that assigns a next state to every state and
input pair.
Finitestate machines are used extensively in applications in computer science and data
networking.
For example, finitestate machines are the basis for programs for spell checking, grammar
checking, indexing or searching large bodies of text, recognizing speech.
A vending machine accepts nickels (5 cents), dimes (10 cents), and quarters (25 cents).
When a total of 30 cents or more has been deposited, the machine immediately returns the
amount in excess of 30 cents.
When 30 cents has been deposited and any excess refunded, the customer can push an orange
button and receive an orange juice or push a red button and receive an apple juice.
We can describe how the machine works by specifying its states, how it changes states when
input is received, and the output that is produced for every combination of input and current
state.
The machine can be in any of seven different states s i, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 6, where s i is the state

where the machine has collected 5i cents. The machine starts in state s0, with 0 cents received.
The possible inputs are 5 cents, 10 cents, 25 cents, the orange button (O), and the red button
(R). The possible outputs are nothing (n), 5 cents, 10 cents, 15 cents, 20 cents, 25 cents, an
orange juice, and an apple juice.
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Suppose that a student puts in a dime followed by a quarter, receives 5 cents back, and then
pushes the orange button for an orange juice.
The machine starts in state s0. The first input is 10 cents, which changes the state of the
machine to s2 and gives no output.
The second input is 25 cents. This changes the state from s 2 to s 6 , and gives 5 cents as output.
The next input is the orange button, which changes the state from s 6 back to s 0 (because the

machine returns to the start state) and gives an orange juice as its output.
FiniteState Machines with Outputs
A finitestate machine M = (S, I, O, f, g, s 0 ) consists of a finite set S of states, a finite input
alphabet I, a finite output alphabet O, a transition function f that assigns to each state and input
pair a new state, an output function g that assigns to each state and input pair an output, and an
initial state s 0 .
Let M = (S, I, O, f, g, s 0 ) be a finitestate machine. We can use a state table to represent the
values of the transition function f and the output function g for all pairs of states and input.
We previously constructed a state table for the vending machine discussed in the introduction to
this section.
PhraseStructure Grammars
Example:
The state table describes a finitestate machine with S = {s 0 , s 1 , s 2 , s 3 }, I = {0, 1}, and O = {0, 1}.
The values of the transition function f are displayed in the first two columns, and the values of
the output function g are displayed in the last two columns.
Another way to represent a finite state machine is to use a state diagram, which is a directed
graph with labeled edges.
In this diagram, each state is represented by a circle. Arrows labeled with the input and output
pair are shown for each transition.
Let M = (S, I, O, f, g, s 0 ) be a finitestate machine and L ⊆ I *.We say that M recognizes (or
accepts) L if an input string x belongs to L if and only if the last output bit produced by M when
given x as input is a 1.
Example: Find the output string generated by the finitestate machine in Figure 3 if the input
string is 101011.
Solution:The output obtained is 001000. The successive states and outputs are shown in Table
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Example:
Produce a finitestate machine that adds two positive integers using their binary expansions.
Solution:
When (x n . . . x 1 x 0 )2 and (y n . . . y 1 y 0 )2 are added, the following procedure is followed.
First, the bits x 0 and y 0 are added, producing a sum bit z 0 and a carry bit c 0 .]
This carry bit is either 0 or 1. Then, the bits x 1 and y 1 are added, together with the carry c 0 .
This gives a sum bit z 1 and a carry bit c 1 .
This procedure is continued until the nth stage, where x n , y n , and the previous carry c n1 are
added to produce the sum bit z n and the carry bit c n , which is equal to thesum bit z n+1 .
In a certain coding scheme, when three consecutive 1s appear in a message, the receiver of the
message knows that there has been a transmission error.
Construct a finitestate machine that gives a 1 as its current output bit if and only if the last three
bits received are all 1s.
The state s 1 remembers that the previous input was a 1, but the input before the previous input,
if it exists, was not a 1.
The state s 2 remembers that the previous two inputs were 1s. An input of 1 takes s 0 to s 1 ,
because now a1, and not two consecutive 1s, has been read; it takes s 1 to s 2 , because now two
consecutive 1s have been read; and it takes s 2 to itself, because at least two consecutive 1s
have been read.
An input of 0 takes every state to s 0 , because this breaks up any string of consecutive 1s. The
output for the transition from s2 to itself when a 1.
One of the most important applications of finitestate machines is in language recognition.
This application plays a fundamental role in the design and construction of compilers for
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programming languages.
A finitestate machine with output can be used to recognize a language, by giving an output of 1
when a string from the language has been read and a 0 otherwise.
However, there are other types of finitestate machines that are specially designed for
recognizing languages.
Instead of producing output, these machines have final states.
A string is recognized if and only if it takes the starting state to one of these final states.
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Set of Strings
The operations that will be defined here will be used extensively in our discussion of language
recognition by finitestate machines.
Suppose that A and B are subsets of V *, where V is a vocabulary.
The concatenation of A and B, denoted by AB, is the set of all strings of the form xy, Where x is
a string in A and y is a string in B.
FiniteState Machines with No Output
Example:
Let A = {0, 11} and B = {1, 10, 110}. Find AB and BA.
Solution:
The set AB contains every concatenation of a string in A and a string in B.
Hence,
AB = {01, 010, 0110, 111, 1110, 11110}.
The set BA contains every concatenation of a string in B and a string in A.
Hence,
BA = {10, 111, 100, 1011, 1100, 11011}.
Note that it is not necessarily the case that AB = BA when A and B are subsets of V.
where V is an alphabet, as Example 1 illustrates.
From the definition of the concatenation of two sets of strings, we can define An, for n = 0, 1, 2, .
. . .
This is done recursively by specifying that
A 0 = {λ}
A n+1 = A n A for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Example:
Let A = {1,00}. Find A n for n = 0, 1, 2, and 3.
Solution:
We have A 0 = {λ} and A 1 = A0A = {λ} A = {1, 00}.
To find A 2 we take concatenations of pairs of elements of A.
This gives A 2 = {11, 100, 001, 0000}.
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To find A 3 we take concatenations of elements in A 2 and A;
This gives A 3 = {111, 1100, 1001, 10000, 0011, 00100, 00001, 000000}.
Suppose that A is a subset of V *.
Then the Kleene closure of A, denoted by A *, is the set consisting of concatenations of
arbitrarily many strings from A.
Example:
What are the Kleene closures of the sets A = {0}, B = {0, 1}, and C = {11}?.
Solution:
The Kleene closure of A is the concatenation of the string 0 with itself an arbitrary finite number
of times.
Hence, A* = {0 n | n = 0, 1, 2, . . . }.
The Kleene closure of B is the concatenation of an arbitrary number of strings, where each
string is either 0 or 1.
This is the set of all strings over the alphabet V = {0, 1}.
That is, B* = V*
Finally, the Kleene closure break of C is the concatenation of the string 11 with itself an arbitrary
number of times.
Hence, C * is the set of strings consisting of an even number of 1s.
That is, C* = {1 2n | n = 0, 1, 2, . . . }.
A finitestate machine with no output.
Such machines are also called finitestate automata, and that is the terminology we will use for
them here. (Note: The singular of automata is automaton.)
These machines differ from the finitestate machines studied in that they do not produce output,
but they do have a set of final states.
Recognize strings that take the starting state to a final state.
A finitestate automaton M = (S, I, f, s 0 , F) consists of a finite set S of states, a finite input
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alphabet I, a transition function f that assigns a next state to every pair of state and input (so that
f : S × I → S), an initial or start state s 0 , and a subset F of S consisting of final (or accepting
states).
A string x is said to be recognized or accepted by the machine M = (S, I, f, s 0 , F) if it takes the
initial state s 0 to a final state, that is, f (s 0 , x) is a state in F.
The language recognized or accepted by the machine M, denoted by L(M), is the set of all
strings that are recognized by M.
Two finitestate automata are called equivalent if they recognize the same language.
Nondeterministic FiniteState Automata
A nondeterministic finitestate automaton M = (S, I, f, s 0 , F) consists of a set S of states, an input
alphabet I, a transition function f that assigns a set of states to each pair of state and input (so
that f : S × I → P(S)), a starting state s 0 , and a subset F of S consisting of the final states.
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Language Recognition
Finitestate automata can be used as language recognizers.
What sets can be recognized by these machines?
Although this seems like an extremely difficult problem, there is a simple characterization of the
sets that can be recognized by finite state automata.
This problem was first solved in 1956 by the American mathematician Stephen Kleene.
A finitestate automaton that recognizes a set if and only if this set can be built up from the null
set.
The empty string, and singleton strings by taking concatenations, unions, and Kleene closures,
in arbitrary order.
Sets that can be built up in this way are called regular sets.
The regular expressions over a set I are defined recursively by:
The symbol ∅ is a regular expression;
The symbol λ is a regular expression;
The symbol x is a regular expression whenever x ∈ I;
The symbols (AB), (A ∪ B), and A* are regular expressions whenever A and B are regular
expressions.
Each regular expression represents a set specified by these rules:
∅ represents the empty set, that is, the set with no strings;
λ represents the set {λ}, which is the set containing the empty string;
x represents the set {x} containing the string with one symbol x;
(AB) represents the concatenation of the sets represented by A and by B;
(A ∪ B) represents the union of the sets represented by A and by B;
A* represents the Kleene closure of the set represented by A.
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KLEENE’S THEOREM
A set is regular if and only if it is recognized by a finitestate automaton.
Kleene’s theorem is one of the central results in automata theory.
We will prove the only if part of this theorem, namely, that every regular set is recognized by a
finitestate automaton.
The proof of the if part, that a set recognized by a finitestate automaton is regular, is left as an
exercise for the reader.
Recall that a regular set is defined in terms of regular expressions, which are defined
recursively.
We can prove that every regular set is recognized by a finitestate automaton if we can do the
following things.
1. Show that ∅ is recognized by a finitestate automaton.
2. Show that {λ} is recognized by a finitestate automaton.
3. Show that {a} is recognized by a finitestate automaton whenever a is a symbol in I .
4. Show that AB is recognized by a finitestate automaton whenever both A and B are.
5. Show that A ∪ B is recognized by a finitestate automaton whenever both A and B are.
6. Show that A * is recognized by a finitestate automaton whenever A is.
We now consider each of these tasks.
First, we show that ∅ is recognized by a nondeterministic finitestate automation.
To do this, all we need is an automation with no final states.
The finitestate automata cannot be used as general models of computation.
They are limited in what they can do.
For example, finitestate automata are able to recognize regular sets, but are not able to
recognize many easytodescribe sets, including {0n1n | n ≥ 0}, which computers recognize
using memory.
We can use finitestate automata to compute relatively simple functions such as the sum of two
numbers, but we cannot use them to compute functions that computers can, such as the product
of two numbers.
To overcome these deficiencies we can use a more powerful type of machine known as a Turing
machine, after AlanTuring, the famous mathematician and computer scientist who invented them
in the 1930s.
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Turing Machines
A Turing machine consists of a control unit, which at any step is in one of finitely many different
states, together with a tape divided into cells, which is infinite in both directions.
Turing machines have read and write capabilities on the tape as the control unit moves back and
forth along this tape, changing states depending on the tape symbol read.
Turing machines are more powerful than finitestate machines because they include memory
capabilities that finite state machines lack.
We will show how to use Turing machines to recognize sets, including sets that cannot be
recognized by finitestate machines.
Definition of Turing Machines
A Turing machine T = (S, I, f, s 0 ) consists of a finite set S of states, an alphabet I containing the
blank symbol B, a partial function f from S × I to S × I × {R,L}, and a starting state s0.
The action of the Turing machine at each step of its operation depends on the value of the
partial function f for the current state and tape symbol.
At each step, the control unit reads the current tape symbol x.
If the control unit is in state s and if the partial function f is defined for the pair (s, x) with f (s,x) =
(s‘ , x‘ , d) the control unit:
Enters the state s‘
Write the symbol x1 in the current cell. Erasing x, and
Moving right one cell if d = R or moves left one cell if d = L.
At each step, the control unit reads the current tape symbol x.
If the control unit is in state s and if the partial function f is defined for the pair (s, x) with f (s,x) =
(s‘ , x‘ , d) the control unit:
Enters the state s‘
Moving right one cell if d = R or moves left one cell if d = L.
Using Turing Machines to Recognize Sets
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Machine halts
We can now define what it means for a Turing machine to recognize a string.
Given a string, we write consecutive symbols in this string in consecutive cells.
Definition:
Let V be a subset of an alphabet T .
A Turing machine T = (S, I, f, s 0 ) recognizes a string x in V * if and only if T, starting in the initial
position when x is written on the tape, halts in a final state.
T is said to recognize a subset A of V * if x is recognized by T if and only if x belongs to A.
Find a Turing machine that recognizes the set of bit strings that have a 1 as their second bit, that
is, the regular set (0 ∪ 1)1(0 ∪ 1) *.
Different Types of Turing Machines
There are many variations on the definition of a Turing machine. We can expand the capabilities
of a Turing machine in a wide variety of ways.
For example, we can allow a Turing machine to move right, left, or not at all at each step.
We can allow multiple tape heads that read different cells simultaneously.
Furthermore, we can allow a Turing machine to be nondeterministic, by allowing a (state, tape
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symbol) pair to possibly appear as the first elements in more than one fivetuple of the Turing
Machines.
Turing Machines and its variants
Example:
Recognize the language 01* + 10*. The machine “remembers” the first symbol read in its state.
Shifting Symbols Problem:
Solution:
“Remember” the last k symbols in finite control.
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UNIT - 9
Analysis of Algorithm
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Introduction
One of the major goals of computer science is to understand how to solve problems with
computers.
Developing a solution to some problem typically involves at least four steps:
Designing an algorithm or stepbystep procedure for solving the problem.
Analyzing the correctness and efficiency of the procedure.
Implementing the procedure in some programming language, and Testing the
implementation.
The absolute execution time of an algorithm depends on many factors:
The size of the input (searching through a list of length 1,000 takes longer than searching
through a list of length 10),
The algorithm used to solve the problem (UnorderedLinearSearch is inherently slower than
BinarySearch),
The programming language used to implement the algorithm (interpreted languages such as
Basic are typically slower than compiled languages such as C++),
The quality of the actual implementation (good, tight code can be much faster than poor,
sloppy code), and
The machine on which the code is run (a supercomputer is faster than a laptop).
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Algorithm
In analyzing the efficiency of an algorithm, one typically focuses on the first two of these factors.
“speed" of the algorithm as a function of the size of the input on which it is run.
one typically determines the number of program steps (or some count of other interesting
computer operations) as a function.
Input time will depend on the programming language used, the quality of the code produced,
and the machine on which the code is run.
Introduction
An algorithm is a finite sequence of precise instructions for performing a computation or for
solving a problem.
Set the temporary maximum equal to the first integer in the sequence. (The temporary
maximum will be the largest integer examined at any stage of the procedure.)
Compare the next integer in the sequence to the temporary maximum, and if it is larger than
the temporary maximum, set the temporary maximum equal to this integer.
Repeat the previous step if there are more integers in the sequence.
Stop when there are no integers left in the sequence. The temporary maximum at this point is
the largest integer in the sequence.
Properties Of Algorithms
There are several properties that algorithms generally share. They are useful to keep in mind
when algorithms are described. These properties are:
Input. An algorithm has input values from a specified set.
Output. From each set of input values an algorithm produces output values from a specified
set. The output values are the solution to the problem.
Definiteness. The steps of an algorithm must be defined precisely.
Correctness. An algorithm should produce the correct output values for each set of input
values.
Finiteness. An algorithm should produce the desired output after a finite (but perhaps large)
number of steps for any input in the set.
Linear Search
Prose: Locate an item in a list by examining the sequence of list elements one at a time, starting
at the beginning.
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More formal prose: Find item x in the list [a 1 ; a 2 ; : : : ; a n ].
First compare x with a1. If they are equal, return the position 1.
If not, try a 2 . If x = a 2 , return the position 2.
Keep going, and if no match is found when the entire list is scanned, return 0.
Binary Search
Prose description:
Assume the input is a list of items in increasing order, and the target element to be found.
The algorithm begins by comparing the target with the middle element.
If the middle element is strictly lower than the target, then the search proceeds with the upper
half of the list.
Otherwise, the search proceeds with the lower half of the list (including the middle).
Repeat this process until we have a list of size 1.
If target is equal to the single element in the list, then the position is returned.
Otherwise, 0 is returned to indicate that the element was not found.
Greedy Algorithms
Optimization problems minimize or maximize some parameter over all possible inputs. Examples
of optimization problems:
Finding a route between two cities with the smallest total mileage.
Determining how to encode messages using the fewest possible bits.
Finding the fiber links between network nodes using the least amount of fiber.
Optimization problems can often be solved using a greedy algorithm, which makes the “best”
(by a local criterion) choice at each step. This does not necessarily produce an optimal
solution to the overall problem, but in many instances, it does.
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Efficiency of Algorithms
Efficiency: Amount of resources used by an algorithm
Space (number of variables)
Time (number of instructions)
When designing an algorithm must be aware of its use of resources
If there is a choice, pick the more efficient algorithm!
How to measure time efficiency?
Running time: let it run and see how long it takes
On what machine?
On what inputs?
Time efficiency depends on input
Example: the sequential search algorithm
In the best case, how fast can the algorithm halt?
In the worst case, how fast can the algorithm halt?
Time Efficiency
Worst case efficiency is the maximum number of steps that an algorithm can take for any input
data values.
Best case efficiency is the minimum number of steps that an algorithm can take for any input
data values.
Average case efficiency the efficiency averaged on all possible inputs must assume a distribution
of the input we normally assume uniform distribution (all keys are equally probable). If the input
has size n, efficiency will be a function of n
Analysis of Sequential Search
Bestcase : 1 comparison
Target is found immediately
Worstcase: 3n + 5 comparisons
Target is not found
Averagecase: 3n/2+4 comparisons
Target is found in the middle
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Space efficiency
How much space is used in addition to the input?
Efficiency of CopyOver
Best case: all values are zero: no copying, no extra space
Worstcase: No zero value: n elements copied, n extra space
Time: (n)
Extra space: n
Efficiency of ShuffleLeft
Space: no extra space (except few variables)
Time
Bestcase
No zero value
no copying ==> order of n = Θ(n)
Worst case
All zero values: every element thus requires copying n1 values one to the left
on x (n1) = n 2 n = order of n 2 = Θ(n 2 ) (why?)
Average case
Half of the values are zero
n/2 x (n1) = (n 2 n)/2 = order of n 2 = Θ(n 2 )
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BigO Notation
The History Of BigO Notation
BigO notation has been used in mathematics for more than a century.
In computer science it is widely used in the analysis of algorithms.
The German mathematician Paul Bachmann first introduced bigO notation in 1892 in an
important book on number theory.
The bigO symbol is sometimes called a Landau symbol after the German mathematician
Edmund Landau, who used this notation throughout his work.
The use of bigO notation in computer science was popularized by Donald Knuth, who also
introduced the big and big notations defined later in this section.
Working with the Definition Of BigO Notation : A useful approach for finding a pair of witnesses
is to first select a value of k for which the size of |f (x)| can be readily estimated when x > k and
to see whether we can use this estimate to find a value of C for which |f (x)| ≤ C|g(x)| for x > k.
BigO Estimates for Some Important Functions
Polynomials can often be used to estimate the growth of functions.
Instead of analyzing the growth of polynomials each time they occur,
We would like a result that can always be used to estimate the growth of a polynomial. Theorem
1 does this.
It shows that the leading term of a polynomial dominates its growth by asserting that a
polynomial of degree n or less is O(xn).
THEOREM 1
THEOREM 2
Properties of BigO Notation
If f is O(g) and g is O(f ) then one says that f and g are of the same order.
If f is O(g) and h(x)
g(x) for all positive real numbers x then f is O(h).
The Onotation describes upper bounds on how fast functions grow. E.g., f (x) = x 2 + 3x is O(x 2 )
but also O(x 3 ), etc.
Often one looks for a simple function g that is as small as possible such that still f is O(g).(The
word ‘simple’ is important, since trivially f is O(f ).)
Useful BigO Estimates
If d > c > 1, then nc is O(n d ), but n d is not O(n c).

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If b > 1 and c and d are positive, then (log b n) c is O(n d ), but n d is not O((log b n) c).
If b > 1 and d is positive, then n d is O(b n ), but b n is not O(n d ).
If c > b > 1, then bn is O(c n ), but c n is not O(b n ).
If f 1 (x) is O(g 1 (x)) and f 2 (x) is O(g 2 (x)) then (f 1 + f 2 )(x) is O(max(jg 1 (x)j; jg 2 (x)j)).
If f 1 is O(g 1 ) and f 2 is O(g 2 ) then (f 1 ο f 2 ) is O(g 1 ο g 2 ).
Note: These estimates are very important for analyzing algorithms. Suppose that g(n) = 5n 2 +7n
3 and f is a very complex function that you cannot determine exactly, but you know that f is
O(n 3 ). Then you can still derive that n.f (n) is O(n 4 ) and g(f (n)) is O(n 6 ).
BigOmega Notation
Definition: Let f ; g : R ! R. We say that f is (g) if there are constants C and k such that 8x > k: jf
(x)j
Cjg(x)j
This is read as “f is bigOmega of g”. The constants C and k are called witnesses to the
relationship between f and g.
BigO gives an upper bound on the growth of a function, while
BigOmega gives a lower bound. BigOmega tells us that a function grows at least as fast as
another.
Similar abuse of notation as for bigO.
f is Ω(g) if and only if g is O(f ).
BigTheta Notation
Definition: Let f ; g : R ! R. We say that f is (g) if there are constants C and k such that 8x > k: jf
(x)j
Cjg(x)j.
We say that “f is bigTheta of g” and also that “f is of order g” and also that “f and g are of the
same order”.
f is Θ(g) if and only if there exists constants C 1 , C 2 and k such that C 1 g(x) < f (x) < C 2 g(x) if x >

k. This follows from the definitions of bigO and bigOmega.
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Comparison of Algorithm
Unordered Linear Search
Suppose that the given array was not necessarily sorted.
This might correspond, for example, to collection exams which have not yet been sorted
alphabetically.
If a student wanted to obtain her exam score, how could she do so? She would have to search
through the entire collection of exams, onebyone, until her exam was found.
This corresponds to the unordered linear search algorithm.
Note that in order to determine that an object does not exist in the collection, one needs to
search through the entire collection.
Consider executing the UnorderedLinearSearch algorithm on this array while searching for the
number 11.
The rst four elements would need to be examined until the fourth element containing the value
11 is found.
In analyzing the performance of search algorithms, we will consider these \examination counts"
as a measure of the performance of such algorithms.
Now consider executing the UnorderedLinearSearch on this array while searching for the
number 13.
Since 13 does not exist in the array, one must examine all eight of the array elements until one
could denitively return \13 not found."
Ordered Linear Search
Now suppose that the given array is sorted. In this case, one need not necessarily search
through the entire list to nd a particular object or determine that it does not exist in the collection.
For example, if the collection of exams were sorted by name, one need not search beyond the
\P"s to determine that the exam for \Peterson" does or does not exist in the collection.
A simple modification of the above algorithm yields the ordered linear search algorithm.
Note that while scanning the array from lefttoright (smallesttolargest values), a search can
now be terminated early if and when it is determined that the number being sought (and as yet
not found) is less than the element currently being examined.
Consider executing the OrderedLinearSearch on this array while searching for the number 11.
In this case, the rst two elements would need to be examined until the second element
containing the value 11 is found.
Now consider executing the OrderedLinearSearch on this array while searching for the number
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13.
Note that only the rst four elements need be examined until the value 16 is encountered and one
can denitively return \13 not found."
Chunk Search
Given an ordered list, one need not (and one typically does not) search through the entire
collection onebyone.
Consider searching for a name in a phone book or looking for a particular exam in a sorted pile:
one might naturally grab 50 or more pages at a time from the phone book or 10 or more exams
at a time from the pile to quickly determine the 50 page (or 10 exam) \chunk" in which the
desired data lies.
One could then carefully search through this chunk using an ordered linear search. Let c be the
chunk size used (e.g., 50 pages or 10 exams). We shall refer to the algorithm encoding the
above ideas as chunk search.
Consider executing the ChunkSearch on the above array while searching for the number 34
and using c = 3 (i.e., chunks of size 3).
To determine if 34 is in the rst chunk, the third element (at the end of the rst \chunk") with value
12 must be examined. Since 34 > 12, we next examine the sixth element (at the end of the
second \chunk") with value 37.
Since 34 < 37, we conclude that the value 34, if it exists in the array, must be contained in the
second chunk.
We then simply execute OrderedLinear earch on the subarray A[4 : : 6] consisting of the three
elements in the second chunk, eventually nding 34 in the fth position.
Now consider executing ChunkSearch on the above array while searching for the number 33.
ChunkSearch would behave exactly as described above, except that the call to OrderedLinear
Search would return \33 not found" when searching the subarray A[4 : : 6].
Binary Search
Now consider the following idea for a search algorithm using our phone book example.
Select a page roughly in the middle of the phone book. If the name being sought is on this page,
you′re done.
If the name being sought is occurs alphabetically before this page, repeat the process on the \rst
half" of the phone book; otherwise, repeat the process on the \second half" of the phone book.
Note that in each iteration, the size of the remaining portion of the phone book to be searched is
divided in half; the algorithm applying such a strategy is referred to as binary search.
While this many not seem like the most \natural" algorithm for searching a phone book.
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Consider executing the BinarySearch on this array while searching for the number 34.
Two determine if 34 is in the rst or second half of the array,
We split the array in half, considering the fourth element (at the end of the \rst half") whose value
is 16. Since 34 > 16,
We conclude that the number 34, if it exists in the array, must be contained in the second half,
i.e., the subarray A[5 : : 8].
We then repeat on the second half of the array, splitting it in half and considering the sixth
element whose value is 37.
Since 34 < 37, we continue with the subarray A[5 : : 6], nding the element whose value is 34 in
the next iteration.
Now consider executing BinarySearch on this array while searching for the number 33.
BinarySearch will behave exactly as described above until the last subarray of size 1 containing
only the element whose value is 34 is considered.
At this point, one can denatively return \33 not found" since there are no subarrays yet to be
searched which could possibly contain the number 34.
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Sorting Algorithm
Introduction
OrderedLinearSearch, ChunkSearch, and BinarySearch each assume that the underlying

array or list which is being searched is already in sorted order.
How can one take an unordered array or list and sort it?
Algorithms for sorting are fundamental to computer science and dozens have been developed.
In this section, we shall consider three such algorithms:
InsertionSort
SelectionSort
MergeSort.
Insertion Sort
InsertionSort corresponds to the method that many people use to sort cards as they are being
dealt to them.
The rst card is placed in one′s hand, the second card is compared to the first and placed either
before or after it, and so on.
In general, one has some i cards, in sorted order, in one′s hand, and the i + 1st card is
compared to successive cards (starting from the left or right) until the proper location to \insert"
the card is found.
Let us consider how to sort this array using InsertionSort.
Imagine the numbers 34, 16, 12, . . . , being \dealt" to you, in this order, like cards.
You would start with the number 34, a trivially sorted list.
Then the number 16 would be inserted into this list, producing the sorted list \16 34."
The number 12 would then be inserted into this list, producing \12 16 34," and so on. In general,
in phase k of the algorithm, the kth element of the array is inserted into the sorted list formed
from the rst k 1 elements of the array.
The process of insertion sort is shown below, where a diamond 3 is used to separate the
processed and sorted array elements from the as yet unprocessed array elements.
Analysis: What is the running time of InsertionSort on an array containing n elements?
In phase 1 of the algorithm, the rst array element must be examined.
In phase 2 of the algorithm, the second element must be examined and compared to the rst
(which must therefore be examined). In general, in the kth phase of InsertionSort, the kth
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element must be examined, and in the worst case, it may be compared to each of the previously
processed k 1 elements, resulting in k total elements being examined.
Thus, the total number of elements examined (in the worst case) is given by 1 + 2 + 3 + _ _ _ +
(n 2) + (n 1) + n:
Selection Sort
While InsertionSort can be used to process cards online, as they are being dealt, the next
algorithm we shall consider cannot proceed until all the cards have been dealt.
However, in sorting a list or array of elements that are all given in advance, both algorithms are
equally applicable.
SelectionSort begins by examining the list of elements, \selecting" the smallest one, and
\swapping" it with the rst element of the list.
In phase 2, SelectionSort selects the smallest element from the remaining n 1 elements and
swaps it with the element in position 2.
In general, in the kth phase, SelectionSort selects the smallest element from the remaining n k
+ 1 elements and swaps it with the element in position k.
Analysis: What is the running time of SelectionSort on an array containing n elements?
In phase 1 of the algorithm, all n elements must be examined in order to nd the smallest
element.
In phase 2 of the algorithm, the n 1 remaining elements must all be examined to find the
second smallest element.
In general, in phase k of the algorithm, the remaining nk+1 elements must all be examined to
determine the kth smallest element.
Thus, the total number of elements examined is given by n + (n 1) + (n 2) + _ _ _ + 3 + 2 + 1:
Merge Sort
We shall consider a third algorithm for sorting, MergeSort,
Whose implementation is inherently recursive and whose analysis depends on the mathematical
technique of recurrences.
MergeSort is provably faster than either InsertionSort or SelectionSort, in the worst case.
Page 189 of 189


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discrete structure

Proposition equivalence feature three terminologies, they are Contradiction, tautology,

If Xi is a variable, then Xi D = x ii = 1, ... , n).

If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B V C, then A D =B D·C D.

If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B . C, then A D =B D VC D.

If A and B’ are Boolean expressions, and A = B, then A D = (B D)’.

Let B = {0, 1}. Then B n = {(x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n ) | x i € B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the set of all possible n­tuples

Definition: Let (B,) be a Boolean algebra and let x 1 , x 2 , ..., xn be variables taking values on B.

The constant functions f(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=b for any element b€ B.

The projection functions f(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=xi for any i=1,2,...,n.

If g and h are Boolean functions on x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n , then so are.

(g+h)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ) = g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )+h(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )

(g. h)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ). h(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )

(g’)(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n )=(g(x 1 , x 2 , ..., x n ))’

Definition: The Boolean functions F and G of n variables are equal if and only if F(b 1 , b 2 , …, b n )

= G(b 1 , b 2 , …, b n ) whenever b 1 , b 2 , …, b n belong to B.

The complement of the Boolean function F is the function F, where F(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . ,

(F + G)(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . , x n ) + G(x 1 , . . . , x n ),

(F G)(x 1 , . . . , x n ) = F(x 1 , . . . , x n )G(x 1 , . . . , x n ).

We have a(ba) k−1 b = 1 ⇒ (ba)k−1 = a−1b−1 =(ba)−1

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When the graph is simple, we denote this path by its vertex sequence x 0 , x 1 , · · · , x n . Because

A walk is an sequence of nodes (V 1 , V 2 ,..., vL) such that {(V 1 , V 2 ), (V 1 , V 2 ),..., (V 1 , V 2 )} E, e.g.

A simple path is a walk with no repeated nodes, e.g. (V 1 , V 4 ,V 5 , V 2 ,V 3 ).

A cycle is an walk (V 1 , V 2 ,..., v L ) where V 1 =v L with no other nodes repeated and L>3, e.g. (V 1 ,

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Suppose that the vertices of G are listed arbitrarily as V 1 , V 2 , . . . , vn.

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Suppose that V 1 , V 2 , . . . , vn are the vertices and e 1 , e 2 , . . . , em are the edges of G.

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Neither of the graphs G 2 or G 3 has an Euler circuit (the reader should verify this).

Neither H 1 nor H 3 has an Euler circuit (as the reader should verify).

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Let B = {0, 1}. Then B n = {(x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n ) | x i € B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the set of all possible ntuples

The state table describes a finitestate machine with S = {s 0 , s 1 , s 2 , s 3 }, I = {0, 1}, and O = {0, 1}.

on x (n1) = n 2 n = order of n 2 = Θ(n 2 ) (why?)

n/2 x (n1) = (n 2 n)/2 = order of n 2 = Θ(n 2 )

OrderedLinearSearch, ChunkSearch, and BinarySearch each assume that the underlying