1

NAME KASHAF BATOOL

ROLL NO BU615250

REGISTRATION NO 18PLR17638

COURSE NAME TEACHING STRATEGIES IN SCIENCE

EDUCATION

COURSE CODE 0896

ASSIGNMENT NO 1ST

SEMESTER AUTUMN, 2021

LEVEL M.ED

TUTOR NAME SHAMA TAUQIR UN NISA

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Q.1 Describe the different techniques the science teachers can use to help
learners for understanding the nature of science. How the knowledge of nature of
science help in implementation of scientific method?

Ans:

“Science does not simply sit down & pray for things to happen, but seeks to find out why
things happen. It experiments and tries again and again and sometimes fails and
sometimes succeeds & so bit-by-bit it adds to human knowledge. This modern world of
ours is very different from ancient world or the middle ages. This great difference is
largely due to Science.”

The term science & general science are used synonymously. Einstein defines science as
“An attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience correspond to logically
uniform systems of thought.” According to the Columbia dictionary “Science is an
accumulated & systematized learning, in general usage restricted to natural
phenomenon.” According to ‘Science Manpower Project’, “Science is a cumulative and
endless series of empirical observation which result in the formation of concepts &
theories, with both concepts & theories being subject of modification in the light of
further empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of
acquiring & refining knowledge.” According to Griggs, “In the literal sense science
means the pursuit of knowledge but it has a wider connotation for our purpose, and can
be said to mean a knowledge of nature in the widest possible form.” On the basis of these
definitions of science we can say that 1. Science is a study of natural phenomenon. 2. It is
organized & systematized learning. 3. It is a body of cumulative & ordered observations.
4. It is the knowledge based on observations, experiments. 5. Science is a process as well
as the product.

Five science teaching techniques

How do the best teachers teach science? The real question is, how does one teach
students to think like scientists? The teachers' mindset and their feedback are crucial to
instruction in the science classroom. Here are five teaching techniques for the science
classroom and explanations of them.
1. Real-life scenarios that involve case studies and ways of analyzing current
problems
2. Peer-to-peer teaching, which involves students in their own education
3. Hands-on activities that engage students beyond the lecture and teach useful
scientific concepts
4. Science projects, which teach the scientific methods of inquiry and experiment
5. Field research journals, which are notes and other documentation of trusted
science experiments or from the students in your classroom

Advantages of Each Technique

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It's beneficial for kids to grapple with real-life problems and relate these problems to
scientific theory. The 21st-century skills for teachers and the principles behind how to
teach science are the basic four Cs of many disciplines: critical thinking, communication,
collaboration and creativity. Real life and case studies encourage collaboration as well as
the other three Cs. Peer-to-peer teaching gets students engaged and educates them about
themselves and others and the world around them. Science projects quite often have long-
term objectives and get students involved with experiments. The students start with a
question or hypothesis, follow it through with an experiment and end with scientific
conclusions based on what they observed. Hands-on activities are one of the best ways to
engage students. They foster independent thinking and greater interpersonal skills. Field
research journals put the student in the middle of the experiment as most data is obtained
visually and then jotted down for later inspection. These are some valuable teaching
techniques for science teachers.

So Why Is Teaching Science So Important?

Whether you know it or not, science is a huge part of our daily lives, from technology to
transportation to medicine to legal issues and government decisions. And the pace of
research and discovery is quickly accelerating. That makes it more important than ever to
understand science, for in doing so, students can better understand the world.
Teaching science requires critical thinking, effective communication, collaboration and
creativity. Real-life scenarios, peer-to-peer teaching, hands-on activities, science projects
and field research journals are effective teaching techniques in the science curricula.
Instruction in science often can foster greater interpersonal skills and independent
thought.
Principles for the Design
of Learning Environments
Learner-centered: teachers build on the knowledge students bring to the learning
situation
Knowledge-centered: teachers attempt to help students develop understanding of
important concepts in each discipline

Scientific Method

Scientific method, mathematical and experimental technique employed in the sciences.

More specifically, it is the technique used in the construction and testing of a scientific
hypothesis.

The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers through tests and
experiments is not unique to any one field of science. In fact, the scientific method is
applied broadly in science, across many different fields. Many empirical sciences,
especially the social sciences, use mathematical tools borrowed from probability theory
and statistics, together with outgrowths of these, such as decision theory, game theory,
utility theory, and operations research. Philosophers of science have addressed general
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methodological problems, such as the nature of scientific explanation and the justification
of induction.

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has

characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable
practitioners in previous centuries). It involves careful observation, applying
rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort
how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction,
based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing
of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the
hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific
method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific
enterprises.
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, the underlying process is
frequently the same from one field to another. The process in the scientific method
involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the
hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical
observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on
knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very
specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments
or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to
identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with
predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be
meaningfully tested.

Elements of the scientific method

There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry.
The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following
classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of
procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.
Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and
formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.
The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is
continually revised. It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through
the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions:

• Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of

inquiry)
• Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and
measurements of the subject)
• Predictions (inductive and deductive reasoning from the hypothesis or theory)
• Experiments (tests of all of the above)
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PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD: -

Science subject is one of the important subjects in school education. However, really the
traditional teaching methods are challenged for their inability to foster critical thinking,
holistic learning environment among children. The science subject must develop science
process skills where children, observe, measure, classify, process information, interpret
think on solving problems, analyze, synthesize, formulate conclusions, etc. but, it should
be kept in mind that, creativity in an essential element of P.S. In a problem solving
method, children learn by working on problems. This enables the students to learn new
knowledge by facing the problems to be solved. The students are expected to observe,
understand, analyze, interpret find solutions, and perform applications that lead to a
holistic understanding of the concept. This method develops scientific process skills. This
method helps in developing brainstorming approach to learning concepts. The students
thinking on problem and their understanding of the science behind it is based on common
sense. It does not start from textual knowledge. Rather it proceeds from experiencing to
gradually forming concepts through books at later stage. It is a process from practice to
theory not vice versa. Knowledge here is not a goal but a natural out came of working on
tasks. Students live in the real world and like to deal with concrete things where they can
touch, feel manipulate things then the method is useful in igniting the process of science
learning.
PRINCIPLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD: -
1. Principle of learning by doing.
2. Principle of purpose.
3. Principle of freedom of thought.
4. Principle of learning by experiencing.
5. Principle of utility.
6. Principle of scientific attitude.
7. Principle of interest.
8. Principle of reality.
9. Principle of concreteness.
10. Principle of objectivity.
STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD: -
Selection of problem. 2. Presentation of problem. 3. Collection of facts. 4. Drawing
an outlines. 5. To reach a satisfactory conclusion. 6. Evaluation. 7. Writing report.
1) SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM: -
A remember of problems are confronted by the students in the class or outside. They
are made to select a problem as per their capacity and interest.
2) PRESENTATION OF PROBLEM: -
Each student is made to feel responsible for presenting the problem in front of the
teacher and class as per his insight. The students are free to give their suggestions on
the problem.
3)COLLECTION OF FACTS: -
All the facts related to problem are collected either by students or group. As a number
of facts will be collected, it will help the students to keep the most pertinent facts and
discard rest.
4) DRAWING AN OUTLINE: - This is most important phase, as a proper outline
at this stage will lead to purposeful activity. The teacher will guide students to draw
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exact plan and follow it properly so that the solution to problem is reached. It is more
or less like planning stage, where in a clear indication of outline leads to better result.
5) TO REACH A SATISFACTORY CONCLUSION: - It is the longest step and
requires outmost patience. The tentative solutions which are offered by students are
properly noted down. A good number of arrangements, discussion, brainstorming
results in reaching a satisfactory conclusion. The teacher has to be very careful at this
stage as, if may lead to wrong conclusions. The discussions must be healthy and
conducive atmosphere must be provided in the classroom for it.
6) EVALUATION: -
The students review the entire process and find out each and every stage where in
they have made any mistakes. Self-criticism and Self-realization will give training of
self confidence. The teacher must see that objective have been achieved.
7) WRITING REPORT: -
A complete report must be written by students. This will include, how they planned,
what discussions were held, how duties were assigned, how satisfactory conclusion
was reached etc. the writing of report will be maintained as a record which will be
used in future course of time.

Q.2 Which elements are compulsory to make science teaching effective? Give
examples that how these elements help to understand nature of science.
Ans:

What are the key ingredients of a high-quality science education?

What makes a good science education? In a review out earlier this year, Ofsted tried to
answer this question. In its examination of a range of evidence, it found that a central
plank of any top-quality science education was for teachers to possess in-depth subject
knowledge, plus an understanding of how to teach science and of how students learn. But
how do those in education answer the question?

‘I would like every school leaver to maintain their innate curiosity in how the world
around them functions and seek out accurate information as new technologies and
issues arise’
For Helen Skelton, head of science at Beaumont School, a comprehensive in St Albans, a
high-quality science education develops ‘a richer understanding of the world, enables
informed engagement with scientific questions in everyday life and prepares the next
generation of scientists’. While Jon Hale, head of biology at Beaulieu Convent School, an
independent girls’ school in Jersey, broadly agrees, he goes further and adds that the
focus of science education should be to improve and maintain a scientifically literate
population, particularly against the backdrop of the pandemic.

‘Science education has a huge role in developing a population that will make good
choices, both for themselves and for the global community,’ he says. ‘Students need to be
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taught what we know, why we know it and what value it has to them if they are to retain
this knowledge in later years.’

In-depth subject knowledge

Both agree that building teachers’ knowledge is critical to achieving these aims. ‘The
majority of science teachers have a good understanding of their subject but can always
develop a better knowledge of how to teach it well, particularly in the context of their
specific curriculum,’ says Helen. ‘Teaching a particular concept in one teaching sequence
might require a different approach to teaching it in another. It’s therefore important for
teachers to have training which supports them in understanding this and in developing
appropriate explanations.’

‘The challenge for teachers is how we can make abstract concepts concrete, using
examples and applications, and how we can engage the most apathetic students to
understand these high-value ideas,’ says Jon. ‘Teachers’ subject knowledge is key to this,
in how they articulate explanations and draw upon experiences to provide meaningful
links with these concepts. I would like every school leaver to maintain their innate
curiosity in how the world around them functions and seek out accurate information as
new technologies and issues arise.’

‘All students should be exposed to some enquiry-based learning experiments. This is

how scientists actually work’
It’s not only classroom teachers who welcome this emphasis on the importance of in-
depth subject knowledge. The University of York’s David K Smith, who is responsible
for chemical education and outreach, also welcomes this emphasis. ‘This has historically
been (and still is) particularly problematic in subjects such as chemistry where many A-
level chemistry teachers do not have relevant degree qualifications.’

Helen believes there is not a single best route through the curriculum. ‘It’s definitely
important to develop students’ understanding of the various disciplines,’ she says, ‘and to
ensure that knowledge is taught in a coherent way to build from simple to more advanced
ideas, and to develop students’ understanding of links between topic and subject areas. I
would argue that there is a strong case for narrowing but deepening the key stage 4
curriculum to ensure that this can be achieved.’

Enquiring minds
While stressing the key role practical chemistry plays, David reminds us how important it
is that not all practical activities should build on pre-taught principles. ‘All students
should be exposed to some enquiry-based learning experiments. This is how scientists
actually work in laboratories,’ he says.

‘A key issue we have is students in university wanting to get the right answer from their
experiments,’ David says. ‘I would be disappointed if, on the back of this report, all
student access to enquiry-based learning in schools were to be stopped. It doesn’t work in
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every situation, but, used judiciously, it can be invaluable in helping students truly
experience what science is.

Principles of a quality science education

The Ofsted review into the factors influencing the quality of science education in
England identified three key guiding principles, which show how achieving excellence
requires teachers to balance competing priorities and tensions. These are:

• A high-quality science education is rooted in an authentic understanding of what

science is.
• A high-quality science curriculum prioritises pupils building knowledge of key
concepts in a meaningful way that reflects how knowledge is organised in the scientific
disciplines.
• Science curriculums should be planned to take account of the function of
knowledge in relation to future learning.

ere are the 6 key practices which the report suggests are signatures of good-quality
teaching.

1. Content knowledge
This is when teachers have a deep knowledge of the subject that they teach and
can communicate content effectively to their students.
As well as a strong understanding of the material being taught, teachers must also
understand the ways students think about the content, be able to evaluate the
thinking behind students’ own methods, and identify students’ common
misconceptions.
There is strong evidence of the impact this has on student outcomes.

2. Quality of instruction
There is also strong evidence of the impact the quality of instruction can have on
learning.
This includes teachers being skilled in effective questioning and use of
assessment. Good teachers also deploy techniques such as reviewing previous
learning, and giving adequate time for children to practice, meaning skills are
embedded securely. When done well, teachers scaffold students learning by
progressively introducing new skills and knowledge.
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3. Teaching climate
The quality of the teaching and learning relationships between teachers and
students is also very important.
Good teaching creates a climate that is constantly demands more, and pushes
students to succeed. A good teaching climate challenges students, develops a
sense of competence, attributes success to effort rather than ability, and values
resilience to failure.
The study found moderate evidence that the teaching climate in the classroom
impacts student outcomes.

4. Classroom management
There is moderate evidence of the impact on students learning of: efficient use of
lesson time; co-ordinating classroom resources and space; and managing students’
behaviour with clear rules that are consistently enforced.
These factors are perhaps the necessary conditions for good learning, but are not
sufficient on their own. A well-ordered classroom with an ineffective lesson will
not have a large impact.

5. Teacher beliefs
There is some evidence to show the reasons why teachers adopt particular
practices, and the purposes or goals that they have for their students is also
important.
For example, research indicates that primary school teachers’ beliefs about the
nature of mathematics and their theories about how children learn – and their role
in that learning – are more important to student outcomes than the level of
mathematics qualification the teacher holds.

6. Professional behaviours
Developing professional skills and practice, participating in professional
development, supporting colleagues and the broader role of liaising and
communicating with parents also have a part to play in effective teaching.
There is some evidence to show this has an impact on student outcomes.

Hints for More Effective Lecturing

When lecturing is the chosen or necessary teaching method, one way to keep
students engaged is to pause periodically to assess student understanding or to initiate
short student discussions (see sidebars). Calling on individual students to answer
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questions or offer comments can also hold student attention; however, some students
prefer a feedback method with more anonymity. If they have an opportunity to discuss a
question in small groups, the group can offer an answer, which removes any one student
from the spotlight. Another option is to have students write their answer on an index card,
and pass the card to the end of the row; the student seated there can select one answer to
present, without disclosing whose it is.

The literature on teaching and learning contains other examples of techniques to

maintain students' attention in a lecture setting (Eble, 1988; Davis, 1993; Lowman, 1995;
McKeachie, 1994):

Avoid direct repetition of material in a textbook so that it remains a useful

alternative resource.
5 characteristics of an effective science teacher – from a researcher who trains them

As a science education researcher and a teacher educator, my goal is to help prepare the
next generation of science teachers. Here are five attributes of an effective elementary
school science teacher that align with the new standards.

1. Nurtures student curiosity

Kids are curious by nature. Science teachers should use relevant everyday events as a
basis of science instruction that fosters interest and curiosity. This approach encourages
students to take a more active role in figuring out how natural events work instead of
being taught those lessons by an instructor.

For instance, in this video, a teacher poses an interesting query to students: How did a
water puddle disappear over time? During a subsequent experiment, students used
thermometers to measure the temperature of a water puddle outside at different times of
the day. They used the data to make connections between temperature changes and the
shrinking size of the puddle and delve into the reasoning behind it.

In this case, the teacher involved students in scientific practices and used an everyday
occurrence to teach key scientific concepts such as sunlight, energy and energy transfer.

2. Encourages scientific thinking

Effective science teachers involve students in making sense of natural events and the
science ideas underlying them. In other words, they actively engage students in
wondering and figuring out science phenomena around them and how they happen. They
help students develop exploratory questions and hypotheses to explain such events, and
encourage them to test and refine their explanations based on scientific evidence.

For example, when a first grade classroom was learning about how day and night happen,
students illustrated their own understanding of the phenomena – using a scientific
practice called modeling. As they learned more and more, they kept revising their
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drawings. They also collected long-term data to understand the repeating patterns of day
and night.

Teachers should also ensure that all students participate in making sense of science
phenomena in their classrooms.

To share their ideas about a science phenomenon, students often rely on their personal
experiences and native languages from their homes and communities. For instance, a
student from an agricultural community might have particular knowledge about plant
growth and unique local language to describe it. An effective science teacher provides
opportunities to build on such native experiences and local knowledge in their science
classrooms.

3. Develops scientific literacy

Teachers who plan lessons according to the current standards aim to

develop scientifically literate young citizens who can identify, evaluate and understand
scientific arguments underlying local and global issues.

They also use socioscientific issues in their instruction. Socioscientific issues are local or
global phenomena that can be explained by science and signify social and political
problems. For example, students might make sense of the scientific information
underlying the current COVID-19 crisis and make arguments for how and why
vaccination is important for their communities. Other examples of socioscientific issues
are climate change, genetic engineering and pollution from oil spills.

4. Integrates science with other subjects

Teaching science with an interdisciplinary approach – that is to say, using math,

technology, language arts and social studies to make sense of science phenomena – can
lead to rich and rigorous learning experiences.

For example, teachers can integrate math by having students create visual charts
and graphs to explain their experimental or observation data. Technology integration in
the form of games and simulations in science classrooms can help students picture
complex science ideas. Incorporating reading and comprehension strategies in science
can bolster students’ ability to read critically for scientific ideas and evidence.

5. Uses classroom assessments to support student learning

A science teacher who is interested in students’ ideas will design and use classroom-
based assessments that reveal students’ science thinking. They do not use closed-ended
assessments that require yes or no answers, textbook-style definitions or lists of scientific
facts. Instead, they use open-ended, phenomenon-based assessments that give students a
chance to show their understanding.
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For example, a fifth grade assessment presents students with a story of an Australian
ecosystem and prompts them to use modeling to explain relationships between different
components of the ecosystem. Such an assessment encourages students to explain how a
process happens instead of recalling information.

Effective science teachers do not evaluate students’ responses for right and wrong
answers. They interpret and evaluate students’ scientific explanations to understand
strengths and gaps in their learning and use this information to adapt future instruction.

Teachers who are prepared to implement these five evidence-based practices can
potentially involve all students in their classroom in meaningful science learning.

Q.3 Explain the phases of learning cycle, also identify appropriate technique for
each phase.

Ans:

Learning Cycle
The lesson plans on the AGPA website use the Learning Cycle as the instructional model
for its lesson plans. The learning cycle rests on constructivism as its theoretical
foundation. "Constructivism is a dynamic and interactive model of how humans learn"
(Bybee, 1997, p. 176). A constructivist perspective assumes students must be actively
involved in their learning and concepts are not transmitted from teacher to student but
constructed by the student. In the early 1960's, Robert Karplus and his colleagues
proposed and used an instructional model based on the work of Piaget. This model would
eventually be called the Learning Cycle. (Atkin & Karplus, 1962). Numerous studies
have shown that the learning cycle as a model of instruction is far superior to
transmission models in which students are passive receivers of knowledge from their
teacher (Bybee, 1997). As an instructional model, the learning cycle provides the active
learning experiences recommended by the National Science Education Standards
(National Research Council, 1996).
The learning cycle used in these lesson plans follows Bybee's (1997) five steps of
Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration, and Evaluation. As in any cycle,
there's really no end to the process. After elaboration ends, the engagement of the next
learning cycle begins. Evaluation is not the last step. Evaluation occurs in all four parts of
the learning cycle. The description of each part of the learning cycle draws extensively
from Smith's work.
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Different phases of teaching:-

Teaching is a complex task. We need systematic planning to perform this task. Teaching
has to be done in steps. The different steps constituting the process are called the phases
of teaching. Each phase has some operations of teaching which create the situation for
learning. Teaching process can be divided into three phases/stages.
1. Pre-active phase – refers to planning
2. Interactive phase – refers to the conduct and management
3. Post-active phase – refers to the follow-up and consolidation
Different phases involve different operations of teaching.

The pre-active phase of teaching:-

• It is the phase of planning for teaching.

• Good planning makes the task of teacher smooth, functional and successful.
• There one two major steps involved in this phase.
1. Establishment of some kind of goals or objectives.
2. Discovering ways and means to active these objectives.
Operation of teaching at pre-active phase: -

Before classroom teaching, a teacher has to perform many tasks. This phase includes all
these activities which a teacher performs before entering the classroom. This stage
involves the following activities.

(1) The formulation or fixing up of goal: -

• The teacher formulates in detail the instructional objectives in behavioral terms by
using the taxonomy of educational objectives.
• Objectives one determined according to student’s psychology and needs of the
society and the school.
• Objectives are determined according to what changes teacher expects in students
by achieving these objectives.
(2) Selection of content or subject matter to be taught: -
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• After fixation of teaching objectives teacher decides about the content to be

presented before learners.
• For content selection following points should be kept in mind.
1. The demand of syllabus/curriculum.
2. The entry behavior of the accepted learners.
3. Level of the motivation of learners.
4. Teacher’s preference for assessment related to the content.
(3) The arrangement of ideas and style of teaching:-
After selecting the presentable content, the teacher arranges the elements of the content in
a logical and psychological sequence. Sequencing should be able to assist in the transfer
of learning.

(4) Selecting Intuitional Methodology:-

The teacher has to select appropriate strategies and tactics of teaching, keeping in view,
of the content and objectives of teaching. This operation is very important in teacher-
education programme.

(5) Development of teaching strategies:-

The teacher should decide beforehand about strategies and tricks, which he has to use
during the course of his classroom teaching. He should decide about

• When and what device of teaching should be used.

• When the teaching aids will be used.
• When recapitulation or evaluation etc. will be done.
(6) Deciding the duration, place, and management of classroom teaching.
(7) A decision about evaluation tools and techniques.
So, this stage is about working out the details of the teaching or activities a teacher want
to perform in the class. Here teacher hypothesizes about the possible outcome of his
action.

The interactive phase of teaching: -

This phase refers to the execution of the plan made during the pre-active phase. This is
actual classroom teaching. In this phase, the teacher gives students the learning
experiences through some suitable modes.

In this phase, teachers give learners a pre-determined environment. The teacher interacts
with students so that desired changes can be brought in the learner.

So learning is directed in pre-determined directions to achieve pre-determined goals. In

this process, the teacher provides learners with verbal stimulation.
This stimulation can be of various kinds. Few examples are:-

• asking questions
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• listening to student’s response

• providing guidance
• making explanations etc.
Operations of teaching at interactive phase:-

This phase of teaching

• includes all those activities which a teacher uses after entering the classroom.
• includes actual teaching done in the classroom.
In this face to face encounter with learners. Here the teacher uses some of the techniques,
aids, and material planned in the first phase. This helps the teacher in achieving the
relevant objectives that were already set. Here the following operations are undertaken by
the teacher.

(1) Setting up the class:-

It refers to the activity of perceiving the due size of the class, getting the feel of the mood
of learners. Here teacher should be aware of

• How many in the group are looking attentive

• How many are negligent and disinterested
• Who are sharper ones
• Who are troublemakers etc?
(2) Knowing the learners: -
Knowing the learners means to know about the previous knowledge of the new learners.
It is done after preserving the class size. For this teacher can start by knowing the
abilities, interests, attitudes and academic backgrounds of the new learners.

(3) Starting teaching: -

At this stage, the teacher starts teaching. This is done after diagnosing by questioning.
Here, two types of activities are involved.

1. Initiation
2. Response
The initiation and response are known as ‘verbal interaction’

The interactive phase of teaching is the classroom interaction between teacher and
students. The interaction may be verbal or non-verbal. Interaction is the most important at
this stage. This is the interchange between teacher and student by initiation or response
operations.

In this phase, all the activities performed by a teacher when he enters the classroom are
combined together. These activities one concerned with the presentation of content in the
class.
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The post-active phase of teaching

It is the evaluation phase of teaching. It arises when the teacher has left the class and tries
to have a look back into what happened in the class. This phase is concerned with the
following activities.

(a) Evaluation Activities : –

These activities are performed in various ways, e.g.,

• tests or quizzes
• by observing student’s reactions to questions,
• instructional situations and comments etc.
(b) Summing up teaching tasks: -
To sum up, the teacher asks the questions from the learners, verbally or in written form.
The behaviors of the students are also measured in order to evaluate their achievements.

In absence of all these evaluative activities, the entire learning process could be
incomplete.

Activities/operations at the post-active phase

(1) Determining the exact dimensions of behavior changes:-

Here the teacher compares the actual behavioral changes in students with their expected
behavioral changes. If desired behavioral changes are observed in maximum students
then it means that teaching strategies are very effective.

(2) Selection of testing devices and techniques:-

For comparing desired and actual behavior changes, the teacher has to select appropriate,
testing devices which are valid and reliable. For this criterion, tests are more preferred
than the performance tests.

(3) Changing strategies of testing:-

The student’s testing result is also used for evaluating the effectiveness of instructions
and teaching strategies. It should provide a base for improving the teaching and changing
strategies of teaching.

Importance of operations in different phases of teaching:-

1. It focuses on bringing desired behavior changes in the students.
2. It provides the scientific basis for developing effective instructions of the
teaching.
3. The classroom teaching and interaction can be made effective with this
background.
4. Teaching operations ultimately create the appropriate conditions of learning for
achieving the desired goals.
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5. Teaching can be organized effectively at different levels by employing

appropriate teaching activity.
So we can say that the process of teaching starts even before the teacher enters the
classroom. It continues even after classroom. It continues even after classroom
interaction in the form of evaluation, feedback, and other activities. All three teaching
phases are interrelated each one helps to modify the other in order to make teaching more
meaningful and significant.

Teaching strategies for different stages of learning

In Step 2.2, we introduced you to three levels of teaching:

• Level 1 – What the student is

• Level 2 – What the teacher does
• Level 3 – What the student does
A teacher who focuses on what students do (level 3) is clear about the type of
learning/teaching activities that are required to achieve the learning outcomes.

This means the teacher needs to design appropriate strategies for this stage of student
learning.

To help inform your course and/or class design the table below outlines a five-stage
learning model (Toohey, 1999).

Questions students might be asking

Stage of learning
themselves

Is it interesting? What might be

1. Be introduced to it: This is the
involved? How does this relate to what
introductory stage where students just
I already know and can do? How
start considering the topic or subject.
might it be of use to me?

2. Get to know it: An exploratory What exactly is involved? The detail?

stage which involves further What are the concepts? How do the
 18

Questions students might be asking

Stage of learning
themselves

investigation from learners about new concepts change the ones I

checking their understanding through already have? What is the scope and
different activities range? How is it applied? How do I
understand it?

3. Try it out: Here learners might try

Can I do it? Who is watching? Do I
out their new understanding, or skill
understand it? What am I
which might be applying it to new
doing/understanding correctly? How
situations (exercises, problems etc)
can I improve my
This stage helps them to identify gaps
performance/understanding?
in their knowledge.

What do my peers think? What does

4. Get feedback: The feedback could
my teacher think? Did my performance
be in various forms such as self, peers,
meet expectations? (whose?) Would
or the teacher, in formative or
my performance be acceptable in the
summative tasks.
real world? What do I think?

5. Reflect, adjust, and try

Do I trust the feedback I got? Does the
again: Take account of the feedback
feedback match my own evaluation?
and try it out again. Students may need
Do I need to learn more? Do I need to
to go back to the getting to know more
try again? What do I need to focus on?
stage.

You may want to consider a sixth or final stage – ‘Use it’. Once the learners have
acquired the knowledge and skills described in the learning outcomes the next stage will
likely involve using that knowledge and/or those skills. The learners are ready to
participate in workplace tasks and activities. If not practiced they may gradually lose the
knowledge and skills.
 19

A. Engagement:
Engagement is a time when the teacher is on center stage. The teacher poses the problem,
pre-assesses the students, helps students make connections, and informs students about
where they are heading.
The purpose of engagement is to:

• Focus students' attention on the topic.

• Pre-assess what students' prior knowledge.
• Inform the students about the lesson's objective(s).
• Remind students of what they already know that they will need to apply to
learning the topic at hand.
• Pose a problem for the students to explore in the next phase of the learning cycle.

Evaluation of Engagement: Evaluation's role in engagement revolves around the pre-

assessment. Find out what the students already know about the topic at hand. The teacher
could ask questions and have the students respond orally and/or in writing.
B. Exploration:
Now the students are at the center of the action as they collect data to solve the problem.
The teacher makes sure the students collect and organize their data in order to solve the
problem. The students need to be active. The purpose of exploration is to have students
collect data that they can use to solve the problem that was posed.
Evaluation of Exploration: In this portion of the learning cycle the evaluation should
primarily focus on process, i.e., on the students' data collection, rather than the product of
the students' data collection. Teachers ask themselves questions such as the following:

• How well are the students collecting data?

• Are they carrying out the procedures correctly?
• How do they record the data?
• Is it in a logical form or is it haphazard?

C. Explanation:
In this phase of the process, students use the data they have collected to solve the
problem and report what they did and try to figure out the answer to the problem that was
presented. The teacher also introduces new vocabulary, phrases or sentences to label what
the students have already figured out.
Evaluation of Explanation: Evaluation here focuses on the process the students are using
-- how well can students use the information they've collected, plus what they already
knew to come up with new ideas? Using questions, the teacher can assess the students'
comprehension of the new vocabulary and new concepts.
D. Elaboration:
The teacher gives students new information that extends what they have been learning in
the earlier parts of the learning cycle. At this stage the teacher also poses problems that
 20

students solve by applying what they have learned. The problems include both examples
and non-examples.
Evaluation of Elaboration: The evaluation that occurs during elaboration is what teachers
usually think of as evaluation. Sometimes teachers equate evaluation with "the test at the
end of the chapter." When teachers have the students do the application problems as part
of elaboration, these application problems are "the test."

Q.4 Develop criteria for writing higher order learning outcomes. Also describe
the role of taxonomy of educational objectives in writing learning outcomes.

Ans:

Writing Student Learning Outcomes

Student learning outcomes state what students are expected to know or be able to do upon
completion of a course or program. Course learning outcomes may contribute, or map to,
program learning outcomes, and are required in group instruction course syllabi.

At both the course and program level, student learning outcomes should be clear,
observable and measurable, and reflect what will be included in the course or program
requirements (assignments, exams, projects, etc.). Typically there are 3-7 course learning
outcomes and 3-7 program learning outcomes.

When submitting learning outcomes for course or program approvals, or assessment

planning and reporting, please:

• Begin with a verb (exclude any introductory text and the phrase “Students
will…”, as this is assumed)
• Limit the length of each learning outcome to 400 characters
• Exclude special characters (e.g., accents, umlats, ampersands, etc.)
• Exclude special formatting (e.g., bullets, dashes, numbering, etc.)

Steps for Writing Outcomes

The following are recommended steps for writing clear, observable and measurable
student learning outcomes. In general, use student-focused language, begin with action
verbs and ensure that the learning outcomes demonstrate actionable attributes.
 21

1. Begin with an Action Verb

Begin with an action verb that denotes the level of learning expected. Terms such
as know, understand, learn, appreciate are generally not specific enough to be
measurable. Levels of learning and associated verbs may include the following:

• Remembering and understanding: recall, identify, label, illustrate, summarize.

• Applying and analyzing: use, differentiate, organize, integrate, apply, solve,
analyze.
• Evaluating and creating: Monitor, test, judge, produce, revise, compose.

2. Follow with a Statement

• Statement – The statement should describe the knowledge and abilities to be

demonstrated. For example:
• Identify and summarize the important feature of major periods in the
history of western culture
• Apply important chemical concepts and principles to draw conclusions
about chemical reactions
• Demonstrate knowledge about the significance of current research in the
field of psychology by writing a research paper
• Length – Should be no more than 400 characters.

WHAT IS BLOOM’S TAXONOMY?

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is a hierarchical ordering of skills in

different domains whose primary use is to help teachers teach and students learn
effectively and efficiently. The meaning of Bloom’s taxonomy can be understood by
exploring its three learning domains—cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Each of
these domains further consists of a hierarchy that denotes different levels of learning.

The fact that each domain is hierarchical means that learners need to move through these
domains one step at a time. They cannot proceed to a new level without completing the
previous one. This is an important characteristic of Bloom’s taxonomy. It fits in with
Bloom’s taxonomy objectives in providing a systematic and gradual learning process.

HOW BLOOM’S TAXONOMY HELPS TEACHERS AND LEARNERS

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is meant to make learning easier and more
enjoyable both for teachers and learners. Here’s a list of ways in which Bloom’s
taxonomy objectives facilitate the process of learning for both stakeholders:

• Helps organize and collect information in a methodical manner

• Incentivizes teachers and learners to constantly upskill themselves

• Builds team spirit and promotes values that are required to work in a
collective environment
 22

• Through its hierarchies, it sets up a series of goals that learners can aspire to
achieve

• The multiple domains categorize different elements of learning allowing

teachers and learners to prioritize domains where they might be lacking
insight and information

• Involves both theoretical knowledge and practical applications so that the

learning process is as holistic as possible.

• Can be used to create a wide variety of assessments and assignments, both

personalized and uniform

• Can be used to simplify and complicate an activity in order to track learning

progress more accurately

• Can be used to create digital applications that can be customized based on a

learner’s specific needs

• Its flexible design means it can be easily updated or revised in the future,
taking into account the changing needs of teachers and learners

• The nature of its domains means that it can be applied to almost anything that
requires a stage-by-stage system of learning

THE THREE DOMAINS OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

Bloom’s taxonomy comprises three learning domains to understand different levels of

learning.

• COGNITIVE
The cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of learning tries to cater to Bloom’s
taxonomy objectives such as critical thinking, problem-solving and creating and
enhancing a knowledge base. This was the first domain created by Bloom’s original
team of researchers and includes hierarchies that are concerned with building new
knowledge as well as refining previously gathered information. The different levels
of the cognitive domain are as follows:

• REMEMBER:
Concerned with all kinds of memorization techniques and optimal use of
information acquired in the past. For example, remembering the names of all the
prime ministers of India

• UNDERSTAND:
Concerned with going into the depths of a concept or an idea in order to
comprehend it in multiple ways. For example, identifying the main challenges in
governance each prime minister had to deal with during their tenure
 23

•
APPLY:
Concerned with applying knowledge to produce something tangible. For
example, taking a political challenge from five decades ago and applying its
lessons to a similar issue in the present

• ANALYZE:
Concerned with examining and scrutinizing different aspects of what is being
learnt. For example, analyzing the personalities of different prime ministers and
how that affected their performance

• EVALUATE:
Concerned with detecting the motivations and intentions behind events,
processes and situations. For example, assessing why certain prime ministers
decided to go to war at certain junctures in history

• CREATE:
Concerned with building something that’s original and constructive. For
example, creating a list of qualities that any modern prime minister of India
should possess. This particular level was known as “Synthesis” in the original
model, but was later changed to acknowledge creativity as the highest form of
cognitive achievement in the revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy.

2. AFFECTIVE
The affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of learning helps to achieve Bloom’s
taxonomy objectives in relation to attitudes, values and interests of learners. Its
primary focus is to trace the evolution of values and how they develop across the
entire learning process. The different levels of the affective domain are as follows:

• RECEIVING:
Concerned with paying adequate attention to someone who’s presenting or
performing. For example, listening to a lecturer and writing a summary of that
lecture

• RESPONDING:
Concerned with producing a performance or a presentation to increase self-
confidence and technical skills. For example, delivering a lecture to an audience
on a specific subject
 24

•VALUING:
Concerned with expressing the values that one prioritizes in life and justifying
why they do so. For example, delivering a speech highlighting any three values
that one considers to be the most important for any professional

• ORGANIZATION:
Concerned with organizing a particular value system and comparing it with
other systems to better appreciate different settings and cultures. For example,
delivering a presentation that compares value systems as seen in government-
funded charities and non-governmental organizations

• CHARACTERIZATION:
Concerned with projecting one’s values in real time to be able to work
successfully in a team. For example, writing an essay as part of a team on how
value systems need to adapt to the world of online learning

3. PSYCHOMOTOR
The psychomotor domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of learning helps to realize Bloom’s
taxonomy of educational objectives such as physically accomplishing tasks and
performing various movements and skills. The different levels of the psychomotor
domain are as follows:

• REFLEX:
Concerned with an instinctive response to a physical stimulus. For example,
catching a tennis ball that’s thrown at learners or trying to hit a target with that
same tennis ball

• BASIC FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENTS:

Concerned with everyday actions or movements such as walking or running. For
example, participating in a relay race that tests one’s fitness, speed and
teamwork capabilities

• PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES:
Concerned with performing activities that integrate more than one sensory
perception. For example, playing a game of cricket that assesses one’s ability to
react to events as well as anticipate events before they occur
 25

• SKILLED MOVEMENTS:
Concerned with adapting oneself and one’s attributes to a challenging
environment. For example, playing a game of soccer or hockey at a location
with a high altitude where players are expected to conserve energy in order to
prevent heavy fatigue

• NON-DISCURSIVE COMMUNICATION:
Concerned with expressing oneself through purposeful movement and activity.
For example, playing any team sport that requires both active communication
with fellow players and a display of personal skills

Through this breakdown of each of the domains of Bloom’s taxonomy, it’s clear how the
taxonomy can cater to all kinds of learners and attempt to meet a vast collection of
learning requirements. While it isn’t necessary for learners to experience all three
domains, the cognitive domain is usually considered indispensable in any learning
process.

One of the most widely used ways of organizing levels of expertise is according to
Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. (Bloom et al., 1994; Gronlund, 1991;
Krathwohl et al., 1956.) Bloom's Taxonomy (Tables 1-3) uses a multi-tiered scale to
express the level of expertise required to achieve each measurable student outcome.
Organizing measurable student outcomes in this way will allow us to select appropriate
classroom assessment techniques for the course.

There are three taxonomies. Which of the three to use for a given measurable student
outcome depends upon the original goal to which the measurable student outcome is
connected. There are knowledge-based goals, skills-based goals, and affective goals
(affective: values, attitudes, and interests); accordingly, there is a taxonomy for each.
Within each taxonomy, levels of expertise are listed in order of increasing complexity.
Measurable student outcomes that require the higher levels of expertise will require more
sophisticated classroom assessment techniques.

The course goal in Figure 2--"student understands proper dental hygiene"--is an example
of a knowledge-based goal. It is knowledge-based because it requires that the student
learn certain facts and concepts. An example of a skills-based goal for this course might
be "student flosses teeth properly." This is a skills-based goal because it requires that the
student learn how to do something. Finally, an affective goal for this course might be
"student cares about proper oral hygiene." This is an affective goal because it requires
that the student's values, attitudes, or interests be affected by the course.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Knowledge-Based Goals

Example of
Level of
Description of Level Measurable
Expertise
Student Outcome
 26

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Knowledge-Based Goals

Example of
Level of
Description of Level Measurable
Expertise
Student Outcome

Recall, or recognition of terms, ideas, When is the first day

1. Knowledge
procedure, theories, etc. of Spring?

Translate, interpret, extrapolate, but not see What does the

2.
full implications or transfer to other summer solstice
Comprehension
situations, closer to literal translation. represent?

What would Earth's

Apply abstractions, general principles, or seasons be like in
3. Application
methods to specific concrete situations. specific regions with a
different axis tilt?

Separation of a complex idea into its

constituent parts and an understanding of
Why are seasons
organization and relationship between the
4. Analysis reversed in the
parts. Includes realizing the distinction
southern hemisphere?
between hypothesis and fact as well as
between relevant and extraneous variables.

Creative, mental construction of ideas and If the longest day of

concepts from multiple sources to form the year is in June,
5. Synthesis complex ideas into a new, integrated, and why is the northern
meaningful pattern subject to given hemisphere hottest in
constraints. August?

What would be the

To make a judgment of ideas or methods
important variables
using external evidence or self-selected
6. Evaluation for predicting seasons
criteria substantiated by observations or
on a newly discovered
informed rationalizations.
planet?

Q.5 Develop a lesson plan using demonstration method for teaching of any
biology concept.
 27

Ans:

Demonstration Method of Teaching Science

As is clear from name of the method that through this method, various scientific
procedures, processes and phenomenon are being shown to the students. This method
covers the drawback or limitations found in the lecture method in which much
importance was paid to the teacher.

This is the method in which both the teacher and students got the opportunity to put their
views and ideas. Through such opportunities, students feel a sense of belonging with the
teaching process. This method creates such kind of atmosphere in the classroom where
students got ample opportunities to get developed.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

It can be said that in demonstration method, teacher really performs the task of teaching.
Before the students, certain kind of experiments are conducted by the teacher. Students
observe it and ask various kind of questions concerning the experimental function
performed by teacher.

After observation, students are required to explain every step taken by the teacher
properly, as a result of which they feel a kind of compulsion to concentration their
attention solely on the experimental process conducted by the teacher. Teacher put
various kinds of questions regarding the function they observe. Thus a kind of discussion
is being held by the teacher in the classroom, in which all the students get the opportunity
to represent or to put forward their views and ideas.

This is an important method for science teaching as science is not only a theoretical
subject but have a considerable portion of practical work also. By carrying out the
successful demonstration activities in teaching process, a teacher can provide concrete
experiences to the students. Through this method, students get opportunities to play
active role in learning process, as a result of which their faculties of observation and
reasoning get exercised and developed properly.

Demonstration method can be used in science teaching for attaining number of purposes.
It can be used while beginning a new lesson or unit; as such demonstration when
prescribed for the first time to a group of students will stimulate interest and curiosity
among them.
 28

ADVERTISEMENTS:

This can also be used to represent various scientific methods and techniques. Through it,
students can learn to use and operate various scientific equipments. Through this method,
students can also be taught the procedures by which they can take accurate readings of
various equipments.

Teacher can taught the students the manner in which they can apply scientific concepts in
their daily life through this method. Various kinds of demonstrations can be done by the
teacher to show the activities by which they can sort out various kinds of scientific
problems.

Steps taken in Demonstration Method:

Some specific kinds of steps are being taken under demonstration method to impart
information of various scientific concepts and facts to the students. As this method is
used to maximum extent by science teachers, thus it is necessary to explain all the
necessary steps in length, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, necessary planning is made out. All the preparations are done which
are required for demonstration of the subject. While making plans and preparations, it is
necessary for the teacher to keep in mind the subject matter and the objectives he intends
to achieve.

Teacher should have thorough knowledge of the matter or the subject, for which he
should not hesitate from going through the text book of the class. Through such process,
his knowledge will get revive and he will find himself in a better condition to put relevant
information in front of the students effectively and properly.

An important step taken at this time is drawing up an appropriate kind of lesson plan, in
which proper place should be provided to list of principles which are to be explained to
students and list of experiments which are to be demonstrated to the students.

Through this, function of teacher will get a systematic form. Teacher should understand
this fact that nothing discourages a student more than a badly prepared lesson. Therefore,
each and every experiment should be rehearsed under the similar kind of conditions
which prevail at the time of demonstration. All the requisite for the demonstration work
can be collected by the teacher through such rehearsal function.
 29

It is very important that each and everything should be arranged in a proper way by
which it can be ensured that teacher will not find any kind of interruption and problem in
demonstration. Thus, in the first step, teacher prepares himself and all the necessary
things with the help of which he can conduct his function properly and without problem.

2. In the second step, teacher introduces the lesson to the students. It is important to first
motivate the students to learn the information, as without it, they cannot be prepared to
understand it. Teacher should introduce the lesson in a problematic manner to the
students by which students can understand the significance of topic properly. It is a fact
that if a teacher motivates the students successfully, then half of his work gets done.

Here it is important for the teacher to understand that the manner in which he begins a
lesson play an important role in defining the success with which he will carry out the
function of demonstration. Teacher should make use of all the information by which he
can perform this function enthusiastically and cheerfully. For this purpose, he can make
use of his personal experiences also. He can also narrate some interesting story to the
students, which is related with the present topic. He should realise the value of interesting
demonstration.

The intention of teacher should be to carry out such demonstration in the class by which
students get motivated to ask various kinds of questions and to get more information
regarding the topic through different sources. Teacher should not intend to begin the
demonstration in lively manner, but it is his duty to keep the atmosphere of class alive till
the time lesson does not get completed. Such experiments should be introduced by the
teacher at frequently intervals by which attention of the students get renewed through its
striking and shocking results.

3. After introducing the lesson, teacher then take all the steps by which subject matter can
be presented properly and effectively. While doing this, teacher should keep in mind that
lesson should not consist of dry bones of an academic course, but it is important to
include some excited contents in the subject. Teacher should perform his function on
broad basis.

Actual lesson can be related to certain specific topic, but teacher can treat it in a narrow
sense. He can also widen the scope of this function by introducing various experiences,
tales and audio visual aids. An important feature of able teacher is that he will consider
his lesson incomplete till he does not discuss with the students the many and varied
illustrations and applications of scientific principles in the daily life.
 30

Teacher should be so able to take illustrations of various branches of the science, as

through it, he can keep the information in front of students effectively and precisely.
Students should be encouraged with every possible measure by the teacher to sort out
various problems which they confront in getting information of various scientific
concepts and facts.

While performing his function, teacher should make use of well thought and judicious
kind of questions. Questions should be asked in a well arranged manner. Teacher should
aim at providing maximum possible information regarding the concept to the students.
He should not try to hide any information from the students.

Teacher should perform his function in such a way that a desire gets developed or arise
among the students to know those facts which they do not know. Without proper
delivering the lesson, no teacher can perform his function successfully.

While delivering the lesson or important information, teacher should keep pitch of the
voice to uniform pattern. He should speak at a slow speed with which every student can
understand what he is saying. Not only this, he should make use of simple language and
correct pronunciation should be delivered by him.

Teacher should know the art of making use of voice in effective manner. He should
manipulate his tongue in such a way that a pleasant kind of voice get arise from him by
which students do not get bore at any time. Student should understand this fact that he
will keep on talking continuously than a monotonous atmosphere will get developed in
the classroom, for which he should give proper opportunities to the students also to speak
and to put their views forward.

The function of narration of experience should be performed by teacher in such a way

that students feel that they are listening some story or experience from their friend. It is
only through such kind of friendly atmosphere that teaching process can be done in
effective manner.

4. In the fourth step, teacher performs the experiment in front of students. He should put
work at the demonstration table in effective way as students consider this work as model
for them. In the practical class, unsatisfactory result will develop if the demonstration
will be made in unclear and untidy manner.

Experimentation work should be performed with utmost care and results should be
written down in clear and striking form. No illicit means should be employed by the
 31

teacher to carry out the experiment. He should encourage the students from time to time
by which their level of confidence gets increased.

Experimentation work should be conducted in simple and speedy manner. It becomes

difficult for the teacher to achieve purposes of demonstration if duration of time is long
and use of complicated apparatus is being made out. Throughout the lesson, proper
consideration should be paid to the fact that experimentation work should be well spaced.
Teacher should not try to finish experiments speedily or in short period of time.

Teacher should try to keep the number of experiments minimum as large number of
experiments can make the topic unclear. Provision of extra apparatus should be kept near
the demonstration table as much of time can be saved through this. The manner in which
apparatus are to be arranged should be conducted in a proper sequence.

5. In demonstration lesson, chalk board is a very useful aid. This apparatus is used for
wring important results and principles in summarized form. Not only this, it is on the
black board that teacher draws various sketches and diagrams. Black board is very
important for a teacher because of which sometimes experts consider it to be an index of
a teacher’s ability.

Teacher should know the art of writing on the black board. Writing should be done on a
very neat and systematic manner. Proper spacing should be left in between the letters and
words, as it makes the written matter more attractive. Teacher should begin to write from
left hand corner of the board. He should not begin second line until fine has got extended
across the chalk board.

All the signs used in science should be written at same place in the similar way. Teacher
should know the art of making proper utilisation of available space of the black board.
While drawing diagrams, it is necessary for the teacher to mention the names of every
part of them so that students can understand them properly and thoroughly.

6. If students do not copy the information written by teacher on the blackboard in their
note books, then the demonstration lesson will remain incomplete. Record of such
information will help for the future reference.

Teacher should ask the students to note down the information written by him on the black
board in their note books by which they can refer to it in the future also. It is duty of the
teacher to ensure that all the students are copying matter from the black board properly,
for which he should frequently go to the seats of individual students.
 32

Before discussing about the merits and demerits of this method, it is first important to
mention the features which make a demonstration to be successful. The main features of
a good demonstration are as follows:-

i. A good demonstration should be displayed to the students from such a place from
where all of the students present in the class can view it properly. For this purpose,
demonstration table should be arranged at appropriate height.

ii. There should be proper provision of lighting and ventilation in the classroom by which
comfortable kind of atmosphere can be developed by the teacher, as in such kind of
atmosphere, learning process takes place at higher speed or pace.

iii. Teacher should not make use of very complex apparatus. Not only this, size of used
apparatus should be large enough so that all the students can view them properly.

iv. Topics should be demonstrated at proper pace by the teacher, otherwise, students will
find it difficult to follow the demonstrations properly.

v. To make students aware of the objectives of the demonstration, teacher must give due
consideration to the major points in the demonstration.

vi. For recording the data, students should be provided with ample time.

When to Use:
This method can be used by the teacher when the number of students is large in the
classroom and number of apparatus available in the institution is also insufficient. This
method can prove to be one of the best methods for teaching science to students of
secondary classes.

However, this method is not a preferred method of teaching by a teacher in the context of
the prescribed syllabus which has to be covered by a teacher in limited period of time.

Lesson Plan on Photosynthesis

How do plants get energy?

Instructional goals:

Students will be able to:

1. Describe the phenomena of transpiration, photosynthesis and cellular

respiration
 33

2. Illustrate the relationship between light and photosynthesis (i.e., you need
light source for plants to grow; more light more photosynthesis)
3. Illustrate the relationship between carbon dioxide and photosynthesis
4. Gather evidence of inputs and outputs of photosynthesis

Grade level: Grade 7, 8

Duration: 50-150 minutes depending on activities chosen (3-4 periods of 75 minutes)

Instructional Materials: Whiteboard (or smart board, black board) for creating public
record for students’ thinking. For the materials needed for specific activities, please see
below:

Activity #1: An Oxygen Factory

• Plants (both aquatic and terrestrial plants)

• Plastic bag or plastic wrap

• Terrarium or 2L plastic bottle

• Flask

• 500ml or 1L beaker

• Water

• Desk Lamp
Activity #2: Light! Light! (Optional)

• Any submersed aquatic plant that is in good health and appears capable of
photosynthetic activity (i.e., not dried or wilted). (e.g., Canadian waterweed
(Elodea canadensis) or coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum)) – you can buy
waterweed from any pet store where they sell fish/aquarium supplies

• Glass test tubes (20 × 150 mm)

• Racks to hold test tubes

• A light source (e.g., desk lamp)

• Large to medium sized drinking straws

• Thermometer
Activity #3: More Carbon Dioxide (Optional)

• Elodea, an aquatic plant available at many pet or gardening stores

 34

• Bromothymol blue solution (acid-base indicator available for purchase

online. Yellow pH less than 6.0, blue pH above 7.6)

• Lights with clamp attachment

• Test tubes (one for each color and two additional as controls)

• Plastic wrap

• Aluminum foil
Worksheet: Please see appendices.

QEP POLs for secondary cycle 1 relevant to the concept of photosynthesis:

Elementary school:

Students explain the essential needs of living organisms (e.g. food, respiration)
and describe metabolic activity (transformation of energy, growth, maintenance
of systems and body temperature). They describe the function of photosynthesis,
which they distinguish from respiration.

Secondary cycle 1:

Names the inputs and outputs involved in photosynthesis.

Names the inputs and outputs involved in respiration.

Children’s preconceptions relevant to the concept of photosynthesis:

• There is no difference between respiration and breathing.

• The main component of air is oxygen.

• There is no oxygen in exhaled air.

• Lighting a candle in a sealed jar with water proves that air is 21% oxygen
(the water moves up the jar because the 21 % oxygen is consumed).

• All essential components for plants are absorbed from the soil via rots.

• Roots supply plants with energy.

• The sun keeps plants warm, and so they grow better.

• Plants breath. They inhale carbon dioxide, and they exhale oxygen.

• Plants get energy directly from the sun.

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Description of the Lesson:

The goal of this lesson is for students to (1) engage in experiments that enable students to
gather evidence of inputs and outputs of photosynthesis, (2) understand the relationship
between light and photosynthesis, and (3) understand the relationship between carbon
dioxide and photosynthesis. This lesson plan includes the following steps:

Step 1: Introduction – Engage Students in Learning: In this step, teacher introduces the
driving question of this lesson: “Plants need energy to stay alive and grow. How do you
think plants get energy?”

Step 2: Background Knowledge Probes (BKPs): In this step, teacher use the assessments
listed above to elicit students’ prior understanding and ideas of photosynthesis.

Step 3: Collecting and Making Sense of Data: In this step, teacher will conduct the
Activity #1 – An Oxygen Factory. Teachers will then choose one of the option activities
(i.e., Activity Option #2 – Light! Light! or Activity Option #3 – Role of Carbon Dioxide
and Light) to provide students with more evidences for the upcoming discussion at the
end of the lesson. While students are engaging in these activities, teacher can ask
discussion questions to track students’ understanding of the concept. Students are also
invited to record their observation on the worksheet given.

Step 4: Developing Evidence-Based Explanations: Following the activities, teacher

engages in this step by inviting students to share their data with other groups and the
whole class. Teacher may also post summary data on a class summary chart on the board.

Step 5: Evaluation: Teacher can assess students’ learning outcomes by choosing one of
the post-assessment strategies: (1) Question and Answer/Exit Cards; (2) Create a
multimedia poster; (3) Using the assessment questions listed above.