676

676
PARTIAL DISCHARGES
IN TRANSFORMERS
WORKING GROUP
D1.29
FEBRUARY 2017
PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN
TRANSFORMERS
WG D1.29
Members
J. Fuhr, Convenor CH
S. Markalous, Secretary DE
S. Coenen DE
M. Haessig CH
M. Judd GB
A. Kraetge DE
M. Krueger AT
R. Lebreton FR
E. Lemke DE
S. Okabe JP
R. Schwarz AT
U. Sundermann DE
S. Tenbohlen DE
P. Werle DE
Copyright © 2017
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Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-379-8

“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN TRANSFORMERS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Members of the CIGRE working group D1.29 express their sincere thanks to colleagues and friends for
contributions and assistance in carrying out and finishing this work: Thomas Aschwanden (CH), Andrea
Cavallini (IT), Pascal Fehlmann (CH), Thomas Heizmann (CH), Jacko Koen (ZA), Lars Lundgaard (NE),
Volker Schmidt (DE), Thomas Steiner (DE).
In particular, the convenor and the working group wish to thank Joe Tusek (AU) for proofreading the
final version and for valuable comments that make this TB more understandable to a wide community
of PD interested engineers.
ISBN : 978-2-85873-379-8
PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN
TRANSFORMERS
EXCUTIVE SUMMARY
PD measurements on transformers ........................................................................................ 6
Interpretation and evaluation of PD results ............................................................................. 6
Localization ........................................................................................................................... 7
Procedure for solution of PD problems ................................................................................... 7
Step 1: Analysis of PD pattern and “calibration” ..................................................................... 9
Step 2: Position of acoustic and UHF probes ....................................................................... 10
Step 3: Simulation of the PD source .................................................................................... 11
Keywords............................................................................................................................. 11
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 12
2 PARTIAL DISCHARGE DETECTION SYSTEMS FOR TRANSFORMERS ....................... 13

2.1 Measuring system for detection of electric signals ........................................................ 13
Conventional PD measuring system..................................................................................... 13
Phase resolved PD data processing system ......................................................................... 15
2.2 Non-standard electrical PD signal detection systems .................................................... 18
2.3 System for detection of acoustic sound waves .............................................................. 20
2.4 System for detection of UHF signals ............................................................................. 22
2.5 System for detection of chemical reactions-decomposition of insulating materials ......... 24
3 COMMON TYPES OF PD SOURCES IN TRANSFORMER INSULATION ........................ 25

3.1 Typical PD patterns ...................................................................................................... 25
PD pattern type 1 ................................................................................................................ 26
PD pattern type 2 ................................................................................................................ 26
PD pattern type 3 ................................................................................................................ 27
PD pattern type 4 ................................................................................................................ 27
PD pattern type 5 ................................................................................................................ 28
PD pattern type 6 ................................................................................................................ 29
3.2 Origin of PD sources in the electrical insulation system of transformers ........................ 29
PD sources due to inhomogenity in materials ....................................................................... 31
PD sources due to the design .............................................................................................. 32
PD sources due to the manufacturing process ..................................................................... 32
PD sources due to components ........................................................................................... 34
PD sources due to acceptance test procedure ..................................................................... 34
PD sources due to final assembly on-site ............................................................................. 34
PD sources due to operation ................................................................................................ 34
4 PD SIGNALS IN TRANSFORMER ELECTRICAL INSULATION SYSTEMS ..................... 36

4.1 Principles of detection and quantification of electrical PD signals .................................. 36
Electrical PD signal measurable at bushings ........................................................................ 36
Measurement of apparent charge ........................................................................................ 36
Error due to integration of PD pulses.................................................................................... 40
Error due to calibration......................................................................................................... 41
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PD pattern ........................................................................................................................... 42
Attenuation of electric PD signals within a transformer ......................................................... 43
Limitations of electric PD signal detection within a transformer ............................................. 47
4.2 Principles of propagation, detection and quantification of acoustic PD signals............... 47
Propagation of acoustic PD signals within a transformer....................................................... 48
Attenuation of acoustic PD signals within a transformer........................................................ 50
Limitation of acoustic PD signal detection within a transformer ............................................. 51
4.3 Principles of propagation, detection and quantification of UHF signals ......................... 51
Propagation of UHF signals ................................................................................................. 51
Attenuation of UHF signals .................................................................................................. 53
Attenuation due the transformer tank ................................................................................... 55
Attenuation due to Windings ................................................................................................ 55
Limitation of UHF signals ..................................................................................................... 57
4.4 Principles of PD localization in transformers ................................................................. 57
PD source localization using electric signals ........................................................................ 57
PD signals in frequency domain ........................................................................................... 58
PD signals in time domain.................................................................................................... 59
PD source localization using acoustic PD signals ................................................................. 60
Mathematical formulation of acoustic PD location ................................................................. 61
Acoustic methods “Time Differences Approach” ................................................................... 62
Acoustic methods “Pseudo-Time Approach”......................................................................... 63
PD source localization using UHF PD signals....................................................................... 64
Mathematical formulation of UHF method for PD location ..................................................... 65
5 PD MEASUREMENTS ON TRANSFORMERS IN A HV LABORATORY .......................... 70

5.1 Testing procedure ........................................................................................................ 70
5.2 Test circuit for PD measurements on transformers........................................................ 70
5.3 Permissible values of apparent charge ......................................................................... 71
IEC Standard ....................................................................................................................... 71
IEEE Standard ..................................................................................................................... 72
Multi Terminal Calibration according to IEC 60270 ............................................................... 72
Deficiencies of the test circuit ............................................................................................... 73
5.4 PD source investigation ................................................................................................ 75
Characterisation of the transformer under test ...................................................................... 77
Localisation by using acoustic and UHF signals ................................................................... 82
5.5 Recommended procedure for successful solution of PD problems ................................ 83
Step 1.1 .............................................................................................................................. 83
Step 1.2 .............................................................................................................................. 84
Step 1.3 .............................................................................................................................. 85
Step 1.4 .............................................................................................................................. 85
Step 2 ................................................................................................................................. 85
Step 3 ................................................................................................................................. 86
6 PD MEASUREMENTS ON-SITE ....................................................................................... 87

6.1 Excitation of the transformer on-site ............................................................................. 87
6.2 PD measuring system for on-site .................................................................................. 88
6.3 PD test ......................................................................................................................... 89
6.4 Suppression of electromagnetic interference ................................................................ 90
Measuring circuit.................................................................................................................. 90
Measuring procedure ........................................................................................................... 91
Analysing software ............................................................................................................... 92
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7 RISK ASSESSMENT BASED ON PD MEASUREMENT ................................................... 94

7.1 Possible criteria for evaluation of the severity of PD sources......................................... 94
Dangerous PD sources ........................................................................................................ 94
Less dangerous PD sources ................................................................................................ 98
Limits in identification of dangerous PD sources ................................................................... 98
7.2 PD monitoring system for transformers ......................................................................... 99
8 CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................. 102
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES .................................................................................... 103
10 ANNEXES .................................................................................................................... 111

10.1 Recorded variations of PD pattern ........................................................................... 111
Tip electrode at the ground potential .................................................................................. 111
Floating conducing particle inside insulating material.......................................................... 112
Floating conducting particle on the surface of the insulating material .................................. 113
Floating conducting particle on the surface of the insulating material .................................. 114
Void with the contact to the electrode ................................................................................. 115
Floating void inside the insulating material ......................................................................... 116
Floating void inside the insulating material ......................................................................... 117
Floating void with interaction at the surface of the insulating material ................................. 118
Floating voids in the glued insulating plates........................................................................ 119
Floating voids in different glue materials............................................................................. 120
Floating voids inside insulating materials............................................................................ 122
Carbonized tracks on the surface of the insulating material ................................................ 123
Bad contact of shielding electrodes .................................................................................... 124
10.2 Case Studies ........................................................................................................... 125
Case 1: Electrical and acoustic method ............................................................................. 125
Case 2: Electrical and acoustic Method ............................................................................. 128
Case 3: Acoustic method ................................................................................................... 129
Case 4: Acoustic method ................................................................................................... 131
Case 5: Electrical and acoustic method ............................................................................. 133
Case 6: Electrical and UHF method ................................................................................... 135
Case 7: Acoustic and UHF method .................................................................................... 138
Case 8: Acoustic and UHF method .................................................................................... 141
Case 9: UHF method ......................................................................................................... 148
Case 10: UHF method ....................................................................................................... 150
Case 11: UHF method ....................................................................................................... 152
Case 12: Advanced PD system ......................................................................................... 154
Case 13: Advanced PD system .........................................................................................156
Case 14: Advanced PD system .........................................................................................158
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report summarises the main developments in PD measurements on transformers during the last 10 years,
covering equipment and tests in laboratories as well as on-site. There is also a detailed discussion of a possible
procedure for the successful location of PD within a transformer.
The unambiguous identification of dangerous PD sources in the electrical insulation system of transformers
remains a topic for further research.
PD MEASUREMENTS ON TRANSFORMERS
Partial Discharges (PD) are partial electrical breakdowns in weak regions of an electrical insulation system.
Generally, there are two different types of partial discharges in all electrical equipment [IEC-1999, Duval-2001]:
- PD of the corona type. In the transformer insulation system these occur in gas bubbles in oil where
gas is ionized in cold plasma of low (ambient) temperature, which will produce mostly Hydrogen (H 2)
together with some Methane (CH4) and will not damage or carbonize paper insulation. PD of the corona
type is also used to describe discharges into air or gas at the terminals of the transformer under test (if
shielding electrodes are not used).
- PD of the sparking type occurring in the liquid (oil) or solid (paper) phase. Such PD are small arcs
according to the conventions of physics their temperature is very high (> 3000 °C). They produce mostly
(C2H2) and Hydrogen (H2) and will damage the paper insulation (carbonized pinholes, tracking) and the
oil (decomposition of the oil, dissolved gas in oil).
Accordingly, the continuous presence of PD activity in the solid insulation of the transformer involves a
deterioration of surrounding materials and may in the long term lead to a total breakdown of the electrical
insulation system.
PD measurements on transformers include both: I) off-line testing in the laboratory, used as a basis for quality
assurance and acceptance testing (Factory Acceptance Test: FAT) to reveal contamination, manufacturing
errors or incorrect design, and II) on-site PD diagnostic measurements (off-line or on-line, Site Acceptance
Tests: SAT), or on-line monitoring on new or service aged transformers, where it can serve as a condition
assessment tool. In this Technical Brochure (TB), the interpretation and localisation methods as well as the
suggested procedure for solution of PD problems in transformers are valid for both FAT and SAT. The content
of the TB is based on experience from PD measurements on transformers filled with mineral oil. The same
procedures are expected to be applicable to transformers filled with new alternative insulating liquids.
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF PD RESULTS

In the past, simple PD patterns (see Figure 1a) representing the superposition of the applied voltage with fast
PD pulses collected during one cycle (two channel oscilloscope) were measured. However, in the last 20 years,
the Phase Resolving Partial Discharge Analyser (PRPDA) has increasingly been used to record PD patterns
(PRPD pattern, see Figure 1b).
These patterns display PD pulses (pC values in the calibrated test circuit) measured during a pre-set acquisition
time (recommended time: 1 minute). The PRPD pattern can be displayed in a three dimensional graph (see
Figure 1b), where the amplitude of the apparent charge (vertical axis), the phase position (horizontal axis) and
the number of counts (colour) are visible.
PRPD patterns deliver information about physical processes occurring during the PD in a weak region of the
electrical insulation system. The fundamental aspects of PD initiation and the characteristic PD signatures (PD
pattern) as recorded in the laboratory in models of the insulation system of transformers are described in
[CIGRE-2000]. In this document, it was shown that typical PD patterns exist that are representative for all
electrical insulation systems. These PD patterns can be used as a basis for identification of the type of PD
source detected during dielectric tests on transformers (see Typical PD pattern). For the interpretation of PD
results and judgement of the PD severity in an electrical insulation system, the recording of PRPD patterns has
Page 6
a significant advantage when compared to the conventional measurement of the magnitude of apparent charge
(e.g. in pC).
amplitude in mV
amplitude in pC
time phase
a) simple PD pattern [Tettex-1987] b) PRPD pattern [Carlson-2010]
Figure 1: Typical PD results
In the case of several different PD sources existing in the same electrical insulation system, the identification of
the correct type of PD source is more difficult due to superimposed PD signal clusters. This circumstance may
require a combination of methods such as different HV tests (single phase tests, applied voltage etc.), new
analysing tools (e.g. relating measured PD amplitudes from 3 synchronously measured PD-detectors see
section PD pattern) or combined measurements of electric, electromagnetic and acoustic PD quantities to
distinguish between different PD sources. The objective being to separate PD pulse data coming from different
sources, such that each localised PD activity can be displayed as an individual pattern for reliable interpretation.
LOCALIZATION
Beside the measured intensity of a PD activity (pC) and the identification of the type of the PD source (PD
pattern), the PD source localisation is an essential step towards risk assessment and judgement of the severity
of a PD source.
Before opening the transformer for repair, a reliable localisation of the PD source using the best available
methods should be applied. Beside the established measurement of acoustic PD signals (see PD source
localization using acoustic PD signals) the localisation using the detection of UHF PD signals in combination
with acoustic PD signals or exclusively using UHF PD signals in oil insulated systems is advantageous (see PD
source localization using UHF PD signals). These new methods have been successfully applied to solve
several PD problems as reported in the Annex. Finally, if no acoustic signals are detectable, the analysis of
electric PD signals in the time and frequency domain, recorded at measuring taps of bushings is an alternative
method to localise PD sources hidden in the electrical insulation system of oil filled power transformers (see PD
source localization using electric signals).
PROCEDURE FOR SOLUTION OF PD PROBLEMS

Based on discussions in WG D1.29, an investigation procedure (containing a number of steps) was established
for measurements in HV laboratories and on-site to assess PD problems. A detailed description of this
procedure is given in chapter 5.5. Recommended procedure for successful solution of PD problems.
The calibration procedure in Step 1 of the procedure should be considered as a characterisation of the
transformer under test. Both the calibration coupling matrix (pC values) and the transfer function coupling matrix
are only valid for a PD source located close to the terminal where the calibrating signal was injected. For PD
sources that are located deep in the electrical insulation system, those coupling matrices are not applicable.
Page 7
Therefore, the amplitude of the apparent charge is not always a meaningful criterion in determining whether the
detected PD source is harmful to the electrical insulation system of the transformer (see Measurement of
apparent charge).
The analysis of results from Step 1 usually reveals the type of the PD source (via the PD pattern) and possible
locations (via analysis of PD signals in time and frequency domain). In connection with information about the
design of the transformer under test, suitable positions for placing acoustic sensors or UHF probes can be
defined (Step 2). If possible, UHF probes (UHF sensors) should also be introduced into the tank of the
transformer (for example using an oil valve, see Non-standard electrical PD signal detection systems).
The in depth analysis of all recorded data in Step 2 reveals the location of the PD source or defines the next
steps in the investigation, such as the application of a single phase test or an applied voltage test to get more
information about the electrical field at the location of the PD source.
The shape of the PD pattern generated by electrical, acoustic and UHF signals should be similar if all recorded
PD signals belong to the same PD source. This is not valid for a strongly asymmetrical PD pattern. In the case,
where the localisation of the PD source using the analysis of acoustic PD signals and/or UHF signals is not
successful, there is the possibility of localizing the PD source directly in the active part (transformer without oil)
by injecting calibrating signals at locations suggested by results of previous investigations (see Step 3).
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STEP 1: ANALYSIS OF PD PATTERN AND “CALIBRATION”
PD pattern [Fuhr-PD test]

Analyse the PD pattern recorded at bushings (according to
IEC 60270) during three phase induced voltage test and
confirm that the detected PD activity is inside the electrical
insulation system.
U V W Coupling matrix
U 100% 25% 17% The calibration PD coupling matrix is used to define coupling
V 47% 100% 54% at each terminal, where a calibrated pulse generator is
connected to the terminal with the highest pC value recorded
W 18% 30% 100%
in previous PD tests.
time 15.00 15:01 15:02
PD measurements using wide band PD sensors (up to 30 MHz) at all accessible bushings of the transformer
(HV side, LV side, neutral terminal, grounding of the core and press plate).
PD signal in time domain [Fuhr-PD test]

Coupling matrix signals in the time domain are a response to
the RLCM network of the transformer to the calibrating signal
HV injected at the terminal where the highest PD values were
detected (characterization of the transformer under test).
LV
PD signal in frequency domain [Fuhr-PD test]

Coupling matrix of signals in the frequency domain as a
response to the RLCM network of the transformer to the
HV calibrating signal injected at the terminal where the highest
PD values were detected (characterization of the
transformer).
LV
Recording of the PD pattern and the real PD signals in the time and frequency domain under the same testing
conditions at all bushing (where PD signals are available).
In depth analysis of all recorded data and comparison with the characteristic values of the transformer
(calibration coupling matrix, transfer function coupling matrix).
Page 9
STEP 2: POSITION OF ACOUSTIC AND UHF PROBES
Acoustic sensors [OMICRON]
Analysis of recorded acoustic signals using software (3D

model of the transformer) [Kraetge-2010]
UHF probe [OMICRON, Judd-2005]
Analysis of recorded UHF signals [Appendix-case 8]
Recording of all data described in STEP 1 with simultaneous detection of acoustic and UHF PD signals.
Page 10
STEP 3: SIMULATION OF THE PD SOURCE
Injection of calibrating signals at locations on the active

part of the transformer insulation at assumed PD source
locations. Measurement of responses at bushings, or at
leads of windings connected to external coupling
capacitance.
Comparison of PD signals in the time and frequency

domain recorded during the test with responses of the
active part (RLCM network) to excitation by the calibrating
signal at assumed PD source locations.
[Fuhr-PD test]
Measured PD signal [Fuhr-PD test] Calibrating signal [Fuhr-PD test]
The location of the real PD source is where the responses to the calibrating signal, as applied to the insulation, deliver
the closest match to measured signals in the time and frequency domain (see case studies in Annex).
KEYWORDS
Power transformer, partial discharge (PD), partial discharge sensors, partial discharge systems, partial
discharge signals, time domain partial discharge analysis, frequency domain partial discharge analysis,
apparent charge, acoustic partial discharge signals, UHF partial discharge detection, partial discharge defect
types, analysis of partial discharge pattern, localisation of partial discharge sources, on-site partial discharge
measurements, criteria for dangerous partial discharge sources, partial discharge risk assessment.
Page 11
1 Introduction
Large power transformers are amongst the most expensive and strategically important components of any
power generation and transmission system. Reliable operation of transformers is strongly dependent on the
ability of the insulation system to withstand permanent electrical stress without damage during the expected life
of typically more than 40 years. During service, the transformer’s insulation system is continuously aging,
primarily through a combination of electrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical stresses. As a result of this
"normal" aging process, weak regions with decreased dielectric strength are generated and randomly distributed
in the insulation system. Weak regions with decreased dielectric strength are potential sources of permanent
partial discharge (PD) activity which in the long run can be harmful to the safe operation of any HV component.
For this reason, partial discharge measurement is an important tool in establishing the actual condition of all HV
electrical insulation systems. PD measurement is one of the few non-destructive methods, able to detect local
defects (PD sources) in complex electrical insulation systems, such as those in power transformers. The
theoretical background, the definition of the PD measurement test circuit and the acceptance criteria based on
the amplitude of the apparent charge in pC or μV are well established and described in various standards (IEC
60076-3, IEC 60270, IEEE C57) and in the numerous publications [Schon-1986, Tettex-1994, König-1993,
Kreuger-1992, Kuffel-2000, Hauschild-2014].
There are two generic classifications of PD measurement scenarios:
Group I) Laboratory PD measurements at a transformer manufacturer’s facility where PD measurements are

carried out for quality assurance to reveal contamination, manufacturing errors or incorrect design. Here the
transformer manufacturer seeks to find the technical reasons for PD generation in their products and
subsequently minimize the likelihood and influences of PD in their products; through type tests and routine tests
before consignment to their customers (Factory Acceptance Tests).
Group II) are on-site PD diagnostic measurements or monitoring on new or service aged equipment where PD
measurements can be conducted either off-line or on-line. Typical applications of on-site PD measurements are
for commissioning of new equipment or after repair at site, or for diagnostic purposes as part of an asset
management program. Consequent application of new diagnostic methods in site acceptance tests might
comprise: shift from a time to a condition based maintenance strategy; early recognition of insulation
degradation; detection of incipient faults; reduction of the cost of outages and unplanned apparatus repairs or
replacement; staff safety and the reduction of risk to the environment; identifying bad workmanship after final
assembly; fleet characterisation; optimization of investment decisions; etc.
On-site in-service PD source detection has historically involved mainly dissolved gas analysis (DGA) based on
oil samples taken periodically from the transformer tank, with hydrogen used as a key indicator for PD activity in
the active part of a transformer. DGA results in an indirect PD measurement, being slower to identify a rapidly
evolving PD and usually unable to localise the PD for additional risk assessment. From experience with DGA a
minimum amount of gas formation is necessary to declare a PD activity to be significant [Duval-2001]. On the
other hand, there are several practical examples where no increase of combustible gases was recorded despite
a PD source being detected by electric and acoustic methods and confirmed through disassembling the
transformer. Therefore, electric, acoustic and electro-magnetic PD pulse based measurements are of a more
instantaneous and direct nature. These can successfully be used for in-depth analysis of PD activity and the
assessment of the severity and threat posed by the PD to the safe operation of a transformer.
The goal of the work of WG1.29 was to summarize the progress in PD measurements on transformers taking a
wide view. Both the application of different measuring systems and different measurement principles, as well as
the analysing software are described. A number of practical case studies are show in the Annex, where for the
successful solution of PD problems the testers have to go beyond the requirements specified in the IEC and
IEEE Standards. Generally, the investigation procedure must be adapted to the behaviour of the PD source.
Finally, an attempt has been made to define possible criteria for distinguishing between dangerous and less
dangerous PD sources in the oil impregnated electrical insulation of power transformers. This topic is of such
importance that it will likely be the subject of further research and development in the field of transformer PD
defect analysis.
Page 12
2 Partial Discharge Detection Systems for Transformers

Partial discharge is an electrical breakdown in a weak region in the electrical insulation system where the local
electrical field exceeds the dielectric strength of the specific material.
An overview about physical effects of the permanent PD activity is shown in Figure 2.1.
Physical effects of partial discharge
Optical effects
Chemical effects
(Light)
Heat Partial discharge High frequency wave
Pressure wave
Electrical signal
(Sound)
Two basic kinds of detection
Electrical chemical
Non acoustical
acoustic optical
- Conventional measuring method (IEC 60270) electrical
narrow-band, limited wide-band, wide-band methods
- HF - Measuring technique (proof
- UHF - Measuring technique procedures)
Figure 2.1 : Overview about physical effects of the PD [Schwarz-Siemens]
At the source, the local electrical breakdown (PD) generates a fast current impulse with short rise and fall times
(usually in the range between ns-µs, depending on the insulating medium). This fast current impulse is damped
and dispersed by the active part of the transformer. Hence the pulse measured at the bushings of the
transformer is not the original fast current pulse.
In the electrical insulation system of HV components the following measurable physical signs occur as a
consequence of the fast current impulse (PD) in a weak region:
- Electric signals are measurable at bushings of the transformer.

- Electro-magnetic transient waves (up to GHz range) are measurable via antennas.
- Acoustic sound waves are measurable via acoustic sensors on the tank of the transformer.
- Decomposition of the insulating material (oil and cellulose) is detectable by analysis of oil samples.
2.1 Measuri ng system for detection of electric signals
CONVENTIONAL PD MEASURING SYSTEM

All PD systems based on measurement of electric signals are detecting the circulating PD current impulses i(t)
in the parallel-connected capacitors Ck and Ct via measuring impedance Zm (see Figure 2.2). In Figure 2.2a
coupling capacitance is the capacitive bushing with Ck = C1 and Cm parallel connected to the measuring
impedance Zm. The measuring impedance Zm is either that of the RLC circuit (frequency range up to 10 MHz)
or, alternatively a high frequency current transformer (HFCT, frequency range up to 30 MHz).
Page 13
If the capacitive bushing is not available (old transformers or LV bushings), an external coupling capacitance is
connected parallel to the bushing (see Figure 2.2b).
In Standards (IEC, IEEE) the measurement of apparent charge q is the required parameter. The amplitude of
apparent charge measured in pC or in µV is the integral of the PD current impulse detectable at bushings of the
transformer. The integration of PD current impulses can be performed either in the time domain (digital
oscilloscope) or in the frequency domain (quasi integration with a band pass filter). Most PD systems available
on the market according to IEC 60270 are using two different band pass filters [IEC, 2000-2].
- wide band (bandwidth 900kHz, upper frequency:1MHz)

- narrow band (∆f: 9kHz up to 30kHz, centre frequency: 50kHz ≤ 1MHz)
A detailed description and theory of the principle of the quasi integration using band pass filters is described in
numerous papers [Tettex-1994, Schon-1986].
Ck
Z
PDS
Z Ck
C1 Cm Zm
PDS
U}
Ct
Zm
U}
Ct
a) coupling capacitance Ck is the bushing b) external coupling capacitance Ck
U = test voltage, Z = impedance of the connection of the test voltage to the transformer under test, C 1 = capacitance of
the bushing, Ct = capacitance of the test object, Cm = capacitance of the measuring tap, Ck = coupling capacitance,
Zm = measuring impedance, PDS = measuring system
Figure 2.2 : Test circuit arrangement for electrical PD measuring system on transformers [IEC-2000-1]
The sensitivity of the common PD circuit is dependent on the value of the coupling capacitance Ck (Figure 2.3).
For Ck = Ct the measurable charge qm corresponds to 0.5 q. With the decreasing value of the coupling
capacitance (Ck < Ct) the sensitivity is approaching zero. In the test circuit for PD measurements on
transformers the coupling capacitance Ck is defined by the capacitance of the capacitive bushing C1 (Figure
2.2a). Typical values of capacitances of HV bushings are between 400-600pF. If the capacitance of the bushing
is very low, an external coupling capacitance should be connected to reach higher sensitivity in the test circuit.
Page 14
Figure 2.3 : Influence of the value of coupling capacitance on measurable apparent charge
[Carlson-2010]
The classical PD measuring system, which has been around for over 50 years, is presented in Figure 2.4. The
result of this measuring system is the mean value of the amplitude of apparent charge.
Figure 2.4 : Example of conventional PD system [CIGRE-2008-2]
PHASE RESOLVED PD DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM

Developments in measuring techniques and instrumentation led to the introduction of Phase Resolving Partial
Discharge Analyser (PRPDA) systems over 20 years ago. These had input circuits using the same “band pass
filters” (wideband or narrowband) as used in conventional PD measuring systems. PRPDA systems comprised
a two dimensional multichannel analyser connected to a computer which performs a statistical analysis of the
recorded data. At the specific test voltage, the integrated PD current impulses (pC or µV) are saved as a
function of the phase position and of the amplitude of apparent charge during a pre-set measurement time. The
results are finally presented as two dimensional or three dimensional PD patterns (amplitude of apparent
charge, phase position and number of counts). These are presented two dimensionally with the third dimension
Page 15
being colour, indicating the total number of PD impulses collected during the pre-set measuring time and
occurring at the same phase position and at the same amplitude. To ensure sufficient information about the PD
source is gathered, a minimum recording time equivalent to 3000 cycles is recommended (for 50 Hz the pre-set
measuring time would be 60 seconds). The main components of modern PRPDA systems are shown in Figure
2.5.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 2.5 : Main component of the PRPDA-system

a) principle of the PRPDA system [Haessig-2003]
b) analogue pre-processing and digital post processing of PD impulses [CIGRE-2008-2]
c) digital pre-processing and post processing of PD impulses [CIGRE-2008-2]
The PD pattern is the representation of the physical processes during the electrical breakdown in a weak region
of the electrical insulation. Different types of PD defects (see chapter Typical PD patterns) can be recognized
Page 16
by their specific PD pattern. Depending on the position of the PD source, the amplitude of the apparent charge
might change, but the shape of PD pattern (for example symmetrical or asymmetrical clusters of PD pulses) is
not influenced by the structure of complex electrical insulation systems. When PD activity is recoded at a
specific bushing, the type of the PD source can be identified, even if the amplitude of apparent charge is very
low. Typical examples of different presentations of PRPD patterns are shown in Figure 2.6.
phase
pC
phase
pC
a) linear unipolar b) liner bipolar c) three dimensional
pC
phase phase
pC
d) logarithmic unipolar (increasing e) logarithmic bipolar [OMICRON] f) linear unipolar (increasing amplitude
amplitude from bottom to top) from top down)
Figure 2.6 : Different representations of PRPD patterns [Fuhr PD-test, OMICRON]
Registration of PRPD patterns has two advantages over measurement of mean values of the amplitude of
apparent charge as required in IEC Standards:
1. Recognition of the type of the PD source (statistical analysis of PD activity, see chapter 3.1)
2. Meaningful definition of the value of apparent charge, especially in the case when permissible values
during the delivery test are reached (see Figure 2.7)
maximal pC value of
apparent charge
amplitude in pC
IEC pC value of
apparent charge
(average)
phase
Figure 2.7 : Definition of different values of apparent charge [Carlson-2010]
Page 17
The value of apparent charge recorded during the FAT is always an average magnitude (definition in IEEE-
2010: apparent charge level: Mean value of the apparent charge of partial discharge (PD) pulse trains
measured in terms of picocoulomb (pC) by means of PD instruments). The PRPD pattern allows the separation
of individual sources of PD that would otherwise potentially result in pulse loading of the conventional system
and would provide the wrong indication. In the example in Figure 2.7, the superimposed PD source due to the
surface discharge will be not recognised by the measurement according to IEC Standard.
Due to automated testing procedures used in a FAT, these days PRPDA systems are almost universally used in
HV laboratories. In the first instance only IEC standard pC values are recorded. For the suitable control of
transformer quality, it is recommended that PD patterns are recorded at all voltage levels when pC values
exceed the basic noise level in the laboratory (normally 5 pC in a shielded laboratory).
2.2 Non-standard electrical PD signal detection systems

When aiming to find the PD source as quickly as possible, the detailed investigation and localization of a PD
source must often go beyond the requirements specified in the IEC and IEEE standards [Fuhr-1993, Carlson-
2003].
The PD current impulses measurable at bushings of the transformer are the response of the RLCM network of
the electrical insulation system to the excitation caused by the current impulse generated during the discharge
in a weak region (PD source) of the insulation at an unknown location. Only PD sources very close to the
specific bushing or in the bushing itself are not influenced by the attenuation and reflection phenomena of the
RLCM network of the active part of the transformer.
Using this knowledge, the measurable electric signals at bushings contain information about the location of the
PD source. Therefore, a multi-terminal measurement of electric signals, in time and frequency domain, is
expected to be a promising method for localizing a PD source; such a system is shown in Figure 2.8.
Oscilloscope for measurements

in time domain
Spectrum analyzer for measurements

in frequency domain
PRPDA for recording

a PD pattern
Figure 2.8 : Equipment for non-standard measurement of PD signals [Haessig-2003]
High frequency measuring impedance: High frequency measuring impedance Zm, for example HF-current
transformers (HF-CT, 100 kHz - 30 MHz) should be connected to each bushing of the HV component (see
Figure 2.9).
Frequency domain measurement: A spectrum analyser is used to analyse PD signals in the frequency
domain (full span mode) and to perform quasi-integration of PD signals, to evaluate the value of apparent
Page 18
charge in pC using the variable band-pass filter of the spectrum analyser (zero span mode). A spectrum
analyser can be used as a front end for the PRPDA system. The analysis of the frequency spectra gives rough
information about the location of the PD source (see PD source localization using electric signals).
Time Domain measurement: A digital oscilloscope can be used as an analysing device for PD signals in the
time domain. Additionally, a digital oscilloscope should always be used to qualify the input signals for the
conventional PD system (band pass filter) so as to estimate both, the integrating error (amplitude of apparent
charge) by the deviation of the real PD signal from the idealized PD current impulse (see Error due to
integration of PD pulses) and to select correct settings of the PRPDA system (dead time to prevent double
counting of PD pulses).
Voltage divider
High frequency current transformer (HF-CT)
a) example of the connection of high frequency measuring impedance (high frequency current transformer HF-CT)
Trace 1 = phase [deg]

Trace 2 = amplitude [dB]
A = possible application region
1 B = constant amplitude region (0 dB)
b) typical frequency response (phase and amplitude) of the HF-CT
Figure 2.9 : High frequency measuring impedance [Haessig-2003]
Page 19
Typical result of recorded PD signals in the time and frequency domain is shown in Figure 2.10.
time domain time domain

mV/div mV/div
ns/div
ns/div
dBm/div
MHz/div dBm/div
MHz/div
frequency domain frequency domain
Calibrating signal at HV-bushing PD current impulse at HV-bushing
Figure 2.10 : Typical calibrating signal and PD current impulse in time and frequency domain
[Fuhr-PD test]
2.3 Syste m for detection of acoustic sound wave s

The acoustic PD method is based on the detection of acoustic waves emitted by each PD source. Acoustic
waves result from the pressure transient associated with the PD event (vibration in elastic medium). Because of
the short duration of PD impulses, the resulting compression waves have frequencies up to ultrasonic
frequencies (some kHz up to 1MHz). Therefore, the frequency range used for piezoelectric sensors mounted on
the outside of the transformer housing is generally from 10 to 300 kHz. The velocity of acoustic waves in oil, for
operational temperatures between 50° C and 80° C, may vary from around 1240 m/s to 1300 m/s [Howells-
1984].
There are two types of acoustic sensors available:
- wideband type
- resonant type (piezoelectric transducer with resonance frequency between 60kHz-150kHz)
In terms of sensitivity it is recommended to use resonant type acoustic sensor rather than wideband ones. In
Figure 2.11 examples of acoustic sensors are presented.
Acoustic measuring systems consist of acoustic sensors (at least 3 sensors recommended), transient recorder
and analysing software. There is no standard for measurement of acoustic signals, but there is an IEEE Guide
C57.127 [2007] describing applications of the acoustic method. It is not possible to calibrate the acoustic
system, that is amplitudes of acoustic and electric signals (amplitude of apparent charge) are not comparable.
However, for a single PD source the phase correlated occurrence of acoustic and electric signals should be
comparable (see PD source localization using acoustic PD signals).
The acoustic method is normally used for PD source localisation in combination with other PD detection
methods. Examples of measurements of acoustic impulses for localisation purposes are presented in case
studies in the Annex, where localisation approaches are described. Detailed descriptions of both the acoustic
systems and their application for localisation of PD sources can be found in [Großmann-2002, Markalous-2006]
or in the guidelines published by CIGRE working group CIGRE-2010. Figure 2.12 shows a typical acoustic PD
signal recorded on the tank wall of the transformer.
Page 20
Acoustic sensor [OMICRON] Preamplifier and acoustic sensors [OMICRON]
Holder for acoustic sensors [Power Diagnostix] Principle of acoustic sensor [Markalous-2006]
Figure 2.11 : Example of acoustic sensor (resonant type)
sensor 6
2
'PD-signal'
1
amplitude (V)
-1 'PD-noise'
(structure-borne
geometric
-2 interference)
arrival time
200 300 400 500 600
time (λs)
Figure 2.12 : Example of typical acoustic PD signal [Markalous-2006]
Page 21
2.4 Syste m for detection of UHF signal s

The basis of UHF PD detection is that the very rapid formation of an electron avalanche (current pulse) in any
part of the insulation system will radiate an electromagnetic transient wave. Due to the short rise and fall times
of PD current pulses (which usually contain transients of ≤ 1 ns), the spectrum of the radiated signal extends
into the GHz. Advantages of this technique include sensitivity, due to the fact that background noise is usually
reduced compared to what is seen at lower frequencies, and its use in locating PD sources using time-of-arrival
methods due to the fact that the signal propagation velocity is well defined. The UHF method has been
investigated in many scientific papers and has become widely used in GIS monitoring applications [Judd-2001].
The UHF method is classified as a non-conventional method in the upcoming IEC 62478 standard. The last
decade has seen a continual evolution of the UHF method, including installation of detectors on power
transformers. Several examples of UHF probes developed for transformer tests are shown in Figure 2.13.
As a measuring system a wide band, high sampling rate, 4 channel (or more) oscilloscope is commonly used
when accurate timing for PD source location is needed. Alternatively, for continuous monitoring or PD pattern
analysis, dedicated UHF monitoring equipment of the kind used for GIS can be adopted. Commonly, such a
system does not digitise the ‘raw’ UHF signal (due to the very high sampling rate) but uses an RF receiver front
end to detect the amplitude of each burst of UHF signal corresponding to the individual PD pulses.
The UHF signals can be used as a trigger for the monitoring of acoustic signals. Through averaging of the UHF
triggered acoustic signals, acoustic noise and trigger jitter can be much reduced compared with using only
acoustic sensors.
Page 22
UHF probe for installation in oil drain valve [OMICRON] UHF probe installed on the tank wall [Judd-2005]
UHF probe ready for insertion through an oil drain valve UHF probe installed through a spare gate valve for oil cooler
[OMICRON] [OMICRON]
Internal view of the UHF probe after installation (oil was Top view of a transformer showing permanent, internal UHF
lowered at this point during repair) [OMICRON] probes fitted to the circular hatch plates [Judd-2005]
Figure 2.13 : Examples of UHF probes suitable for transformers
Page 23
Figure 2.14 shows typical UHF signals measured during a transformer PD test.
amplitude in mV
time in ns
Figure 2.14 : Example of typical UHF PD signals

(single phase test on the transformer, PD source of 200pC) [Appendix-case 9]
2.5 Syste m for detection of che mical reactions-decompositi on of

insul ating material s
Continuous PD activity in an electrical insulation system of HV components generates measurable chemical
products due to the decomposition of the insulating material involved.
In transformers the amount of gas content in the insulating oil can be determined through Dissolved Gas
Analysis (DGA) of an oil sample [CIGRE TB 409, Duval-1989, Duval-2001, Knab-1993]. DGA is performed
either through a laboratory analysis of an oil sample taken from a transformer, or through the use of a
permanent gas monitoring system (Hydrogen or multi gas sensors, see Figure 2.15). In the case where DGA
indicates PD activity inside a transformer, an on-site PD measurement can help to find the reason for the DGA
result (see chapter PD measurements on-site).
gas sensor
Figure 2.15 : Example of monitoring system for dissolved gases in oil [Fuhr-BKW Energy Ltd]
Page 24
3 Common types of PD sources in transformer insulation

A PD source in the electrical insulation system of a transformer results from a weak region where continuous
electrical breakdown occurs either at nominal voltage for transformers in service or at a specific test voltage
during transformer HV testing.
Two requirements must be fulfilled to initiate a PD within a weak region of an electrical insulation system:
1. Local electric field strength E in the weak region must be greater than the inception electric field of the
PD source (depends on the insulating material)
2. Free electrons must be available to initiate the electric discharge (dependent on the position of the weak
region with respect to its contact to an electrode)
For new transformers, excessive stress in a weak region can result from design flaws, contamination or
deviation from permissible tolerances in the manufacturing process, insulating material flaws, etc. Another
possibility is hidden damage to the insulation caused by previous tests like lightning impulse test or heat run
test.
For transformers in service, a combination of different stresses, like electrical, mechanical, thermal and
chemical, may cause PD sources which are in most cases detectable by DGA of the insulating oil [CIGRE TB
409, Duval-2001, Duval 1989]. PD activity in gas bubbles in oil produces mostly hydrogen (H 2) together with
some methane (CH4). PD-activity in solid insulation (paper, pressboard) may produce a variety of dissolved
gases, in particular carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O). Arcing in oil or across
interfaces cellulose/oil is characterized by acetylene (C 2H2), methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4) and
hydrogen (H2).
For PD sources in bushings of the transformer, or PD sources completely enclosed in solid insulation, there may
be no significant increase of dissolved gases in oil despite the on-going permanent PD activity during operation.
3.1 Typi cal PD patterns

As mentioned in chapter 2.1, PD patterns reflect the underlying physical phenomena (statistical behaviour) of
specific PD sources. The statistical behaviour of the PD source is mainly influenced by the availability of starting
electrons, which trigger an electric discharge in a weak region in the transformer electrical insulation system
[Fruth-1990, Fuhr-1991]. The availability of starting electrons is strongly dependent on the PD defect itself (solid,
fluid or gaseous material) and on the position of the PD source with respect to metallic electrodes. Based on the
physics of electrical discharge processes in the weak region of the insulation, it is possible to define 6 typical PD
patterns (see Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.6).
The recording and analysis of PD patterns are important tools for the judgment of the quality of all HV electrical
insulation systems for the following reasons:
- Due to the same statistical behaviour of a single PD source at the same location, PD pattern recorded
by different measuring methods would have theoretically the same shape. During the investigation
procedure the PD pattern of electric signals, acoustic signals and electro-magnetic waves (VHF, UHF)
should be compared to make sure, that all recorded signals are generated by the same PD source. For
PD sources, generating extremely asymmetric PD signal clusters (tip electrode), the recorded PD
pattern of electric signals and acoustic signals may be different.
- Theoretically the shape of the PD pattern (symmetric or asymmetric PD signal clusters) is not
influenced by the structure of the electrical insulation system, even if the amplitude of the apparent
charge will decrease for PD sources located far away from the specific bushing. As soon as the
sensitivity of the detecting system is sufficient, the typical PD pattern can be recognized.
- With increasing test voltage, the shape of PD pattern may change due to the superimposed new PD
activity triggered at higher electrical fields. Different PD sources can easily be distinguished by their PD
pattern.
Page 25
PD PATTERN TYPE 1
Conducting material directly connected to the metallic electrode (tip electrode)
PD source Schematic PD pattern Measured PD pattern
E
e1
Figure 3.1 : Example of typical PD pattern type 1 [Schwarz-Siemens, Carlson-2010]
PD PATTERN TYPE 2
Conducting material without any contact to the metallic electrode (floating particles)

amplitude in pC
E
e1
phase
Page 26
PD PATTERN TYPE 3
Conducting particles laying on the surface of the insulating material surface (surface
discharge, creepage discharge)
e2
E
e1
PD PATTERN TYPE 4
Non conducting material (cavity) with direct contact to the electrode
e2
E
e1
Cavity with contact to HV-

electrode
Cavity with contact to ground electrode
Page 27
PD PATTERN TYPE 5
Non conducting material (cavity) without direct contact to the electrode
amplitude in pC
e2 E
e1
phase
amplitude in pC
e1
E
phase
amplitude in pC
e2 E
e1 e2
phase
Depending on the location of the cavity and on the material of the glue, there are different PD pattern
representing a “bubble type PD pattern”
Page 28
PD PATTERN TYPE 6
Non conducting material (cavity) without direct contact to the electrode with interaction at
the surface
amplitude in pC
e2 E
e1
phase
Examples of additional PD patterns, measured in the electrical insulation system of transformers (in HV
laboratories or on-site) and their deviations from the typical shape of PD patterns are discussed in Annex 1.
3.2 Ori gin of PD sources in the electrical insulati on system of

transformers
Oil filled power transformers (see Figure 3.7) consist of the following main components:
- Core (stainless steel)

- Windings (different type of copper wires)
- Electrical insulation system (different type of cellulose for copper wire and pressboard barriers for the
main electrical insulation system)
- Oil for the electrical insulation system and cooling (active part is in the tank)
- On load tap changer (OLTC)
- Tank
- Bushings
The cellulose and oil are the most important materials of the electrical insulation system of power transformers
(see Figure 3.8). Soft paper tape is used to insulate copper wires of windings, shielding rings of windings and
all leads to bushings or to the tap changer. Laminated wood or pressboard is used for clamping rings of
windings and for all supporting parts of leads. Pressboard barriers are used for the main insulation between low
voltage and high voltage windings, between the phases and for the insulation against the grounded core and
tank.
PD sources in the oil impregnated electrical insulation system of the transformer can be caused by:
- inhomogeneity’s in materials
- flaws in the design
- contamination or change of permissible tolerances during manufacturing process
- failures during final assembly
In the following section, the origin of different PD sources, their typical PD pattern and the probability of reliable
detection will be discussed.
Page 29
Figure 3.7 : Example of the active part of power transformer [Siemens]
E(x,t)
Core Lo w- oil High-

voltag e c anal vo ltage
a) old design (separate press plates of windings) b) actual design (common press plate of windings)
[Moser-1979] [Kuechler-2009]
Figure 3.8 : Schematic presentation of the electrical insulation system of a transformer
Page 30
PD SOURCES DUE TO INHOMOGENITY IN MATERIALS

PD sources due to failure of materials are mainly caused by the manufacturing process of components, like kits
for the electrical insulation system or copper wire for the windings.
Kits for the electrical insulation system contain pressboard (transformer board) barriers with insulating spacers,
angle rings, coil collars and different "snout sections" for HV lead exits etc. In any of these components, a
metallic particle may be introduced during the manufacturing process. Especially sensitive are formed parts like
coil collars and lead exits which are exposed to elevated dielectric stress. A metallic particle hidden in such
insulating parts without contact to a metallic electrode will normally generate Type 2 PD pattern (conducting
particle without contact to an electrode). To eliminate metallic particles in cellulose insulation, a final quality
control during the manufacturing process using X-rays should be applied.
Beside PD sources caused by metallic particles hidden in the cellulose, cavities in the glue of clamping rings are
sometimes the reason for PD activity during delivery tests. The required thickness of clamping rings is reached
by gluing several pressboard plates or laminated wood together. Cavities in the glue generate Type 4 PD
patterns (cavity with contact to electrode), Type 5 (cavity without contact to electrode) or Type 6 (cavity without
contact to electrode with interaction at the surface). Depending on the location of the cavity (with or without
contact to the electrode) and on the composition of the glue, there are different PD patterns representing a
"cavity type PD source".
In some cases “diamond paper insulation" is used to reach the required short circuit stability for a specific
winding, which may introduce bubbles during the curing of the winding. Such PD sources would generate PD
pattern of Type 5 (cavity without contact to electrode).
Finally, there may be PD defects caused by the manufacturing process of copper wires (paper or enamel
insulated) used for different types of windings. There may be a "tip electrode" or small radius effects of the
copper wire. Such PD defects would deliver a PD pattern similar to Type 1 (conducting particle with contact to
electrode). To avoid such PD sources, an appropriate cross sectional profile of the copper wire should be
specified. In Figure 3.9 an example of the insufficient radius of the copper is shown.
Figure 3.9 : Checking of the radius of the copper wire [Fuhr-BKW Energy Ltd]
PD defects caused by material failures are in most cases hidden deep in the electrical insulation system. The
localisation of such PD sources tends to be time consuming due to the fact, that there are very often only weak
or no acoustic signals available. Concerning the necessary detection sensitivity, UHF PD techniques are
promising. Also more elaborated PD source localisation techniques, such as UHF or combined UHF-acoustic
methods can be helpful (see chapter Principles of PD localization in transformers). To identify and eliminate PD
problems, the active part of the transformer must be disassembled in most cases. Examples of possible PD
sources in material are shown in Figure 3.10.
Page 31
Conducting particle with contact to Cavities with or without contact to the Conducting particle without contact to
electrode (copper for windings) electrode the electrode (particles in pressboard)
Figure 3.10 : PD sources due to an inhomogeneity in the material [Carlson-2010]
PD SOURCES DUE TO THE DESIGN

Due to highly developed simulation programs for calculating and simulating electrical stresses under different
test conditions and due to a very good knowledge of the insulating materials, PD problems caused by bad
design are very rare.
PD SOURCES DUE TO THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

As the manufacturing process of transformers relies on a large amount of manual work, there is always the
possibility of the introduction of a PD source into a well-designed electrical insulation system. Some practical
example are covered in the following section.
Core: When cutting core lamination sheets, the well-known whiskers may end up being the reason for PD,
resulting in a Type 1 (conducting particle with contact to electrode) pattern.
Other reasons for PD sources in the core may be ungrounded parts of the core or in core accessories lying in
high electrical field areas, like unshielded sharp corners of flux collectors or screws. The PD patterns will be
similar to Type 1 (conducting particle with contact to electrode) or similar to Type 2 (conducting particle without
galvanic connection to metallic electrode).
Assembly of the active part: In a polluted environment, the assembly of the main insulation between HV and
LV windings may result in the inclusion of metallic particles, which may result in Type 2 (conducting particle
without contact to electrode) PD patterns.
Generally, all connections to windings, lead exits to bushings, leads to the tap changer etc., can be a source of
PD, if the shielding of these connections are not made properly. The resulting PD patterns will be similar to Type
1 (conducting particle with contact to electrode) or to Type 2 (conducting particle without galvanic connection to
metallic electrode).
Creepage discharges along solid-liquid interfaces tend to cause damage to the solid insulation. This was
investigated using a tip electrode on the pressboard surface [Yi-2013]. In the transformer insulation system, a
creepage discharge may be generated by conducting particles laying on the surface of the insulating material,
or at so called “triple points” with excessive field stress in the main insulation system. Typical triple points in a
barrier system of a transformers exist at locations where the pressboard barriers, the distance ledges and the
insulating oil join together. Such PD defects would generate PD patterns similar to Type 3 (conducting particles
laying on the surface of the insulating material).
Final assembly of the transformer: It is well known, that proper drying and impregnation of the oil/cellulose
electrical insulation system have a significant influence on the voltage withstand ability of the insulation during
the enhanced dielectric stress in delivery tests. Figure 3.11 shows the changes in the PD patterns due to the
different levels of impregnation of the cellulose insulation.
Page 32
Figure 3.11 : PD activity at different impregnating condition [Lebreton-GE]
In case of local moisture in the cellulose, bubbles (cavities) may be generated after a certain time of the applied
test voltage due to the dielectric losses in the insulation. Also, during the oil filling process, bubbles (cavities) in
the oil may be introduced as a result of insufficient vacuum. In both cases, PD patterns similar to Type 5 (cavity
without contact to electrode) are typical.
From the shape of a PD pattern alone, it is not possible to distinguish whether cavities are in the oil or in the
solid insulation. Bubbles in the oil normally disappear after circulating the oil or after repositioning the
transformer in the laboratory.
Finally, with the installation of the bushings or with closing the tank, metallic particles may fall onto the active
part of the transformer and cause PD, resulting in a Type 2 (conducting particle without galvanic connection to
metallic electrode) PD pattern. An overview of PD sources generated by the manufacturing or installation
process are presented in Figure 3.12.
Conducting particle without contact to

Conducting particle with contact to Cavities without contact to the
the electrode (particle from the
electrode (core cutting ->angels hair) electrode (local moisture, oil filling)
assembly)
Figure 3.12 : Possible PD sources in the electrical insulation due to manufacturing [Carlson-2010]
Page 33
PD SOURCES DUE TO COMPONENTS

In some cases, PD activity detected during the delivery test may be caused by PD sources in bushings or in the
tap changer. Normally, the quality of both components should be confirmed by the manufacturer before
assembly.
PD SOURCES DUE TO ACCEPTANCE TEST PROCEDURE

The PD measurement is the only non-destructive method able to detect local defects in an electrical insulation
system. Therefore, the PD test should be always the last test in the factory acceptance test (FAT) procedure.
After lightning impulse tests, small carbonized tracks may be generated which can be detected by a sensitive
PD measurement, resulting in Type 2 (conducting particle without galvanic connection to metallic electrode) PD
patterns.
During the heat run test, unexpected hot spots may generate bubbles in oil, which can be recognized in PD
measurements in the form of Type 5 (cavity without contact to electrode) PD patterns. Classical PD sources
identified during FAT are presented in Figure 3.13.
Cavities without contact to the Conducting particle without contact to

electrode (bubbles in oil due to the the electrode (carbonized tracks due
heat run test) to lightning impulse test)
Figure 3.13 : Possible PD sources in electrical insulation system due to FAT testing [Carlson-2010]
PD SOURCES DUE TO FINAL ASSEMBLY ON-SITE

For the transport of transformers, HV bushings must normally be disassembled and large power transformers
are usually transported without oil. In such cases, the final critical assembly of the transformer occurs at site. As
discussed above, the assembly of bushings and the oil filling process may introduce PD sources as shown in
Figure 3.132.
It was demonstrated that PD measurement on site (see chapter PD measurements on-site) is a very effective
method to check the quality of the final assembly. A mobile external voltage source (excitation up to 120% U n) is
needed to perform such on-site PD tests with the highest detection sensitivity.
PD SOURCES DUE TO OPERATION

During the operation of the transformer, its technical life is largely influenced by electrical, thermal, mechanical
and chemical processes. Not only each process alone, but also their combination can generate weak regions
within the transformer electrical insulation system. These areas can be exposed to elevated dielectric stresses,
which in the long run can be harmful to the safe operation of the transformer. For transformers in service, DGA
is the most efficient method to identify both the continuous PD activity and problems associated with hot spots in
the electrical insulation system. In case of assumed PD activity, a sensitive on-site PD test using an external
voltage source should be performed to investigate and localise the PD source (see chapter Recommended
procedure for successful solution of PD problems).
Page 34
The origins of PD sources which may be caused by the operation of the transformer are as follows:
- Bubbles (cavities) caused by local hot spots (corona type PD ->increasing H 2 content)
- Bubbles due to dielectric losses at locations of moisture (corona type PD ->increasing H 2 content)
- Loss of interfacial withstand capability due to decomposition of the cellulose (sparking type PD ->
increasing C2H2 content)
- Loss of dielectric strength through aging of material (sparking type PD ->increasing C 2H2 content)
- Loss of dielectric strength through lightning and switching incidents
- Conducting particles from the cooling system or particles floating in the oil
- Change of electrical field stress due to a deformation of the windings caused by a short circuit
Theoretically, all types of PD defects discussed above may be generated during the operation of a transformer.
Page 35
4 PD signals in transformer electrical insulation systems

As discussed in the chapter Partial Discharge Detection Systems for Transformers, PD in a transformer’s
electrical insulation system is an electrical discharge in a weak region where the electrical field strength exceeds
the material limits for any reason. All PD sources in the electrical insulation system of the transformer generate
three different signals, which are measurable at the bushings or at the walls of the tank.
- Electrical current impulses measurable at bushings of the transformer

- Acoustic signals detectable at the tank walls
- Electro-magnetic-waves (EM-waves) measurable with UHF probes (antennas) installed in openings
of the tank (for example oil drain valves).
4.1 Princi ples of detection and quantification of electrical PD signals

The fast electric signals (time scale ns to µs) generated during the discharge are not directly detectable at the
measuring tap of bushings. These fast current impulses are damped and dispersed by their propagation through
the RLCM network of the transformer.
The rise time of the PD impulse at the original location is strongly dependent on the material where the PD
activity takes place. For electrical breakdowns in gases, the typical rise time is in the ns-range, for breakdowns
in oil, rise times may vary between ns to µs, depending on following factors: (1) on the type of physical process,
(2) on the set-up and (3) on the measuring system [CIGRE-2000, Judd-1998].
ELECTRICAL PD SIGNAL MEASURABLE AT BUSHINGS

Theoretically, all information about the location of the PD source is available from the PD current signals
detectable at the bushings. For real conditions, however, with distorted PD signals recorded at bushings, there
exists no de-convolution method to get a unique solution for the location of the PD source. Typical electrical PD
signals in the time domain, recorded at the HV bushings and at the neutral terminal, for a PD source close to the
HV bushings are shown in Figure 4.1.
The analysis of electrical PD signals in the time and frequency domain as measured at several bushings of a
transformer (multi terminal measurement) and successfully used for localization of a hidden PD source is
discussed in section PD source localization using electric signals.
MEASUREMENT OF APPARENT CHARGE

The amplitude of the “apparent charge” qm measured in pC or in µV during a PD test on a transformer is the
integral of the PD current impulse, detected in a classical PD test circuit employing a parallel coupling
capacitance Ck (capacitive bushing or external coupling capacitor) and the capacitance of the transformer (see
chapter Measuring system for detection of electric signals). The question of how the recorded charge qm, as
measured at the terminals of the HV equipment relates to the size, shape and location of the PD source in the
insulation system is under debate. There are still contradictory arguments as to what the measured PD signals
represent.
The globally accepted capacitive equivalent circuit, the so called “abc-model” as shown in Figure 4.2a, was
introduced many years ago [Gemant-1932, Kreuger-1989]. According to this model, the measurable charge qm ,
which flows into the terminals during the breakdown process in the capacitance c, is linked to the true charge q1
via the series capacitances b1 and b2. The measurable charge qm is defined as an apparent charge [IEC 60270-
2000]. Due to the unknown location of the PD source, the capacitances b1 and b2 cannot be determined and
consequently the true charge cannot be calculated. In Figure 4.2b the application of the “abc-model” to the PD
test circuit for a transformer is shown.
Page 36
More than two decades ago, Pederson and his co-workers [Pederson-1986, Pederson-1987] argued that the
term “apparent charge” is misleading from a physical point of view, because it is deduced from a capacitive
equivalent circuit (“abc-model”). The main argument is that the discharge in a cavity (PD source) in the
insulation system cannot be represented by the discharge of a capacitance. Pedersen proposed a dipole model
where the discharge in the cavity is directly related to the electric field between the electrodes (terminals of the
HV component).
layout of windings
Figure 4.1 : Measurable PD signals at bushings of the transformer (RLCM-network) [Fuhr-2005]
Page 37
qm
q1
a) “abc-model” representing PD activity in voids in solid dielectrics [Lemke-2012]
qm
BU = bushing (coupling capacitance Ck)
HV = high voltage
NT = neutral terminal
C2,3 = active part of the transformer (with oil)
C1 = PD source (void)
Ct = test object capacitance (C’2 und C’3)
q1 = true charge due to the breakdown in the void
qm = measurable charge at the terminal (BU)
Zm = measuring impedance
b) Application of the “abc-model” to the insulation system of a transformer [Carlson-2010]
Figure 4.2 : Presentation of the “abc-model” (a) and its application to the electrical insulation system of
a transformer (b)
A detailed discussion of the dipole model theory would be beyond the scope of this brochure. Nevertheless, the
basic difference between both equivalent circuits is given in Figure 4.3 and in Figure 4.4 [Lemke-2012].
Analogous to the capacitive equivalent circuit (Figure 4.3), the measurable charge qm at the terminals of a HV
component is much smaller that the true charge at the PD source location. Whereas in the dipole model (Figure
4.4), the measurable charge qm at the terminals of a HV component is identical with the true charge at the PD
source location. A detailed discussion of both models can be found in [Taylor-2013] and in [Lemke-2013].
Beside the lack of knowing the origin of the recorded PD signals, the measured amplitude of the apparent
charge qm is additionally influenced by other factors.
Page 38
Figure 4.3 : Capacitive equivalent circuit
Figure 4.4 : Dipole-model equivalent circuit [Lemke-2012]
An important scaling rule was derived based on a detailed physical analysis of the “abc-model” for a cavity
discharge in solid isolation [Boggs-1990]. Due to the decreasing series capacitance b1 and b2 in the “abc-model”
(Figure 4.2), the detection sensitivity, i.e. measurable charge qm at the electrode, decreases as the inception
voltage increases for a cavity of the same size (capacitance c) located in the same position. For power
transformers, the measurable apparent charge qm, generated by the same PD defect (same cavity size and
location) would have a tendency to be smaller and the inception voltage would be higher for an insulation
system with a higher nominal voltage (for example 400 kV), than for transformers with lower nominal voltage (for
example (220 kV). Based on this fact, the recommended acceptance criteria in the international standards for
maximal allowable apparent charge [pC] in power transformers should be adapted to the nominal voltage of the
transformer.
Furthermore, as disused in the chapter Measuring system for detection of electric signals, the measurable
apparent charge qm is influenced by the value of the coupling capacitance (in most cases the capacitance of the
bushing) in the test circuit.
Page 39
Regardless of arguments about the relationship between the true charge and measurable apparent charge qm,
and irrespective of the issue of the correct detection of the amplitude of apparent charge qm, the detectable PD
current pulses at the bushings of a transformer during the PD test, need to be analysed to determine how
harmful the PD may be to the insulation system of the HV component.
ERROR DUE TO INTEGRATION OF PD PULSES

The theory behind quasi integration in the frequency domain, using band pass filters, is valid for PD impulses as
shown in Figure 4.5a, i.e. also for slow impulses influenced by the transfer through the active part of the
transformer. The recorded amplitude of the apparent charge will be identical for all three impulses if the centre
frequency of the band pass filter of the PD system is set to the frequency range where the amplitude in the
frequency spectrum of the recorded impulse is constant (see Figure 4.5b) [Schon-1986]. To be precise, the
correct quasi integration in the frequency domain is valid only for the frequency range F(f) / F(0) = 1. For
impulse trace 3, the frequency range for the correct measurement of the apparent charge is typically below
1MHz.
In practice, the real PD signals measurable at the bushings of a transformer (see Figure 4.6) do not correspond
to the theoretical PD current pulses as required for correct integration using a band pass filter. There is a risk of
an integration error, i.e. an amplitude error, due to the deviation of the real PD signal shape from the idealized
PD pulse.
i
1
1 original impulse
2 pulse distortion due to oscillatory circuit
3 pulse distortion due to damped capacitive circuit
2
⁄
3 q < 〉 i (t )dt
0
t q1 < q2 < q3
a) different shape of PD current impulses [Schwarz-Siemens]
b) frequency spectra for correct setting of the band pass filter [Koenig-1992]
Figure 4.5 : Principle of quasi integration of PD pulses in the frequency domain
Page 40
Idealized PD current impulse [Koenig-1993] Real PD signals measured at bushings [Fuhr-PD

test]
Figure 4.6 : Example of real PD signals measured at bushing of the transformer
ERROR DUE TO CALIBRATION

According to theory, the measurable value of apparent charge in the external test circuit corresponds to the
charge transferred during a voltage drop ΔU t between capacitance Ct (transformer) and Ck (bushing) in the
external test circuit (see Figure 4.7).
U} = test voltage source (G) PDS = measuring system

Z = voltage source connection ik,t = displacement currents
Ck = coupling capacitance U1 = voltage across Ck and Ct
C1 = capacitance of the bushing i(t) = circulating current
Ct = test object capacitance q = apparent charge
Cm = capacitive tap A, B = bushings of the transformer
Zm = measuring impedance
Figure 4.7 : Standardized measuring circuit for PD detection on transformers [Carlson-2010]
In a complex electrical insulation system like that of the transformer, the values for ΔUt (measurable at the
external test circuit) are in the mV range, while the magnitude of ΔU1 (at the location of the PD source) may be
in the kV range. Due to the unknown relationship between the true charge and measurable apparent charge the
calibration of the external measuring circuit is only valid for PD sources located close to the calibrated bushing.
Page 41
For all PD sources hidden deep in the insulation system of the transformer, i.e. far away from the calibrated
bushing, an error of more than 50% in the measured apparent charge may occur. Therefore, the calibration
procedure by injecting a calibrating signal at one bushing, validates the entire measurement chain consisting of
coupling capacitance (bushing), measuring impedance, coaxial cables and the input of the measuring system.
When considering the limitations in the correct measurement of the magnitude of the apparent charge, the
recommended limits in international Standards, which are based on experience, are not a reliable criterion for
deciding if the PD source is dangerous to the electrical insulation system of a transformer.
PD PATTERN
Developments in oscilloscopes made it possible to show the amplitude of the apparent charge and its
dependence on the phase position of the applied test voltage (Figure 4.8a). The phase position of the apparent
charge enabled external and internal PD sources to be distinguished. Some typical PD sources, like cavities
and floating metallic particles, were also able to be recognized using this simple technique. These first PD
patterns were summarized in a CIGRE paper [Electra Report-1969].
Using a two-dimensional multi-channel analyser (introduced in 1990 for PD measurement), the statistical
analysis of the recorded values of apparent charge (via band pass filters) became possible and a Phase
Resolved Partial Discharge Analyser (PRPDA system) was introduced (see Phase resolved PD data
processing system). A typical PD pattern is shown in Figure 4.8b, where the third dimension is represented by
the colour.
Finally, Figure 4.8c shows the analysis of recorded amplitudes of apparent charge vs number of counts (pulse
height analysis).
a) simple PD pattern (pC values b) advanced PD pattern (pC value

c) pulse height analysis
recorded during one cycle) recorded during several cycles)
Figure 4.8 : Example of different types of PD pattern [OMICRON]
These representations are used as “pattern” of the recorded PD activity.
In some cases, especially when measuring old transformers on-site, the recorded PD pattern consists of the
superposition of several PD sources, originating either from the investigated phase itself, or from the coupling of
external noise, or from a PD activity of the other phases. The interpretation of superimposed PD pattern, i.e. the
identification of different types of PD sources, requires experience. There are some tools which may help to
solve the problem when analysing superimposed PD signals (see Figure 4.9). Using a synchronous
measurement at three bushings, a star diagram can be generated where recorded pulses from all three phases
are presented [Plath-2002, Kraetge-2010]. From the relationship of pulses measured at the three bushings, the
Page 42
separation of different PD sources can be achieved and external noise signals can even be removed (see
Analysing software).
To date, there exists no automatic recognition of different PD sources hidden in a PD record.
Figure 4.9 : Example of 3 Phase Amplitude Relation Diagram (3PARD) [OMICRON]
ATTENUATION OF ELECTRIC PD SIGNALS WITHIN A TRANSFORMER

Damping phenomena of PD signals within windings of transformers and their analysis were investigated in 1970
[Raju-1973] by injection of calibrating signals at different positions in the winding model and by recording the
time domain signals with an oscilloscope at the end of the winding via a coupling capacitance Ck. Results are
shown in Figure 4.10 [FGH-1984].
Figure 4.10 : Components of the PD signal recorded at bushings of a transformer [FGH-1984]

a) recorded PD signal at bushing, b) capacitive component,
c) traveling wave component, d) oscillating component
Page 43
Further investigations of the damping phenomena were performed at the University of Stuttgart [Coenen-2012,
Siegel-2014].
In the first experiment [Coenen-2012], a model of a disc winding with a grounded metal sheet core inside the
winding was used. A constant PD source was simulated using an Ogura needle (tip radius of 3 µm). This PD
source was moved along the winding (Figure 4.11).
Bipolar PD patterns were recorded using a commercially available PD system in accordance with IEC 60270
(see Conventional PD measuring system) at four different positions of the “tip electrode” (0 mm, 100 mm, 200
mm and 500 mm) using a constant test voltage of 28 kV ac applied to the disc winding (see Figure 4.12).
As expected, by increasing the distance of the constant PD source from the coupling capacitance Ck there is a
significant decrease in the measured amplitude of apparent charge. In this experiment the low values of
apparent charge are caused by both, the attenuated PD signal by the winding structure and the selected centre
frequency of the band pass filter at 4 MHz. For slow PD signals, the centre frequency of 4 MHz is too high to
perform a correct quasi integration of circulating currents in the test circuit.
The phase position of the recorded PD signals did not change with the position of the constant PD source due
to the fact, that the statistical behaviour of one specific PD source is not influenced by the structure of the
winding.
The recorded PD pattern associated with Figure 4.11 were distorted by a “double counting” of positive and
negative magnitude of apparent charge due to the oscillatory nature of the signals measured at the coupling
capacitance Ck. In such cases, the recoding of unipolar PD pattern would offer a clearer picture. Theoretically,
the movable PD source should correspond to the PD pattern Type 1 (tip electrode at ground, see chapter
Typical PD patterns) and the shape of PD pattern should be independent of the position of the PD source.
Figure 4.11 : Constant PD source inside a model of HV disc winding [Coenen-2012]
Page 44
Figure 4.12 : PD pattern recorded at four different positions,

Test voltage =28kV ac, band pass filter: f c =4MHz, ∆f =1MHz [Coenen-2012]
In the second experiment [Siegel-2014], a layer winding inside a tank filled with oil was used. In this set-up, the
constant PD source was simulated using a surge arrester movable on the tank wall. The goal of this
investigation was to demonstrate the influence of the selected centre frequency of the band pass filter
(according to IEC 60270) on the measurement of the amplitude of apparent charge. To record the amplitude of
apparent charge at centre frequencies higher than 1 MHz, a coupling impedance with a pass band of 15 MHz
was used. The frequency spectra of the artificial PD source were recorded, as shown in Figure 4.13. Then the
corresponding amplitudes of the apparent charge were recorded at three different centre frequencies, as shown
in Figure 4.14.
IEC broadband IEC narrowband increased frequency

-40
-50
-60
power level / dBm
-70
-80
-90
2,5 cm
-100 10 cm
40 cm
80 cm
-110
100 k 1M 10M
frequency / Hz
Figure 4.13 : Frequency spectra at different positions along the model winding [Siegel-2014]
Page 45
500
IEC broadband
IEC narrowband
increased frequency
400
apparent charge QIEC /pC
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
PD position along the winding /cm
Figure 4.14 : Recorded amplitude of apparent charge at three different centre frequencies [Siegel-2014]
Summarising the results from both laboratory experiments on winding models, the following should be
considered when analysing PD data:
- The shape of the PD pattern (not the amplitude) is nearly constant for all four positions of the PD source
due to the same statistical behaviour of the PD source (Figure 4.12).
- Frequency spectra are changing with the position of the PD source with respect to the measuring
terminal as specific resonances exist (Figure 4.13) at each location.
- Due to the slower rise time of the PD signals at the measurement terminal with increasing distance of
the PD source from the measuring terminal, the amplitude of the apparent charge decreases for
positions further away from the terminal, especially for a PD system using a higher centre frequency (>
1 MHz) for the band pass filter (Figure 4.14).
In Figure 4.14 the highest amplitude of the apparent charge was recorded for the artificial PD source
positioned at 80 cm from the measuring point. According to the theory, the highest value of apparent charge
should be recorded for PD sources close to the measuring point, i.e. for the PD source positioned at 2.5 cm.
This result confirms the experience that the most sensitive measurement of apparent charge can be
achieved if the centre frequency of the band pass filter is near a resonant frequency of the measuring chain
(Figure 4.15). The resonant frequency of a measuring chain depends upon: type of bushing, measuring
impedance, and input impedance of the PD measuring system. The position of this resonance can be
determined (a) by injecting a calibrating impulse at the specific bushing and (b) by recording the frequency
spectrum at the measuring impedance (Figure 4.15, for details see section PD source investigation).
Figure 4.15 : Example of a resonance frequency in a measuring chain [Fuhr-PD test]
Page 46
LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRIC PD SIGNAL DETECTION WITHIN A TRANSFORMER

In general, electrical PD signals can be detected at the bushings of a transformer. PD detection using transient
earth voltage (TEV) is not considered here, as in the case of power transformers this method does not reveal
sufficient detection sensitivity.
As discussed above, the main limiting factor for the correct measurement of electrical PD signals is the
decreasing sensitivity to measurable PD current pulses in the external test circuit with increasing distance of the
PD source to the specific bushing. This can be partly compensated by:
- Amplification of the PD system

- Ratio between coupling capacitance and test object capacitance (Ck > Ct)
- Multi-terminal measurement (HV bushings, LV bushings, neutral terminal)
- Measurement at a resonance frequency of the measuring chain (see Figure 4.15)
With increasing amplification in the PD measurement system, external noise will also be amplified and
superimpose on the measurable PD signals. Special noise suppression techniques may be needed to enable
sensitive measurements in a noisy environment [Kraetge-2011].
The ratio between coupling capacitance and test object capacitance is (Ck > Ct) relates to the capacitance of the
bushing. To increase the sensitivity of the measuring circuit, external capacitors may be connected to the
bushing.
By employing multi-terminal measurements, there is always at least one bushing, which shows the highest
sensitivity to the detectable PD current pulses.
The measurement of apparent charge at a resonance frequency of the measuring chain (see Figure 4.15)
combined with multi-terminal measurement is considered the most promising method to detect all PD sources
hidden in the electrical insulation system of the transformer (see PD source investigation).
4.2 Princi ples of propagation, detection and quantification of acoustic

PD signal s
A theoretical overview of acoustic and UHF signal propagation and measurement is schematically presented in
the Figure 4.16.
Page 47
Figure 4.16 : Signal transfer path for acoustic and UHF signals [Schwarz-Siemens]
Acoustic PD measurements rely on the fact that acoustic signals are emitted by each internal PD source.
Because of the short duration of the PD impulses, the resulting compression waves have frequencies up to
ultrasonic frequencies. The frequency spectrum of acoustic waves typically lies in the range between
20 kHz up to 1 MHz [Markalous-2006].
PROPAGATION OF ACOUSTIC PD SIGNALS WITHIN A TRANSFORMER

In transformers, mechanical waves generated by PD sources propagate at the origin as a spherical pressure
(longitudinal) wave through the oil until reaching windings, barriers and finally the tank wall. For the detection of
acoustic signals, piezoelectric sensors, fixed externally at suitable positions on the tank wall, are used. Figure
4.17 shows a possible propagation path for an acoustic wave.
measuring system
Figure 4.17 : Propagation of acoustic sound waves [Markalous-2006]
In most cases, the acoustic sensor does not directly detect the acoustic PD signal propagating through the oil.
The ultrasonic waves strike the tank and create an alternative propagation path via the tank wall with higher
wave speeds than that in oil. Using arrival times of the signals which have travelled partly as structure borne
waves and not those with a direct oil path, in combination with the average sound velocity for oil, would result in
an incorrect distance being determined between the PD source and the acoustic sensor. In cases where there is
no direct oil path signal, there is limited accuracy in the location of PD sources [IEEE Guide-2003].
The correct determination of the signal arrival time is an important part of the location process (see chapter
Principles of PD localization in transformers). This is particularly important when structure borne path
signals are present which can disguise the onset of the direct (oil) path signal [Lundgaard-1989, Phung-1991].
Transformer acoustic signal propagation phenomena were investigated in many laboratory experiments [Phung-
1991] by moving an acoustic sensor gradually on the steel plate from a position perpendicular to an acoustic
source in oil, to other positions along a metal plate (Figure 4.18).
It was found that, while only longitudinal waves (particle motion in the direction of propagation) exist in oil, metal
plates support generally both longitudinal and transversal waves (motion transverse to the direction of
propagation; also called shear wave) [Lundgaard-1989, Phung-1991, IEEE Guide-2003]. Depending on the
angle Ψ (angle measured from the normal to the tank wall to the position of the acoustic sensor, see Figure
4.18) three regions can be distinguished. Within the range ≤13.7° both waves can be generated, while the
conversion of the longitudinal oil wave to the longitudinal wave in the plate is more efficient than to the shear
type. Between 13.7° to 25.9° only the shear wave is stimulated and above 25.9° the oil tank interface might
result in total reflection [Phung-1991].
Within an incident angle of 30°, it could be difficult to distinguish between the two waves [Lundgaard-1989]. It
was pointed out that in this range the estimated arrival time can be regarded as direct sound. The systematic
Page 48
error of the arrival time due to earlier arriving wave modes increased with increasing angle and exceeded 10%
at 50°. Signals recorded with an inclination of 42° and 65° showed clearly separable pulses of the first
(longitudinal) and second (transversal) wave.
PD
reflection
longitudinal/
transversal
ξ
transversal
oil path
steel path
oil .
tank
sensor
Figure 4.18 : Illustration of the structure borne path problem for propagation of acoustic waves
[Markalous-2006]
When the acoustic signal from the PD source inside the transformer spreads out to the tank wall, the most
significant wave to be considered is the flexural, asymmetric wave of 0 order. This plate wave is heavily
dispersive, i.e. the velocity varies with frequency in the range below 100 kHz. Consequently, different frequency
components arrive with different time lags at the acoustic sensor after having propagated a distance along the
tank. This effect can be observed by moving the acoustic sensor on the tank. The front of the recorded signal
will be steeper if the sensor is closer to the PD source [Lundgaard-2003]. Therefore, the shape of the acoustic
PD signal delivers information about the possible path of the signal. In the example in Figure 4.19, the shape of
the signal in a) is typical for acoustic waves having propagated trough different media (filter response), the
shape of the signal in b) is typical for acoustic waves having propagated through oil (nearly exponential decay of
the envelope of the signal).
In Figure 4.19, an example of two types of structure borne interference can be observed: (1) a rather strong
interaction resulting in almost two separate impulses as detected at sensor 6 (Figure 4.19a), (2) a weaker
impact on amplitude, which sometimes lasts long before the direct signal arrives, as detected at sensor 3
(Figure 4.19b).
The plate wave (structure born interference) as shown in Figure 4.19 could be eliminated by using a low pass
filter. When localising a PD source by triangulation, use of the correct propagation velocity for sound in oil is
important. This can vary in oil for operating temperatures between 20° C and 80° C from around 1420 m/s to
1191 m/s [Howells-1984].
Page 49
1,5
sensor 6 sensor 3
2
'PD-signal' 1,0 'PD-signal'
1 0,5
amplitude (V)
amplitude (V)
0,0
0
-0,5
-1 'PD-noise' 'PD-noise'
-1,0
(structure-borne (structure-borne geometric
geometric interference)
-2 interference) -1,5 arrival time
arrival time
200 300 400 500 600 200 300 400 500 600
time (λs) time (λs)
a) strong steel path characteristic b) strong oil path characteristic
Figure 4.19 : Example of acoustic PD signals (apparent charge 491 pC) with
highlighted geometrically determined arrival times [Markalous-2006]
ATTENUATION OF ACOUSTIC PD SIGNALS WITHIN A TRANSFORMER

Basically, insulation materials (e.g. solid insulation parts or oil) feature a low pass characteristic [Beyer-1987]
and damping increases with the square of the frequency f [Grossmann-2002] to a good approximation.
Therefore, the usable frequency range for acoustic PD measurements has an upper limit defined by the very
strong wave attenuation of materials. The lower frequency limit is mainly determined by disturbances within or
outside the transformer.
A significant source of disturbance is transformers core noise. This noise is of a continuous type and is
associated with the deformation of magnetic domains in the core of a transformer and has its primary frequency
at twice the power frequency, but may have components that reach 50 – 60 kHz. In Figure 4.20 averaged
spectra of the noise and of the acoustic PD signal are presented. In the frequency range between 75 kHz-200
kHz there is adequate signal to noise ratio to record acoustic PD signals, which matches well the frequency
range of piezoelectric sensors which is typically 10 – 300 kHz (resonance frequency 150 kHz).
Figure 4.20 : Example of frequency spectra of noise: green curve (0-50 kHz)
Acoustic PD signal: blue curve (50-200 kHz) [Coenen-2008]
Page 50
LIMITATION OF ACOUSTIC PD SIGNAL DETECTION WITHIN A TRANSFORMER

In most measurement scenarios, acoustic PD signals are detectable on the tank wall of the transformer.
Therefore, the main limiting factor is the decreased sensitivity of the acoustic signals in the case of PD sources
hidden deep in the insulation system or close to the core. The technical details of the transformer’s construction
and especially the position of flux shielding plates on tank walls must be known to determine the best locations
for acoustic sensors. For monitoring purposes, it is possible to install acoustic sensors inside the transformer
tank. In this case, the position of the sensors cannot be adjusted to the location of an unknown PD source.
4.3 Princi ples of propagation, detection and quantification of

UHF signals
UHF PD signals can result from the very rapid formation of an electron avalanche (current pulse) in any part of
the insulation system, resulting in a radiated electromagnetic wave. Due to the short rise and fall times of PD
current pulses (usually < 1 ns), the spectrum of the radiated signal extends into GHz.
Radiation of UHF accompanying PD activity has been extensively studied for the detection and location of PD,
especially in the field of gas-insulated switchgear (GIS). PD in SF 6-filled GIS has extremely short rise times
[Kurrer-1996, Judd-1998] and therefore results in UHF. Fundamental university investigations showed that PD
pulses in oil also produce significant high frequency content up to GHz [Rutgers-1997, Judd-1999]. Additionally,
comparative analysis of acoustic and electromagnetic PD signals reveals a very moderate damping of UHF
signals in oil and in the solid insulation, in contrast to the attenuation of acoustic signals [Grossmann-2002].
These properties as well as the ease of sensor application on-site and the characteristic high noise immunity
are some of the reasons for the internationally increasing interest in this method.
PROPAGATION OF UHF SIGNALS

In transformers, the electromagnetic waves emitted from PD activity will reach (possibly after several reflections
inside the tank) a sensor, such as applied through an oil drain valve. The transformer tank represents an almost
perfect Faraday cage (excluding openings for LV bushings of generator transformers). Therefore, external
disturbances like corona discharges in the substation are effectively suppressed.
The propagation velocity of UHF waves is influenced by the relative permittivity εr , resulting in a typical
propagation velocity of about 2/3*c0 or 2*108 m/s (c0 denoting the speed of light). A reasonable frequency range
for investigation might be from 200 MHz to 2 GHz.
For the coupling of UHF PD signals from the inside of the transformer tank, sensitive UHF probes must be
applied for example through a tank wall (see Figure 4.21). Examples of different UHF probes used on
transformers are shown in the chapter System for detection of UHF signals.
No simple, linear relationship has been established between PD magnitudes as measured using UHF
techniques and the IEC60270 measurements of apparent charge as are normally performed on HV equipment
during factory acceptance tests. This is because the measurements respond quite differently to the PD current
pulse. The IEC60270 method responds predominantly to the quantity of charge (time integral relationship)
whereas the UHF method responds to charge dynamics (both quantity and acceleration; a time derivative
relationship). Nevertheless, as shown in cases highlighted in the Appendix, the PD patterns generated by UHF
signals and electric signals tend to be comparable due to their shared statistical behaviour with respect to phase
occurrence of the PD pulses, which are generated by the same PD source. It has also been observed that there
is usually a reasonable correspondence in signal magnitudes between UHF signal and PD pulses (IEC60270)
measured from the same PD source. This is illustrated for a variety of PD sources in Figure 4.22. Due to the
same statistical behaviour of a specific PD source, the similarity of PD patterns of electric signals and UHF
signals would be expected. This ensures that UHF techniques such as trending of PD activity can be applied in
either case. At the time of writing, a new standard IEC 62478 is being developed for non-conventional PD
source detection methods (including UHF) that will help to standardise practice in this area [IEC-2015].
Page 51
) ))
) ))
)
))
))
)
measuring system
Figure 4.21 : Schematic representation of UHF signals in transformers [Markalous-2006]
Accurate measurements of PD pulse shapes on very short timescales are strongly influenced by the
experimental set-up and the bandwidth of the measurement system, but studies have shown, that even
apparently ‘long’ pulses in oil can contain many smaller, short transients capable of radiating UHF signals. This
has been illustrated for PD activity recorded from a point-plane PD source in transformer oil [Judd-2003].
The protrusion was at earth potential and current pulses were measured using a 1 GHz bandwidth high
frequency current transformer. UHF signals have been amplified with a voltage gain of 20. For positive PD
current pulses at the earthed protrusion the corresponding UHF signal pulses are short and each radiates a
distinct burst of UHF (Figure 4.23a). The negative PD current pulses at the earthed protrusion would appear as
a pulse of several μs width if measured using conventional equipment according to IEC 60270 (see Figure
4.23b). Expanded view of the current pulse is presented in Figure 4.23c showing short, repetitive current pulses
at the earthed protrusion and their corresponding UHF signals.
RF energy in μJ
apparent charge in pC
Figure 4.22 : Relationship between energy in the radiated RF (UHF)-signal

and the IEC 60270 apparent charge [Reid-2007]
Page 52
15
PD current ( mA )
(a)
10
5
0
-5
1 a) positive current pulses
UHF signal ( V )
(b)
-1
0 100 200 300 400
time ( ns )
5
PD current ( mA )
-5
b) negative current pulses
-10
-15
0 5 10 15
time ( λs )
5
(a)
PD current ( mA )
0
-5
-10
-15
0.2
(b)
c) expanded view of negative
UHF signal ( V )
0.1 current pulses

0
-0.1
-0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time ( ns )
Figure 4.23 : PD current pulses and UHF signals for a point-plane

PD source in oil [Judd-1998]
ATTENUATION OF UHF SIGNALS

It has been shown, that all relevant types of PD sources, possibly occurring within a transformer, emit
sufficiently high frequency spectra to be detected with UHF probes. Although surface discharges sometimes
showed a slower rise time of up to 2-3 ns, they remained detectable with the UHF probe at all times. In cases of
even strong corona discharges the corresponding spectra were limited to frequencies mainly below 350 MHz.
According to these results, PD sources in the electrical insulation system of the transformer emit
electromagnetic transient waves in the lower UHF range between 300 MHz and 2 GHz. Thus, wavelengths
between 10 and 70 cm occur inside power transformers. From antenna theory, an emitting antenna should have
its minimum dimension as half the wavelength for optimal sensitivity, i.e. in this case in the range of 5 to 35 cm.
In line with this theory there is an ability for high frequency PD currents generated by the original PD source, to
excite the metallic structures of the active part of the transformer, turning them into internal antennas.
Attenuation phenomena for UHF were investigated on models in several laboratories. Some important results
are summarized below.
The experimental set-up for the investigation of UHF spectra of “internal” PD sources consisted basically of a
test tank with dimensions 1.0m x 0.5m x 0.5m (without a metal cover), with two PD sources as shown in Figure
4.24 and one disc shaped UHF sensor located on the tank [Markalous-2006].
Page 53
The open tank offers a quick decay for UHF PD signals without strong resonances and hence limits the impact
of the metal housing on the appearance of the electromagnetic signal.
high-voltage
surface PD electrode
pressboard
ground plate
Tip electrode Surface discharge
Figure 4.24 : PD sources for investigation of UHF-frequency spectra [Markalous-2006]
An example of UHF signals from two PD sources in oil, as measured using the above described experiment in a
laboratory, is presented in Figure 4.25 [Markalous-2006].
The measurable UHF spectrum is dependent on: the natural radiation from the PD activity, the different transfer
functions included in the propagation path from the PD source to the measuring system, UHF probe and cable
characteristics, the surrounding materials and objects and their properties of transmission, scattering and
reflection which all have a strong influence on the appearance of the recorded UHF PD signal. The transformer
tank, as an almost closed metal enclosure, is highly reflective to incoming electromagnetic waves. Results of
different investigations of cavity resonances in tanks are described in [Markalous-2006].
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UHF signal Frequency spectrum
0.6
20
15 0.5
amplitude (mV)
10
0.4
amplitude (Vs)
5
0.3
0
-5 0.2
-10 0.1
-15
0.0
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
time (ns) frequency (GHz)
Needle sphere configuration in oil
10
8 0.35
6
0.30
amplitude (mV)
4
2 amplitude (Vs) 0.25
0 0.20
-2
0.15
-4
-6 0.10
-8
0.05
-10
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
0.00
time (ns) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
frequency (GHz)
Surface discharge in oil
Figure 4.25 : UHF signals and their frequency spectra

of two PD sources in the model oil tank [Markalous-2006]
ATTENUATION DUE THE TRANSFORMER TANK

From results of laboratory experiments it can be stated that cavity resonances can appear. However, since a
resonance due to a standing wave needs a certain time and signal reflections to develop, this phenomenon
might not be present in the larger structures of a transformer. In addition, for bigger cuboids the number of
possible resonance frequencies increases dramatically, resulting in the fact, that one may not link the resonant
signal behaviour solely to cavity resonances of the transformer tank. Knowledge of resonances in general is
useful, as they may inform the basis for advantageous narrow-band measurements.
ATTENUATION DUE TO WINDINGS

Results of small size laboratory experiments suggest that UHF PD signals can propagate within the whole
transformer with comparatively low attenuation. For PD activity occurring within windings either a propagation
path in the gap of say the high and low voltage winding or even through one disc winding should be possible. An
electromagnetic detection might be feasible in both cases. The approximate mean values of the observed
relative attenuation factors were:
- 34 % (or 1.8 dB) for pressboard (thickness 8.4 cm).

- 46 % (or 2.7 dB) for a 0.5 cm gap in a metal plate (no line-of-sight).
- 38 % (or 2.1 dB) for a sector of a disc winding (inclined propagation through the winding).
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An experiment on a 210 MVA grid coupling transformer that was intended to be scrapped was performed. The
transformer was oil free but with an intact tank and included its complete active part. To obtain several different
locations for injection of artificial UHF impulses, 20 holes (Ø 5 mm) were drilled into the tank wall at various
positions around the transformer tank (see Figure 4.26). A 10 cm long monopole was pushed through the holes
into the transformer tank wall and signal generator pulses were injected with maximum amplitudes of 60 V (into
50 Ω).
Figure 4.26 : Arrangement for investigation of attenuation of UHF signals [Appendix-case 8]
The UHF signals that propagated inside the transformer were measured by a UHF probe installed at the oil
filling valve. Results are presented in Figure 4.27. The maximum amplitude of UHF signals measured with the
UHF-probe (grey curve), over the position of the source (hole with monopole), and additionally the shortest
distance between the source and probe (green curve) are shown in Figure 4.27a). Attenuation of UHF signals
over the position of the PD source is presented in diagram in Figure 4.27b). As expected the active part has an
influence on the propagation of UHF signals and causes attenuation (average 2 dB/m).
a) Maximum amplitudes of UHF signals (grey curve) b) Attenuation of UHF signals

Distance between source and sensor (green curve)
Figure 4.27 : Results of the investigation of attenuation of UHF signals [Appendix-case 8]
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LIMITATION OF UHF SIGNALS

All laboratory experiments have shown that the structure of the electrical insulation system of the transformer
clearly influences the propagation of UHF signals from one specific PD source. Therefore, the position of UHF
sensors for sensitive measurements of UHF signals must be adapted to the structure of the electrical insulation
system.
For reasons that have been made clear in section Propagation of UHF signals, it is not possible to attribute
PD levels (in pC) to particular amplitudes of UHF signals. However, on the basis of experience, some initial
guidance can be given, subject to the qualifications that follow [Judd-2003, Tenbohlen-2011]:
- 10-100 mV UHF signal correspond approximately to 100 to 1000 pC

- 100-1000 mV UHF signal correspond approximately to 1000 to 10000 pC
- > 1000 mV UHF signal corresponds to severe (possibly arcing) PD. Acetylene may be identified in
DGA.
These approximations assume that:
a) the UHF probes are well designed and installed in a manner that does not inhibit electromagnetic waves
from reaching them
b) there are several UHF probes that are well spaced around the tank
c) the UHF signal voltage is taken as the largest signal detected at any one of the sensors (this will usually
be the one closest to the PD source)
d) the PD source is genuinely inside the transformer tank, not in an auxiliary tank or in the external HV
circuit
4.4 Princi ples of PD localizati on in transfor mers

The reliable localization of PD sources hidden in the complex insulation system of transformers is still a topic of
research. The main limiting factors are reflection and damping phenomena in the active part itself as well as on
the tank wall of the transformer. Depending on the position of the PD source, different localization methods are
applicable to solve the PD location problem. Modern localization methods are discussed in the following
sections.
PD SOURCE LOCALIZATION USING ELECTRIC SIGNALS

As discussed in chapter Principles of detection and quantification of electrical PD signals, the original
electrical PD signal is distorted through attenuation and reflection in the electrical insulation system of a
transformer. The measurable PD signals at the bushings of the transformer are the response to the RLCM
network (see Figure 4.1) being excited by fast PD pulses located somewhere in the active part of a transformer
(where the permissible electrical stress was exceeded).
The localisation of a PD source using analysis of electrical PD signals recorded in the time and frequency
domain is based on the comparison of recorded PD signals at bushings with the characteristic responses of the
RLCM network of the transformer under test to an excitation by the calibrating signal (characterization of the
transformer). The transfer function of the RLCM network is strongly dependent on the design of the transformer.
The recording of the transfer function of the RLCM network of a transformer should be performed for each
bushing, A calibrating signal (usually 1000 pC) is injected at one specific bushing and both the signal at the
calibrated bushing and cross coupling signals at all other bushings are successively registered in the time
domain as well in the frequency domain. This procedure is repeated for each bushing. In the case of two or
more PD sources, this characterization procedure should be repeated for each bushing where the PD source is
assumed to be close (highest amplitude of apparent charge, shape of the PD current signal).
For a given non-periodic PD current impulse i(t) the frequency spectrum I(jϖ) is obtained from the Fourier
integral (see Figure 4.28).
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Using the Fourier Integral, it would be sufficient to record PD current signals either in the time domain or in the
frequency domain. For the localisation of a PD source using signals measurable at the bushings, there is an
advantage in recording the same signal with both an oscilloscope and spectrum analyser, so as to receive the
maximum information in the shortest time. Registered data in time domain and in frequency domain contain
important and different information to help in reliable localisation of the PD source.
PD SIGNALS IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN

An example of analysis of PD signals in the frequency domain is shown in Figure 4.28. A comparison of the
measured PD signals in the frequency domain with results of the characterization of the transformer gives the
first indication of the location of the PD source. The frequency range of the measuring impedance should be
between 100 kHz and 30 MHz. Some PD measuring systems provide measuring impedances using a band
pass filter characteristics with an upper frequency limit at 1 MHz. This upper frequency is definitely too low for
the measurement of the response of the RLCM network of the transformer exited by a PD source.
PD sources close to the calibrated bushing generate frequency spectra similar to the calibrating signal (flat
spectrum); see records at HV winding, 1U in Figure 4.29.
PD sources far away from the calibrated bushing generate frequency spectra which correspond to the signal
transfer via the RLCM network of the transformer electrical insulation system, where well defined resonance
frequencies are visible; see records at HV windings 1V, 1W in Figure 4.29. Knowledge of the resonance
frequencies of the measuring chain (transformer under test, coupling capacitance, impedance, measuring cable,
input of the spectrum analyser) is very important, not only for the electric localisation of the PD source, but also
to perform the most sensitive PD detection (see section Measurement of apparent charge).
A f
A … amplitude
f … frequency
t … time
t
A A
t f
time domin frequency domain
Figure 4.28 : Presentation of signals in time and frequency domain [Schwarz-Siemens]
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Calibrating signal injected at HV bushing Measured PD signals

Response at HV bushing 1U = PD source close to the bushing
1V = cross coupling from phase U
1W = background noise
Figure 4.29 : Analysis of PD signals in frequency domain [Fuhr-PD test]
The basic spectral characteristics that should be analysed are:
- Amplitude of the power spectrum in dBm

- Frequency range of the power spectrum
- Typical resonances
- Reproducibility of the power spectra
For the best comparison of the characteristic frequency spectra of the calibrating signal with the measured
frequency spectra of the PD source, the settings of the spectrum analyser must be the same (resolution
bandwidth, start and stop frequency, etc.).
Analysis of PD signals in the frequency domain can only be performed for a repetitive PD activity. Sporadic PD
signals or PD signals with a low repetition rate can be registered with a peak detector (conventional or
advanced PD measuring systems) or with a digital oscilloscope. In this case, the test voltage should be
increased to get a higher repetition rate of PD pulses.
PD SIGNALS IN TIME DOMAIN

An example of the analysis of PD signals in the time domain is shown in Figure 4.30. A comparison of real PD
signals recorded in the time domain with results of the characterisation of the transformer gives additional
information about the location of the PD source.
PD sources close to the calibrated bushing generate a time resolved signal similar to the calibrating signal; see
records at HV winding (upper trace) in Figure 4.30.
PD sources far away from the calibrated bushing generate time signals which reflect the RLCM network of the
transformer’s electrical insulation system. This signal is comparable with the response of an RLC filter (band
pass); see records at LV winding (lower trace) and at neutral terminal (lower trace) in Figure 4.30.
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Calibrating signal injected at HV bushing Real PD signals

Response at HV bushing (upper trace) and LV bushing (lower Responses at HV bushing (upper trace) and neutral
trace) terminal (lower trace)
Figure 4.30 : Analysis of PD signals in time domain [Fuhr-PD test]
For the recording of real PD signals at the bushings of a transformer, the highest amplitude of the PD current is
used as a trigger signal for the oscilloscope and the response of the RLCM network at all other bushings is
usually systematically analysed on a second channel. Additionally, simultaneous recordings on multiple
channels may be used to confirm the previous results. In the event of superimposed PD sources, it is possible
to distinguish between two different PD current signals by varying the trigger level.
Basic time resolved PD signal characteristics that should be analysed are:
- Maximum amplitude of the PD signal in mV

- Rise time of the PD current signal
- PD signal oscillations
- Reproducibility of the PD signals
For the comparison of time domain signals of the calibrating and the PD pulses, the same setting of the
oscilloscope’s time per division would be an advantage, also the amplifier gains should be adjusted to show
similar signal amplitudes.
Comparison of the recorded PD signals in the time and frequency domain with results of the characterization of
the transformer using calibrating signals gives the first indication of the possible location of the PD source. This
information is very useful for placing the acoustic sensors for further localisation.
PD SOURCE LOCALIZATION USING ACOUSTIC PD SIGNALS

There are two main approaches for the location of PD sources using analysis of acoustic signals. The first is
based on the change in signal amplitude or deformation of the signal shapes, which can give hints about the PD
source location (Figure 4.19). An increasing amplitude and rise time are an indication that the acoustic sensor
is close to the PD source. The second approach is based on using the measured propagation times to calculate
the distance to the PD source and is often referred to as Triangulation (Figure 4.31).
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In some cases, where the damping of the acoustic signal is too high for clear single impulse detection, this
method has limited application. This is especially the case for PD sources hidden deep in the winding or close to
the core where the acoustic method is insensitive (see section Limitation of acoustic PD signal detection
within a transformer).
a) b)
Figure 4.31 : Example of PD source localization using Triangulation

a) time delay between electrical and acoustic signals [Carlson-2010]
b) only acoustic signals [Markalous-2006]
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF ACOUSTIC PD LOCATION

Figure 4.32 shows a schematic view of a transformer tank with acoustic sensors attached externally, a PD
source inside and the resulting distances Di from the sensors Si to the PD source site. Such arrangements are
the geometric basis for the following mathematical formulations of acoustic methods for PD source location. The
PD source is thus modelled as a point source radiating an acoustic and electromagnetic wave in a
homogeneous medium (using an average sound velocity) with straight propagation paths to the sensors.
For a mixed acoustic method, i.e. triggering the acoustic system with the electrical or electromagnetic PD signal,
an exact spatial location of the PD source requires (in the normal case) at least three acoustic signals with
usable arrival time information. The number of inputs into the non-linear governing equations is three, which are
required to calculate the space coordinates (x, y, z) of the PD source.
In some cases it is possible to perform a coarse localization of a PD source using only one acoustic sensor. The
procedure consists in a stepwise minimisation of the time between the electrical PD signal and the acoustic
signal arrival time.
For the all acoustic method, i.e. triggering the acoustic system with an acoustic PD signal, an exact spatial
location of the PD source implies at least four acoustic signals with usable arrival time information. In this case,
the number of unknowns is four to determine the location of the PD source.
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Typical acoustic signal
Position of sensors
Figure 4.32 : Sensors on a transformer tank with a PD inside using Cartesian coordinates
[Markalous-2006]
ACOUSTIC METHODS “TIME DIFFERENCES APPROACH”

In the case where no electric signal is available (the time at which the PD occurs is unknown), the ad hoc use of
a larger acoustic signal (reference) can be used as a trigger. The acoustic wave, which reaches the nearest
sensor first (assuming straight propagation and no structure borne faster path involved), triggers the recording
of all sensor signals simultaneously. Having for instance four sensors (not overdetermined case), results in
three time differences τi starting from the reference sensor. This is illustrated in Figure 4.33, which shows the
three time differences for four acoustic signals with reference to the unknown PD source onset (represented by
T, as the additional temporal fourth unknown).
Figure 4.33 : Schematic of the acoustic time differences σ1i with respect to the
unknown PD onset represented by the additional temporal fourth unknown T [Markalous-2006]
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The nonlinear observation equations of the time differences approach are as follows:
∋x , xs1 (2 ∗ ∋ y , ys1 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs1 (2 < ∋vs √ T (2 (C.1)
∋x , xs 2 (2 ∗ ∋ y , ys 2 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs 2 (2 < ∋vs √ ∋T ∗σ12 ((2 (C.2)
∋x , xs3 (2 ∗ ∋ y , ys3 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs3 (2 < ∋vs √ ∋T ∗σ13 ((2 (C.3)
∋x , xs4 (2 ∗ ∋ y , ys4 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs4 (2 < ∋vs √ ∋T ∗σ14 ((2 (C.4)
From a geometrical point of view, the PD source location is defined by the equations (C.1 – C.4) as the
intersecting point of rotation symmetric hyperboloids. This approach could also be applied to a set of UHF only
measurements.
ACOUSTIC METHODS “PSEUDO-TIME APPROACH”

A second approach uses pseudo times which are based on transit times with additional unknown constant time
offset. These result in a mode of the formulas closely related to the pseudo-ranging four point equations
commonly utilised in GPS (Global Positioning System). In this case, the accessory fourth unknown is a time
offset Χt. Figure 4.34 depicts how the pseudo-times T'Si of the four acoustic signals are connected to the
unknown PD source onset through the time offset Χt.
PD onset TSϒ1 S1 S2 S3 S4
TSϒ2
U(t) TSϒ3
TSϒ4
Χt
t
Figure 4.34 : Schematic visualization of acoustic pseudo-times T'Si with reference to the unknown
PD onset represented by the additional temporal fourth unknown Χt [Markalous-2006]
The key idea for using pseudo-times for PD source location lies within the analogy of the 'multiple sender-1
receiver' GPS problem and the '1 sender–multiple receivers' PD location problem. All-acoustic (or all-
electromagnetic) measurements with four or more sensors act like an inverse satellite-receiver positioning
problem and result in mathematically identical formulas multiplying pseudo-times with a propagation velocity to
yield pseudo ranges (a term familiar in satellite aided geodesy). In GPS the satellites must have a precisely
synchronized system time (receiver not synchronized), which naturally requires PD signals to be recorded
simultaneously. The PD source location counterpart for the 'stationary receiver range bias', between the GPS
receiver and the sending satellite, is represented in not having a coincidence between PD signal onset and
measurement time origin. A typical way of handling pseudo-times is doing measurements with pre-triggering.
Here the time origin is the actual beginning of the vector containing the time values; often pre-triggering stands
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for using 'negative' time in this context and the time origin 't = 0'. The time the trigger occurs is when the trigger
threshold is exceeded, which is adjustable.
Without system over-determination one gets:
∋x , xs1 (2 ∗ ∋ y , ys1 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs1 (2 < ∋vs √ ∋TSϒ1 , Χt ((2 (C.5)
∋ x , xs2 (2 ∗ ∋ y , y s2 (2 ∗ ∋z , zs2 (2 < ∋vs √ ∋TSϒ2 , Χt ((2 (C.6)
The observation equations (C.5 – C.8) become symmetric due to the fact that the unknown time offset Χt is
contained in all pseudo-times T'Si. With the relation
T Sϒ1 , Χ t < T (C.9)
a second step in the calculation yields the virtual instant the PD source occurs. Furthermore the two variants of
the system of equations for all-acoustic (or all-electromagnetic) measurements are interconnected through
equation (C.9). For a geometrical interpretation of the equations (C.1 – C.4), the result is the intersection point
of rotation symmetric hyperboloids corresponds to the PD source position.
The pseudo-time notation and the subsequent application of a new (non-iterative) class of solution algorithms
with favourable features, are universal to PD source location using acoustic signals, since it even allows
localizing defects with absolute time information from mixed acoustic measurements. In terms of pseudo-times,
this is the special case of a vanishing time offset Χt. Hence, compared to the usual mixed acoustic
measurements, one more acoustic signal with usable arrival time information has to be available for the benefit
of having several novel solution algorithms at one´s disposal.
Manufactures of PD measuring systems tend to develop their own software for the analysis of recorded acoustic
signals.
PD SOURCE LOCALIZATION USING UHF PD SIGNALS

As with systems based on acoustic (ultrasonic) PD signal detection, location of PD sources is possible using the
time difference of arrival (TDOA) of EM signals at different UHF probes to triangulate the point of origin. To
locate PD sources, a minimum of 4 UHF probes are needed, which should be spaced widely around the tank,
as shown in Figure 4.35. The UHF probes should not be located all on or close to a single geometric plane
whether horizontally or vertically, as this will result in loss of PD source location capability in the direction
perpendicular to that plane.
UHF probe mounting positions should be selected so that they are aimed into as much free oil space as can be
practically achieved. UHF probes should not be close to large metal structures inside the tank (e.g., magnetic
shunts) that might block signals from certain directions, degrading PD source detection sensitivity and reducing
location ability. It is also advisable to avoid positions where the UHF probe might be exposed to strong electric
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fields at the operating power frequency. For guidance, it is suggested that the distance from UHF probe
mounting locations to corners of the tank should preferably be more than 0.25 m. This is because the boundary
conditions very close to the corners of a tank will force all components of UHF electric field to zero, diminishing
sensitivity. Provided the distance from the corner is a reasonable fraction of a wavelength at the UHF
frequencies of interest, the sensitivity will not be compromised.
S4
S2
S1
S3
Figure 4.35 : Example of suggested UHF probes (S1 to S4) positions [Judd-2003]
On a practical note, it is advisable to use equal length coaxial cables (usually RG213 cable or similar, fitted with
N-type connectors) for connection to all of the UHF probes, coiling up the spare cable for those UHF probes
closer to the measurement system. Although compensation for different cable lengths could be applied to the
arrival times of measured signals before carrying out PD source location, this represents an addition source of
possible misinterpretation. Also, where UHF probes of different types are being used in the same test
(particularly when using both UHF probes and internal UHF probes), it may be necessary to compensate the
measured signal arrival times for the different internal electrical delays of the UHF probe themselves. The
distance between the coaxial connector and the UHF antenna for an oil valve probe will be significantly longer
than for a permanently installed disc UHF probe, for example.
UHF probes installed near the top of the tank are particularly useful for locating PD defects in bushing
connection areas. UHF probes at the bottom of the tank can be installed using certain kinds of oil drain valves.
When this is possible, UHF probes can be installed without an outage. However, usually the number of valves
for retrofitting UHF probes is too few or the available positions are unsuitable to perform UHF PD source
localisation. For this reason, it has been suggested that new transformers where PD monitoring is required
should be fitted with properly positioned spare oil valves (DN50) for PD source location purposes [CIGRE-2008-
1].
According to experience with UHF methods for finding PD problems in transformers, 4 sensors should be the
minimum for PD source location. Six UHF probes may be applicable to especially large transformers.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF UHF METHOD FOR PD LOCATION

The problem of UHF PD source location can be solved using the same mathematical approach as that
presented for acoustic signals although in the case of acoustic signals it is never possible to work with absolute
arrival times. For UHF the PD source location in three dimensions can be determined from a minimum of three
independent parameters, which are the time differences between the signal arrival at one sensor and its arrival
times at 3 other, geometrically spaced, UHF probes. The most obvious difference from the acoustic method is
that the time differences are very much smaller due to the high propagation velocity of electromagnetic waves in
transformer oil (typically 2 x 108 m/s). Due to the fact that the velocity of electromagnetic waves depends on
both the permeability and permittivity of the medium (oil) thus velocities will vary for different insulating fluids.
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Hence, even for large power transformers, the time differences should not exceed more than a few 10s of ns.
Based on the signal velocity, a time resolution of 1 ns corresponds to a distance travelled of ~20 cm. This shows
the need for a large bandwidth with a high sample rate for the signal acquisition system, if the uncertainty in the
PD source location is to be kept within a few 10s of cm.
Rather than describe the conventional triangulation algorithm that has already been outline for acoustic PD
source location, an alternative numerical method has been developed by some users of UHF methods, which
attempts to take into account diffraction of UHF signals around conducting structures inside the tank. Before
doing so, it is worth considering some other differences between acoustic and UHF signal propagation beyond
just the velocity. UHF signal (electromagnetic) propagation is simpler in the sense that the velocity is almost
entirely constant due to the fact that the oil medium fills up most of the tank. In contrast, acoustic signals can
propagate in the tank walls with higher velocity than in the bulk oil, and will also have different velocities and
additional damping caused by solid insulating components in the signal path. These factors can add complexity
to the task of deducing the PD source location. On the other hand, UHF signals are completely blocked from
passing through conducting parts (primarily the core and the steel structures that support it), meaning that the
advantage of a constant velocity is countered by the inability to assume straight line propagation. Thus if
between the PD source and any UHF- sensor there is a conducting obstacle, then the signal must take a longer
path, involving either diffraction (travelling around the surface of the obstacle) or reflection from another
conducting surface. In both cases, this means the signal will arrive a bit later than when the direct path consists
only of oil or insulation.
Due to the fact that line of sight propagation cannot be assumed for UHF PD signals, numerical models have
been developed that pre-calculate time differences of arrival at all of the sensors for a given internal structure
and known sensor positions. This information is stored as a ‘look-up table’ for a mesh of all possible PD source
locations throughout the tank (e.g., on a cubic mesh of points with 10 cm spacing). In simple terms, when the
measured arrival time differences have been found during a practical PD investigation, the software can identify
suitable matching positions inside that tank that exhibit time differences that agree with the measured values (to
within a certain delay time tolerance). Further details of this approach can be found in [Yang-2003, Mirzaei-
2012].
In Figure 4.36, each of the coloured surfaces shows points that match the measured time differences of arrival
between a pair of UHF probes. That is, red matches S1:S2, yellow matches S1:S3 and green matches S2:S3.
Their intersection defines the most likely position of the PD source. In this example, the UHF signals were
created by pulse injection into the sensor S4 (not visible in Figure 4.36) located on the back wall of the tank,
which lies on the locus of intersection of the three surfaces.
Figure 4.36 : Illustration of UHF PD location visualization [Judd-2003]
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Modelled diffracted signal paths from a PD source back to the UHF probes are shown in Figure 4.37.
Figure 4.37 : Illustration of modelled diffracted signal paths from a PD source back to each of the four
UHF probes on the tank wall, taking into account the core and windings [Judd-2003]
Successful applications of the analysis of electric and acoustic signals or UHF and acoustic signals for the
identification of internal PD sources are described in more detail in case studies in the Appendix.
With a transformer offering two oil filling valves, PD localisation can be performed with two UHF probes, e.g.
located opposite each other. The simplest result is that the PD source is located on a plane through the middle
of the transformer, in-between both probes (see Figure 4.38).
Figure 4.38 : PD localisation with two UHF probes in the case where the PD source
is in the middle of the transformer [Coenen-2012]
The emitted EM waves travel to both UHF probes and result in the same travel time of t1, with zero measurable
time difference tm between the probes. The localisation result is not definite because, as indicated by the dotted
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line (top view) showing other possible PD source locations (Figure 4.38) with a measurable time difference of
zero. These source locations all exist on a plane which is normal to a line between both probes which intersects
it at the midpoint between the probes.
In a case where the PD source is located somewhere other than the middle position within the transformer, a
time difference tm can be measured between the signals of both probes. That time difference denotes the
source location as being on a sphere around probe 2, see dotted sphere correlating to that time difference in
Figure 4.39.
That PD source will cause the same measurable time difference of tm with the same non-measurable travel time
of t2 to probe 1 and in the direction of probe 2. The dotted line of possible PD source locations is defined by
points with the same distance between the sphere and probe 1, which is the mathematical definition of a
hyperbola as shown in Figure 4.39.
With respect to the dimensions of power transformers, the hyperbola can be approximated by a line or an area
inside the transformer. The error between the hyperbola and the line increases with an increasing distance to
the diagonal line between the measuring probes. That means the spatial deviation between the hyperbola and
the approximated area is the greatest at the tank wall. But normally the error between hyperbola and the
approximated area can be neglected because possible PD sources are located in the active part which is
centred in the tank.
The area of the possible PD source location is defined by the distance D between the PD source and the
respective probe [Coenen-2012]. That distance D can be determined by multiplying the time t1 with the speed
voil of UHF waves in oil from equation (1):
D < t1 √ voil (1)

The time t1 can be calculated by tdiag which is the time of flight between both probes diagonally through the
transformer and the measured time difference tm:
t diag , t m
t1 < (2)
2 .
As shown in both theoretical examples the localisation accuracy using only two UHF probes is limited to a
confirmation of the possible PD source being inside the transformer. For more precise localisation, a
combination of different methods must be applied (see case studies in Annex).
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Figure 4.39 : PD localisation with two UHF probes in the case where the PD source
is somewhere in the transformer [Coenen-2012]
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5 PD measurements on transformers in a HV laboratory

A PD measurement is a non-destructive tool used to establish the condition of a transformer’s insulation system.
The goal of PD measurements is to certify that no harmful PD sources exist. A PD measurement makes it
possible to detect and localize areas within the transformer which are exposed to elevated dielectric stresses,
i.e. which in the long run can be harmful to the transformer’s safe operation. PD measurements are explicitly
specified in international standards or in customer specifications. They are to be carried out in conjunction with
dielectric tests in high voltage laboratories using power frequency range AC voltage. For HVDC transformers
PD measurements are also carried out on dielectric tests with DC voltages. For on-site PD measurements (for
example on repaired transformers) other types of external PD free voltage sources may also be used
[Aschwanden-1998]. PD measurements should generally be the last dielectric test conducted on the
transformer.
5.1 Testing procedure

The procedure for PD measurement on transfomers is defined by an induced voltage test with PD measurement
according to the graph in Figure 5.1 [IEC 60076-3, 2013]. The procedure includes an enhanced voltage level of
1.8 x Ur / √3 and a PD measurement at 1.58 x Ur / √3 for a duration of one hour.
Figure 5.1 : Test voltage values during induced test (IVPD) [IEC 2000-1]
5.2 Test circuit for PD measure ments on tr ansfor mers

PD measurements on transformers are well documented in international Standards [IEC 60076-3-2000, IEC
60270-2000, and C57.113-2010]. All standardized methods are based on the detection of electrical PD signals
(current impulses i(t)) circulating in the parallel connected capacitors Ck (coupling capacitor) and Ct (test object
capacitance) via a measuring impedance Zm. The basic equivalent circuit for measurement of electrical PD
signals on transformers is presented in Figure 5.2 [Hauschild-2014]. Most PD systems available on the market
perform a “quasi integration” of the PD current impulses in the frequency domain using a “wideband” or
“narrowband” filter, see section Conventional PD measuring system.
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Figure 5.2 : Standardized measuring circuit for induced voltage test on transformers, including PD
measurement [CIGRE-2008-2]
5.3 Permissi ble values of apparent charge

For more than 50 years the measurement of apparent charge (according to Standards) has been used as an
acceptance criterion to judge the quality of electrical insulation systems during commissioning tests. The
permissible levels for the amplitude of apparent charge are mainly based on experience. The magnitude of
measurable apparent charge qm in pC or in µV in the external test circuit is defined by a calibrating procedure
which is repeated for each bushing connected with measuring impedance Zm. A critical review of calibration is
given in the section Error due to calibration.
Present IEC- and IEEE-Standards have both established rules for measuring and evaluating electric signals
caused by PD together with specifications for permissible magnitude of apparent charge [Carlson-2003].
The IEC approach to the processing of the recorded electric signal is different from the IEEE approach. IEC
transforms the signal to an apparent electric charge, generally measured in picocoulombs (pC), while IEEE
transforms the signal to a Radio Interference Voltage (RIV), generally measured in microvolts (μV).
The use of the RIV method for PD signal detection will be abandoned in new standards, although the IEEE
standard has not yet been officially approved. The detection of apparent charge in pC is the preferred method
now in use in the IEEE Standard C57.113 [2010].
Acceptance criteria according to international Standards are summarised below.
IEC STANDARD
The PD test is considered successful if no continuous PD activity greater than the specified apparent charge
amplitude in pC is detected at any bushing, and if there is no rising trend in the apparent charge amplitude
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during the long duration test. The recommended acceptable values of apparent charge for power transformers
given in the IEC 60076-3 are:
- 100 pC at 130% Um
- 250 pC at 150% Um
- the level of continuous PD activity must not exceed 100 pC at 1,1 Um,
where Um is the highest voltage for equipment according to IEC, or in other words the highest rms
phase-to-phase voltage for which the transformer winding is designed.
IEEE STANDARD
The PD test is considered successful if no continuous PD activity greater than the specified RIV level in μV is
detected at any bushing, and if there is no rising trend of RIV during the long duration test. According to IEEE
C57.113 a PD test is successful if the following conditions are met:
- The magnitude of the PD level does not exceed 100 μV

- The PD level increase during one hour of testing does not exceed 30 μV
- The PD level during the one hour of testing does not exhibit any steadily rising trend, and no sudden,
sustained increase in level occurs during the last 20 minutes of the test.
As discussed in the section Measurement of apparent charge, the recorded magnitudes of apparent charge
are only valid for PD sources which are located close to the calibrated bushing. For all other positions of the PD
source, the calibration is not valid (see Attenuation of electric PD signals within a transformer). Therefore,
the measured value of apparent charge in pC or in μV is not always a meaningful acceptance criterion for
transformers if a PD activity was detected at one or more bushings during the FAT. Furthermore, a judgement
on the severity of the measured PD activity is impossible without knowing the location of the PD source in the
electrical insulation system of the transformer (see chapter 7). Today, international standards have no criteria
for the allowable PD level at nominal operating voltage. It is recommended to include such criteria in future
revisions of the standards. Permanent PD activity during service, even at low levels, may be harmful to power
transformers.
MULTI TERMINAL CALIBRATION ACCORDING TO IEC 60270

It is recommended that all bushings of the transformer under test should be equipped with a measuring
impedance Zm to ensure that PD activity can be measured simultaneously, so as to allow PD identification and
localisation to be performed efficiently.
In such a setup the calibrating signals are injected into all bushings, enabling the determination of a cross
coupling matrix (Figure 5.3). This cross coupling matrix can be used for a first rough PD source localisation in
the case where a PD signal occurs during the HV tests. It is further necessary to calibrate all PD measurement
channels at two different levels, e.g. 200 pC and 1000 pC, in order to verify that the signals behave linearly in
the frequency range of interest.
It is recommended that the calibrations and the determination of the calibration matrix are performed at the
same bandwidth of the bandpass filter and at the same centre frequencies at which the final PD measurements
will be made. It is possible that the calibration will need to be repeated several times using different settings of
frequency range, bandwidth etc., due to background noise variations when the HV voltage source is connected
to the transformer or when the HV source is disconnected. The differences in the background noise are usually
smaller in the HV laboratory than for a measurement on-site, where an optimization of the signal to noise ratio
using several centre frequencies and bandwidths is necessary.
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Figure 5.3 : Example of cross coupling calibration matrix
PD measurements in HV laboratories usually have a good signal to noise ratio as a result of the shielded
measurement environment, thus often the bandwidth of the measurement can be extended to a few 100 kHz. If
more external noise is expected, like in on-site measurements, then additional filters, gating techniques or
spectrum analysers can be used in order to improve the signal to noise ratio (see PD source localization
using electric signals). Generally, the noise level should not exceed 50% of the required PD detection
sensitivity. Typically, in a shielded HV laboratory the noise level is in a range of a few pC, whereas it could be
several 100 pC in an unshielded HV laboratory. In this case, the same procedure as used for on-site
measurement must be applied, i.e. setting of the centre frequency of the band pass filter to the resonance
frequency of the measuring chain (see Attenuation of electric PD signals within a transformer).
After the calibration of all bushings equipped with measuring impedances, the HV test procedure can start.
Besides the registration of values of apparent charge (normally by an automated measuring procedure), the PD
pattern at minimum voltage should be recorded as a background noise reference. For measured PD activity at
any bushing, a PD pattern should be recorded to help identify the PD source (see chapter 3.1). During the long
duration test (IVPD), the registration of at least one PD pattern at all measuring terminals is recommended as a
fingerprint. When recording a PD pattern, ensure that the correct synchronisation phase voltage is selected for
each PD channel.
Interpretation of recorded PD patterns during delivery tests requires experience and a strong analytical
capability. If there is more than one PD source in the electrical insulation system (superimposed PD pattern), a
comparison with typical types of PD patterns and identifying the corresponding type of PD becomes much more
difficult.
DEFICIENCIES OF THE TEST CIRCUIT

If the calibration was performed successfully, the recording system should work properly during the HV test.
Nevertheless, problems can occur sometimes during the measuring procedure due to deficiencies within the
test circuit. Typical problems in a PD test circuit are:
- Bad contact in the capacitive tap of a bushing

- Bad contact in the quadrupole
- Bad contact to ground
- Saturation of the quadrupole due to charging current
- Wrong connection of the preamplifier (input/output wrongly connected)
- Amplifier not suitable
- Defect in the recording system / software
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Another important problem with PD measurement is external corona, which can originate from sharp points at
high voltage potential or at earth potential. It can also come from floating objects or poorly earthed parts of the
transformer to be tested, like bushing turrets, oil expansion tank, or unearthed equipment in the test area.
Corona from sharp points has an inception around the test voltage peaks, being at the negative voltage peak if
the sharp point is at HV potential and at the positive peak if the sharp point is at earth potential. Examples of PD
patterns for a tip electrode PD source in air showing the typical “trichel pulses” of negative polarity are shown in
Figure 5.4 and in Annex.
A good tool for the localisation of external corona is an ultrasonic detector with a waveform concentrator
(“corona gun”) or a UV camera [Borneburg-2003]. Typical examples of external PD sources in the test circuit of
a transformer under test are:
- Improper connection of bushings flanges

- Oil conservator and structures / vacuum meter
- Piping from bushing turrets
- Gas detector relay and piping
- Loose material on the cover or on radiators/coolers
- Open current transformers and covers not grounded
- Pollution on external bushing insulation
- Problems with grounding of the bushing capacitive tap
- Mounting clamps on DIN bushings
- Measuring or supply leads too close to ground potential – e.g. safety fence
a) PD pattern b) UV light emission
Figure 5.4 : Examples of external corona at HV potential [Schwarz-Siemens]
Typical examples of external PD sources in the test hall are:
- Voltage divider
- Sphere gap / chopping device
- Standard capacitor
- Current and voltage transformer / divider
- Fence / ladder
- Impulse generator
- Other test or laboratory equipment
- Other test object
- Crane in production hall (radio controlled)
- Grounding system
- Disturbance from supply system (check PD level on supply)
- Debris on the floor
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Before starting the investigation procedure for an internal PD source, exclude all possible external sources
through a step by step procedure.
5.4 PD source investigati on

Once all potential external PD sources have been eliminated, a PD source investigation procedure including
localisation can be started. The investigation procedure of the internal PD activity itself must be adapted to the
PD source behaviour.
As a first step, the following information should be collected:
- Inception voltage of the PD source (reproducibility)

- Extinction voltage of the PD source (reproducibility)
- PD pattern 10% above the inception voltage (reproducibility)
- PD pattern at different voltage levels up to nominal voltage (if possible) to investigate the behaviour of
the PD source
- Investigation of changes in the PD pattern at higher test voltages
- Dependence of the PD pattern on the tap changer position
- Dependence of the PD pattern on the duration of applied voltage, short or long duration test.
PD pattern should be registered at all bushings of the transformer (see Multi Terminal Calibration according
to IEC 60270).
Analysis of the PD pattern delivers the following information:
- Whether there is only one PD source or multiple PD sources (superimposed PD pattern)

- Information about the type of the PD source (see 3.1)
- Comparison of the results with the cross coupling matrix indicates the faulty phase.
The analysis of these data is the basis for the next steps in the investigating procedure.
If more than one PD source is detected, additional single phase tests could be helpful.
For the further investigation of a PD problem, advanced PD systems, as discussed in chapter Non-standard
electrical PD signal detection systems (Figure 2.8), can be used. Advanced PD systems are suitable for
both, the recording of PD signals in the time and frequency domain and for recording the PD pattern.
Connection arrangements for an advanced PD system to bushings, for simultaneous recording of PD signals in
the time and frequency domain are shown in Figure 5.5.
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Figure 5.5 : Connection of an advanced PD system for recording of frequency spectra of PD signals and
PD patterns [Power Diagnostix]
If a PD activity is assumed to be correlated with a HV phase (based on highest amplitude of apparent charge), it
has to be ensured that the PD source is really located there. Due to the characteristic resonance frequency of
each measuring chain (test object, coupling capacitance, measuring impedance, coaxial cable and input of the
measuring system), the result may be misleading if the amplitude of apparent charge is determined at only one
centre frequency. For example, if the PD source is actually located on the LV side and the coupled PD signals
measured at the HV bushings are detected at the resonance frequency of the HV measuring chain, the
recorded amplitude of apparent charge may be higher at the HV bushing (see Figure 5.6) than at the LV
bushing. Therefore it is important to know the resonance frequencies of each individual measuring chain, not
only for the localisation of the PD source, but also to identify the frequency range with the best signal to noise
ratio and to define suitable centre frequencies to attain the maximum sensitivity for the detection of PD signals.
Resonance frequency
Figure 5.6 : Example of resonance frequency in the measuring chain [Fuhr-PD test]
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CHARACTERISATION OF THE TRANSFORMER UNDER TEST

As discussed in the section PD source localization using electric signals, all the information about the
location of the PD source is available in the PD current signals detectable at the bushings. The localisation of
PD signals is based on the comparison of the recorded PD current signals at bushings (in the time and
frequency domain) with the characteristic responses of the RLCM network of the transformer under test to the
excitation by a fast signal (conventional PD test calibrator) at different bushings (characterization of the
transformer). As previously covered, the characterisation of the transformer under test must be performed using
calibrating signals injected at each bushing where PD patterns were measured during previous tests. Frequency
spectra and time domain signals of the calibrating signal are recorded at the calibrated bushing and at all
bushings where the calibrating signal is detectable due to internal coupling (calibrating matrix for frequency
spectra and time signals, see Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8).
For the recording of PD signals in the frequency domain, a spectrum analyser should be used. The signal from
the quadrupole (measuring impedance Zm) runs directly into the spectrum analyser (see chapter Non-standard
electrical PD signal detection systems). The spectrum analyser is used to analyse the PD current impulses in
the frequency domain (full span mode) and to detect the PD signals using a variable bandpass filter (quasi-
integration of PD current pulses, zero span mode). In the zero span mode, the video-out signal of the spectrum
analyser (output of the bandpass filter) is connected to the input to the PD analyser system to record the PD
pattern.
A record of the frequency spectra of coupled calibrating signals at other bushings (calibration matrix) is needed
to identify the best range for the measurement frequency suitable for the detection of the PD signal (see Figure
5.8, right diagram).
Figure 5.7 : Example of frequency spectra at one bushing [Fuhr-PD test]
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Calibrating signal injected at HV bushing Calibrating signal injected at HV bushing

Response: HV bushing (upper trace) Response: HV bushing (U1)
LV bushing (lower trace) LV bushing (U2, phase U)
LV bushing (V2, phase V)
Figure 5.8 : Cross coupling signals in time and frequency domain [Fuhr-PD test]
For time domain measurements, digitizers or oscilloscopes are used to record the signals directly from the
measuring impedance (preferably without a pre-amplifier). Time signals at the output of the PD system are not
suitable as they represent the response of the bandpass filter of the system which does not contain information
about the position of the PD source. The true response of the RLCM network of the transformer to the excitation
by an internal PD source is only measurable with a high frequency impedance (HF CT) directly connected to the
measuring tap of the bushing, without additional amplifier (see chapter Non-standard electrical PD signal
detection systems and Figure 2.8).
There is a clear difference between signals generated by a PD source close to the bushing and signals
generated by a PD source hidden deep in the active part of the transformer (see Figure 5.9). For PD sources
far away from bushings, the RLCM network of the active part acts as a bandpass filter.
When recording a PD pattern using a spectrum analyser as a front end, equally for the measurement of
apparent chare according to IEC 600270, the sensitivity of the measuring chain (bushing, HF CT, selected filter
of the spectrum analyser in zero span mode, measuring cable and PRPDA system) can be checked by injecting
a defined charge (commercial calibrator) into the bushing. This sensitivity factor (see Figure 5.10) is
theoretically valid only for the particular settings of the spectrum analyser, i.e. centre frequency (MHz), filter
bandwidths (MHz) and the amplification (amplitude in mV). In practice, the determined values of apparent
charge are valid for a limited frequency range where the amplitude of the frequency spectrum is nearly constant
(see Figure 5.7).
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amplitude in mV /div
time in ns /div
Figure 5.9 : Typical PD signals recorded at bushings during PD test

Upper trace: PD source is close to the bushing
Lower trace: coupling to the neutral terminal (filter response) [Fuhr-PD test]
To obtain maximal sensitivity in recording a weak PD activity (PD sources deep inside a transformer), it is
recommended to record the frequency spectrum first, i.e. transfer characteristics of the PD signal. The highest
sensitivity is attained by setting the bandpass filter (spectrum analyser in zero span mode) at the PD resonance
frequency (see Figure 5.6). If it is necessary to use other centre frequencies for the sensitivity check, the
measurable apparent charge can be redefined at a specific centre frequency after the test. On the other hand,
based on the knowledge of the limits to the correct measurement of the magnitude of apparent charge (see
sections Error due to integration of PD pulses and Error due to calibration), the PD source investigation
procedure can identify and localise the PD source without determining the exact value of the apparent charge.
Due to the fact that the PD pattern (statistical behaviour of the PD source) is not strongly influenced by damping
in the RLCM circuit, the PD source can be identified at a specific bushing as soon as a PD pattern is detected.
100% of full scale

100pC =30% of full scale at:
Cf=1.4 MHz, Δf=0.1MHz,
Ampl=1mV
¨Value of measurable charge from a spectrum analyser Value of measurable charge from a PD analyser
(zero span mode)
Figure 5.10 : Calibration of advanced PD systems [Haessig-2003]
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After the characterisation of the transformer is completed, PD signals in the time and frequency domain and the
PD pattern are recorded simultaneously under different test conditions to determine their dependence on the
value and duration of the test voltage. From these results and from the comparison with the calibration signals,
a coarse location of the PD source can be determined as follows (detailed description of results is presented in
Figure 5.11 in the Annex):
- PD sources close to the calibrated bushing generate frequency spectra and time signals similar to the
those of the calibrating signal (see Figure 5.9)
- PD sources far away from the calibrated bushing generate frequency spectra with several resonances
due to the RLCM network of the transformer. The time domain signals correspond to the filter response
(bandpass) of the RLCM network (see Figure 5.9)
- The same PD source is responsible for the signals if the same PD pattern is recorded at different centre
frequencies and at all bushings (where there is a signal).
Based on information about the design of the transformer (position of flux collectors on the tank walls, protective
barriers etc.), PD investigtions can be extended using acoustic sensors and/or UHF probes to confirm or reject
any hypothesis about the location of the PD source.
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Frequency domain
Time domain
PD pattern
Figure 5.11 : Example of localization of PD sources by analysis of PD signals

in the time and frequency domain [Appendix-Case 14]
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LOCALISATION BY USING ACOUSTIC AND UHF SIGNALS

As discussed in section PD source localization using acoustic PD signals, the acoustic method for
localisation of PD sources is most successful if the electrical PD signal or UHF signals are used to trigger the
record of at least three acoustic sensors. By using trigonometric techniques (trilateration), the source of the
acoustic emission, i.e. the location of the PD source, is derived from the time delay between electrical or UHF
signals and acoustic signals. The velocity of acoustic waves in oil is around 1250 m/s, while the UHF waves
8
propagate with a speed of 2 x 10 m/s, i.e. the delay of UHF signals is in the ns-range (see Figure 5.12).
Most of the acoustic signals do not reach the sensor on the direct oil path (see chapter Principles of
propagation, detection and quantification of acoustic PD signals). By using the arrival times of signals
which travel partly on the structure borne path and not on the direct oil path, in combination with an average
sound velocity valid for oil, an incorrect PD source location may result [IEEE-2007].
A key requirement for the successful application of both methods is a rather strong and repetitive acoustic PD
signal measureable on at least one channel, which may not be guaranteed at all times. On the other hand the
repetition rate of PD signals should not be very high to get clear time delay between electrical and acoustic
signals. For this reason the investigation of acoustic or UHF signals should be performed at a test voltage which
is not higher than 20% above the inception level of the PD source.
According to experience in localization of PD sources using acoustic systems the following is indicated:
- PD defects that emit acoustic waves directly into oil, like a metallic particle lying on the surface are easy
to localize (amplitude of apparent charge > 100 pC).
- PD defects hidden in the solid insulation, similar to a metallic particle in the insulation, are quite difficult
to detect (amplitude of apparent charge >1000 pC)
- PD defects in the main insulation of the transformer are more difficult to detect due to transformer
barrier boards and outer windings (amplitude of apparent charge between 1000pC to 10’000 pC)
- PD defects in the winding (shielding rings) of the transformer are very difficult to detect due to the
barriers and pressure rings (amplitude of apparent charge >100’000 pC)
- Acoustic waves caused by PD defects in the core are very difficult to localize and may give very
misleading results.
vUHF = 2*108 m/s
) ) )
vacoustic = 1250 m/s
t
t=0 tUHF tacoustic
Formation of PD generates Hit of sensor of Hit of sensor of acoustic
Figure 5.12 : Comparison of propagation velocities of acoustic and UHF signals
t0 = PD source generating acoustic and electromagnetic waves,
tUHF = arrival of electromagnetic wave after ns
tacoustic = arrival of acoustic wave after µs [Markalous-2006]
If more than one PD source is active in the electrical insulation system of the transformer, there is little chance
of getting reliable results by using acoustic methods for localisation.
Under the condition that both the electrical and UHF PD signals exist in a simultaneous measurement, the PD
source is located most probably inside the tank. At this stage. there is still insufficient knowledge to judge the
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severity of detected PD activity on the basis of UHF signals only. However, a ‘rule of thumb’ can be given here
[Judd-2001]:
- a few of 10 mV UHF signal ↑ 100’s pC

- a few of 100 mV UHF signal ↑ 1000’s pC
- a few of 1000 mV UHF signal ↑ severe PD source (possibly arcing)
In this scheme, the mV levels of the UHF signals are the peak-to-peak values measured directly from an
antenna type UHF probe (without amplification) using an oscilloscope with a bandwidth of 1 GHz or more. As
the UHF probe response influences the measurement, it should be noted that these ranges are typical for a
UHF probe with an effective antenna length of 10 cm and over a frequency range 500 – 1500 MHz [Judd-1998].
Where there is more than one UHF probe, the one with the largest output voltage should be used to apply this
severity estimation, since this is normally the sensor closest to the PD source.
To be sure, that the results of acoustic and UHF methods relate to the PD source under investigation, the PD
pattern generated by electric signals and acoustic or UHF signals should have the same shape (statistical
behaviour of one PD source). However, for PD sources generated due to an extremely inhomogeneous
electrical field, like a tip electrode, the PD pattern of electrical and UHF signals may not be identical.
If neither acoustic nor UHF techniques allow a more detailed PD source localisation, then additional techniques
based on the evaluation of the time and frequency domain signals together with transfer characteristics of the
transformer winding, i.e. injection of calibrating signals on the active part of the transformer, are the only way to
localize the PD source. To enable this and to allow investigation of the transfer characteristics of the active parts
of the transformer, the oil must be removed from the tank.
5.5 Recommended procedure for successf ul solution of PD probl ems

Based on the discussions in WG D1.29 and on the summary of chapter PD source investigation, the following
procedure may be applied to successfully solve PD problems:
STEP 1.1
- Analyse PD patterns recorded at connected bushings (IEC 60270) during a three phase induced test
(type of the PD source), Figure 5.13
- Confirm that the detected PD activity is inside the electrical insulation system (UHF signals)
- Determine inception and extinction voltages
a) PD pattern b) Hysteresis of PD activity
Figure 5.13 : Analysis of PD pattern and inception /extinction voltage (hysteresis) [OMICRON]
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STEP 1.2
- Connect wideband PD sensors at all accessible bushings of the transformer (HV side, LV side, neutral
terminal, grounding of the core and press plate)
- Determine the calibration coupling matrix, (Figure 5.14)
- Determine the transfer function coupling matrix of signals in the time and frequency domain, (Figure
5.15)
Figure 5.14 : Example of a calibration coupling matrix (HV side)
Time domain Frequency domain
HV bushing
LV bushing
Injection of a fast signal (calibrator) at one bushing Injection of a fast signal (calibrator) at one bushing and
and recording of response at all other bushings in recording of response at all other bushings in the frequency
the time domain domain
Figure 5.15 : Characterization of the transformer under test [Fuhr-PD test]
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STEP 1.3
- Record the PD patterns and signals in the time and frequency domain under the same testing
conditions at all bushings, where signals of the actual PD source are available, Figure 5.16
PD pattern PD signal in frequency domain PD signal in time domain
HV
amplitude in pC
HV
LV LV
phase
Figure 5.16 : Typical results from a PD source investigation [Fuhr-PD test]
STEP 1.4
- Analyse all recorded PD data (in depth analysis) by comparing with the characteristic data of the
transformer (calibration coupling matrix, transfer function coupling matrix)
Both the calibration coupling matrix (pC values) and the transfer function coupling matrix of the specific
transformer under test are valid only for a PD source located close to the terminal where the calibrating signal
was injected.
From an analysis of results as shown in Figure 5.16, the type of the PD source (analysis of PD pattern) and its
possible location (analysis of PD signals in the time and frequency domain) can be determined. Through
studying the transformer’s design data, suitable positions for placing acoustic sensors or UHF probes can be
defined. If possible, UHF probes should be introduced into the tank of the transformer at suitable positions (for
example using oil valve UHF probes, Figure 5.17).
STEP 2
- Place acoustic and UHF probes at locations defined in Step 1.4.
- Repeat the PD test under the same conditions as when determining the PD patterns and PD signals in
the time and frequency domain, recording the PD pattern for all three signals (electrical, acoustic and
UHF)
- Perform an in depth analysis of all recorded data, comparing the PD pattern generated by electrical,
acoustic and UHF signals to confirm that the same PD source is being investigated (the shape of all
three PD patterns should be similar)
- Use a single phase test or applied voltage test if the relationship between the PD source and the
localised electric field is required
In cases where these methods do not result in a successful localisation of the PD source, remove the oil from
the tank and inject calibrating signals at assumed PD locations (there may be several) which are based on the
results of the previous investigations in Step 1 and 2.
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UHF Probe [OMICRON] Acoustic sensors [Lundgaard-1992]
Figure 5.17 : Examples of acoustic and UHF probes
STEP 3
- Inject calibration signals on active parts of the transformer (if possible inside the tank) at different
locations and measure the responses at bushings (or on the leads) where PD activity was recorded
(Figure 5.18)
- Compare the PD signals in the time and frequency domain recorded during the test with responses from
the active parts (RLCM network) to the excitation by a calibrating signal applied to different locations on
the insulation (see Figure 5.11)
- Visually inspect all areas where the PD source is expected
The position, where the injection of the calibrating impulse delivers responses in the time and frequency domain
which are the closest to signals of the real PD source recorded at the bushings, is the location of the PD source
(PD source localization using electric signals).
Figure 5.18 : Examples of successful identification of the PD source [Fuhr-PD test]
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6 PD measurements on-site
Due to safety factors used in the design of power transformers, electrical breakdown originating from dangerous
PD sources develops very slowly in most cases.
Continuous PD activity in the oil impregnated electrical insulation system can normally be recognised thorough
a simple Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) of the oil [CIGRE-2006, IEEE-1991]. Typical PD gases are mainly
Hydrogen and Methane. If there is suspicion of PD activity in the electrical insulation system of a transformer,
then today it is possible to perform sensitive PD measurement on-site using an external voltage source to
identify and localize PD sources [Aschwanden-1989, Haessig-2001, Fuhr-2005].
For site investigations of PD activity in transformers, measuring methods which are not in accordance with IEC
60270, like the application of advanced measuring systems (Non-standard electrical PD signal detection
systems), measurement of apparent charge at higher centre frequency than 1MHz and acoustic / UHF methods
are used to find the problem in an efficient way.
6.1 Excitati on of the transformer on-si te

One way to excite a transformer for PD measurement on-site is to connect it to the grid at nominal voltage and
power frequency at no load, i.e. normally the HV is open. For PD sources located outside of the winding these
can be identified and localized by the application of UHF and acoustic sensors [Lungaard-2003]. In reality the
possibility of detecting a PD source under these conditions is very limited due to the corruption of the weak
measured internal PD signals by high amplitude wideband disturbances in power stations or substations (see
case studies in Annex). Therefore, for an off-line PD measurement with high detection sensitivity, a mobile, PD
free voltage source for the excitation of the transformer under test is the preferred solution. The overview of
different voltage sources available for on-site PD measurement is summarized in Figure 6.1.
Bushings : PD Sensors corresponding to

IEC 60270 figure 2
Step-up
Frequency transformer
Mains
converter
mobile Diesel
Fuel generator
Compensation
Power station reactors
Power station
generator
Figure 6.1 : Different voltage sources for induced voltage test on-site [Haessig-2003]
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For the excitation of power transformers on-site, it is desirable to use an AC source which fulfils the following
requirements:
a) Mobile unit with a PD-free output voltage

b) Frequency of the test voltage being higher than power frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) to
discriminate noise generated by the power frequency environment against phase correlated PD
signals and to avoid saturation of the iron core at test voltages higher than nominal voltage (Ur)
c) Variable test voltage (10% -120% Um) to investigate the PD activity onset and extinction
voltage of detected faults
Today, mobile HV test systems for transformers are commercially available, thus sensitive PD measurements
can be performed on-site as well as in the laboratory. Mobile HV test systems are based on motor generator
sets or on static frequency converters. In general, frequency converter based systems offer much more flexibility
and are therefore the favoured solution. An example of a mobile HV test system is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 : Mobile voltage sources for induced and applied voltage test on-site [HIGHVOLT]
6.2 PD measuri ng system for on-site

For power transformers commercially available PD detection systems (e.g. according to IEC 60270), as used in
shielded HV laboratories are not suitable for on-site applications, because electromagnetic interference from
operating substations or energized power lines severely hamper the detection sensitivity. A non-standard PD
system as discussed in section Non-standard electrical PD signal detection systems, can be used to cope
with severe interference existing on-site. As discussed in chapter PD source investigation, the advanced PD
system is suitable for both the recording of PD signals in the time and frequency domain and for recording the
PD pattern. The advanced PD system is connected to bushings as shown in in Figure 5.5 in the chapter PD
source investigation.
Before performing PD measurements on-site, the background noise should be investigated carefully using a
spectrum analyser. The calibrator is directly connected to the bushings and the full span spectra (up to 10 MHz)
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of the calibrating impulses (0, 100 and 1000 pC) are registered with the spectrum analyser to find a suitable
centre frequency fc for narrowband PD-detection for each measuring terminal (see Figure 6.3).
The centre frequency for narrowband filtering is selected for the optimum signal to noise ratio within a frequency
range of 200 kHz to 5 MHz. Centre frequencies higher than 1 MHz may lead to satisfactory signal to noise
ratios. However, the sensitivity of the detection circuit may be reduced. Multi-terminal measurements and
selection of the centre frequency at the resonance frequency of the measurement chain would help to solve
sensitivity problems (see PD source investigation). The goal of on-site PD measurements is to identify and
localize PD sources and to decide how dangerous the PD activity may be to the safe operation of the
transformer. To achieve this goal, the correct measurement of the apparent charge does not play an important
role. Recording of PD patterns even with lower magnitudes of apparent charge (due to the measurement at
higher centre frequency) is sufficient to recognise the type of the PD source (see chapter Typical PD patterns).
Figure 6.3 : Example of frequency spectra at one bushing and coupling to other bushings [Fuhr-PD test]
Before the transformer is excited on site with an external voltage source, the same characterisation procedure
as described in chapter PD source investigation must be carried out to obtain the basic information for the
successful localisation of PD sources during the PD tests.
6.3 PD test
In the PD test sequence data sets including frequency spectra, signals in the time domain and PD patterns are
recorded at each test voltage step. The first data set is recorded at 10 % U n to define the background noise
condition of the whole test set-up. At each following level of the test voltage (up to 120 % U n) the full span
spectra are observed and compared with the frequency spectrum of the background noise (at 10 % U n).
Generally, each change in the amplitude and/or in the shape of the frequency spectrum is an indication that a
new PD activity started in the test circuit (internal or external PD). According to the analysis of the frequency
spectrum of the PD activity (full span mode), PD patterns are recorded at a specific centre frequency where a
PD source is active, i.e. in the flat part of the spectrum (Y1 in Figure 6.4), or at a resonance peak (X1 in Figure
6.4). For measurement of PD patterns, the spectrum analyser is switched to the bandpass filter mode (zero
span mode) and acts in this mode as a front-end of the PRPDA system (see Figure 5.5 in chapter PD source
investigation). PD patterns should be recorded at least at two different centre frequencies to make sure that
the recorded frequency spectrum of the PD signal measured at the bushing belongs to the one PD source.
Frequency spectra during PD measurements must be recorded to check both the initiation of internal or external
PD activity in the test circuit and to select a suitable centre frequency fc of the bandpass filter for the PD pattern
measurement. If the internal PD source has a frequency spectrum which is not suitable for sensitive
measurement of real PD signals, the centre frequency must be changed. For the measurement of the amplitude
of apparent charge, the test circuit can be recalibrated after the test at the new centre frequency. As already
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mentioned, the correct measurement of the magnitude of the apparent charge is not the first priority for on-site
PD testing.
Frequency domain Time domain
Y1
X1
Real PD signals in frequency domain Real PD signals in time domain

Y1=PD source close to the bushing PD source close to Y1-bushing
X1=cross coupling from Y1 Filter response at X1-bushing
Figure 6.4 : Example for localization of PD sources by analysis of PD signals

in the time and frequency domain [Fuhr-PD test]
Normally, during on-site testing of new transformers no PD activity will be detected. In this case, frequency
spectra at 100% Un and 120% Un should be recorded and compared - with the background noise frequency
spectrum as a reference - to demonstrate that the transformer under test is PD free.
If PD activity is detected, PD signals in the time and frequency domain and PD patterns should be recoded at all
accessible bushings and under different test conditions to get the most information about the type and coarse
location of the PD source. The same procedure for the PD source investigation, as described under section 5.5,
including acoustic and/or UHF techniques, should be applied.
6.4 Suppression of electromagnetic interference

PD signals outside of screened laboratories are often superimposed with electromagnetic interference, which
makes sensitive PD measurements nearly impossible. Therefore, the handling of disturbances is one of the
main tasks when measuring PD activity on-site. The following methods are recommended to reduce the
problem of noise interference.
MEASURING CIRCUIT
Generally, long cable connections to the PD impedances and long measuring cables act like large loop
antennas. The PD impedance (HF CT) should be coaxially connected directly at the bushing tap (Figure 6.5).
Line filters or blocking impedances can suppress the conducted noise coming from the power supply or from the
mobile HV test set.
Bridge circuits (see Figure 6.6) with an additional capacitor can be used to reduce common mode noise signals.
The bridge though has to be tuned to the centre frequency of the PD instrument and the bandwidth of the
instrument should be narrow.
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Figure 6.5 : Coaxial connection of the HF current transformer to the bushing tap [Haessig-2003]
Tr = voltage source
Zn = voltage source connexion
Ca1 = test object 1
Ca2 = test object 2
Zm1 = measuring impedance 1
Zm2 = measuring impedance 2
In = PD current impulse
Mi = measuring system
Figure 6.6 : Schematic of a bridge circuit for PD measurement [CIGRE-2008-2]
MEASURING PROCEDURE
Efficient discrimination between PD signals and background noise (mainly due to power frequency synchronous
corona discharges) is achieved by selecting the frequency of the test voltage higher than the power frequency in
the substation or power station. The PD system is synchronised with the test voltage when recording the PD
pattern. Under such conditions, noise signals originating from power frequency equipment of the substation will
appear as distributed noise floor in the PD pattern (see Figure 6.7). A PD activity in the test circuit will always
be correlated to the test voltage and will therefore generate a PD pattern which can be identified (due to the
colour), even at amplitudes well below the external noise (amplitude selective measurement).
Noise impulses or bursts of noise can be cancelled by gating the input of the measuring system. To trigger the
gating circuit, antennas for radiated noise or HFCT's for conducted noise are used.
As already mentioned earlier, the signal to noise ratio of the PD detection circuit can be optimized by selecting a
suitable centre frequency and bandwidth of the band pass filter (see Figure 6.3).
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amplitude in pC
noise
PD signals
phase
Figure 6.7 : Noise suppression by using different frequency of the test voltage
(amplitude selective measurement) [Fuhr-PD test]
ANALYSING SOFTWARE
For a three phase excitation of the transformer, the synchronous acquisition of PD data for all three phases
allows a pulse-by-pulse amplitude comparison (3 Phase Amplitude Relation Diagram, 3PARD). By assuming an
internal PD source in the transformer, the relationship of recorded amplitudes of the apparent charge at three
bushings will be constant (see Figure 6.8). For a specific external noise source, as shown in Figure 6.9, the
relationship of coupled signals in the three bushings will also be constant. These constant relationships of
measured signals (internal PD signal and external noise) are due to their specific spectrum and due to their
unique propagation path from the PD fault location and from the external noise source to the location of the
measuring impedance in the detection circuit (normally at the bushing) [Plath-2002, Koltunowicz-2008].
Figure 6.8 : Schematic presentation of the 3PARD of one internal PD source [OMICRON]
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Figure 6.9 : Schematic presentation of the 3PARD of external noise [OMICRON]
A comparison of amplitudes of the apparent charge at three different frequencies within the spectrum of one PD
signal provides information on its nature (PD pattern) and indicates its possible location (close to the bushing or
deep in the electrical insulation system). Furthermore, it is possible to find PD signals which are associated to a
specific PD source by varying the trigger level and by recording the frequency spectra (see Figure 6.10). The
method requires three different bandpass filters, measuring each PD event simultaneously at different centre
frequencies. These three filters have to be set in a way that the spectral differences of the PD pulses and other
pulses are at their maximum.
Figure 6.10 : Schematic presentation of the 3FRD of three PD sources [OMICRON]
Different noise suppression methods are described in several papers [Kraetge-2011, Rethmeier-2009, Feser-
1999]. Despite the successful application of these methods for specific cases, there is yet no common
procedure for on-site PD measurements. Choosing a suitable noise suppression method is done on a case by
case basis.
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7 Risk assessment based on PD measurement

The presence of partial discharges in the insulation system of a transformer is a quality criterion. It is well
known, that permanent PD activity is destructive, in particular in solid insulating materials (organic insulation
systems). This may lead to a complete electrical breakdown of the insulation system with the consequence of a
spontaneous outage of the transformer.
7.1 Possible criteri a for evaluation of the severity of PD sources

For new transformers, a meaningful criterion to assess the quality is the requirement to have an electrical
insulation system without any measurable PD activity, at least up to the nominal voltage. In the case of detected
PD activity during delivery tests, both the type of the PD source (PD pattern) and its location must be
investigated in depth (see PD source investigation). All suitable dielectric tests should be applied before
opening the transformer for repair. Opening a transformer without having an idea where the source of PD may
be does not lead to an efficient localization of the PD source.
In the normal case, a PD source which is permanently active during the operation of the transformer will
generate combustible gases, which will be dissolved in the insulating oil. When the concentration of the
dissolved gas in the oil exceeds the saturation level, an alarm or a trip of the Buchholz relay may lead to an
outage of the unit. Based on experience in analysing PD defects, there are degrees of risk associated with PD
sources in the electrical insulation system of a transformer. Typical characteristics and behaviours to distinguish
between dangerous and less dangerous PD faults are discussed below.
For transformers in service a routine check (interval for important units typically once a year) of the dissolved
gases in oil (DGA) confirms a PD free condition. Some transformers are equipped with a simple on-line system
to continuously monitor the concentration of Hydrogen (H 2) dissolved in the oil.
According to experience with DGA, a simple H2 monitoring system will detect only PD sources of a corona type,
which generate mostly Hydrogen (H2). Such PDs occur mainly in gas bubbles in oil where gas is ionized into
cold plasma of low temperature. These PD sources are considered as less dangerous due to their very low
possibility of damaging the solid insulation [Duval-2001]. On the other hand, significant PD activity with
permanent gas production may saturate the oil with H 2 and CH4 and, finally, lead to an uncontrolled outage via
an electrical breakdown (if not detected by the Buchholz relay).
PD sources of a sparking type, which generate mostly C2H2, would be only detectable by a complete DGA of the
oil sample (off-line) or by a Multi-Gas monitoring system on-line. Such PDs occur mainly in the solid insulation of
the transformer (paper, pressboard) and under the assumption that small arcs are generated, small spots of the
insulation system will be exposed to a very high temperature (≈ 3000 °C). These PD sources are considered to
be more dangerous due to the possible damage of the solid insulation caused by carbonized pinholes and
tracking [IEC-1999, Duval-2001].
Due to the safety factors used in the design of power transformers, an electrical breakdown originating from
dangerous PD develops slowly under AC stress. In cases where PD activity is suspected in the electrical
insulation system of a HV component in service, it is possible today to perform sensitive PD measurements on-
site using an external voltage source. Application of modern measuring techniques discussed in this report
allows the identification and localization of PD sources in the insulation system of transformers (see chapter PD
measurements on-site and case studies in Annex).
DANGEROUS PD SOURCES
In theory, all PD sources in solid insulating materials, i.e. in pressboard barriers of the main insulation, in press-
rings manufactured from pressboard or from laminated wood, are considered to be dangerous (see Figure 7.1).
In many cases such dangerous PD sources are caused by voids in glued pressboard plates, or by metallic
particles hidden in solid insulating materials (for example due to manufacturing). According to IEC 60599 [IEC-
1999], PD of the corona type, which occurs in gas bubbles trapped in solid insulation, is considered to be less
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dangerous. Despite of this, PD sources caused by bubbles in the glue of pressboard plates in a new transformer
should be eliminated.
Figure 7.1 : Possible locations of dangerous PD sources [Moser-1979]
Repetitive electrical discharges in weak regions (i.e. PD source of the sparking type), destroy not only surfaces
(see Figure 7.2) of insulation but also the insulation in the vicinity of the PD defect location, mainly by heat and
UV light. The damage caused by continuous PD activity was investigated in small scale experiments on 6 mm
oil impregnated pressboard samples (typical thickness of barrier used in the main electrical insulation system of
transformers) [Okabe-2010]. The applied voltage was adjusted to attain a specific apparent charge and then the
voltage was maintained for a defined test duration.
An example of damage due to permanent PD activity (PD of the sparking type) is shown in Figure 7.2.
Significant carbonised tracks (carbonized fibres) appeared on the surface of the pressboard after 4 hours
exposed to 20 nC. Inside the pressboard, tree like carbonized tracks (Lichtenberg figures) became visible by
back lighting the sample, which are due to the gas generated by the PD activity. The diameter of the tree like
pattern is dependent on both the magnitude of apparent charge and the duration of the applied voltage (see
Figure 7.3).
Carbonized tracks on the surface of the Lichtenberg-Figures inside the pressboard

pressboard
Figure 7.2 : Example of damage to the insulating material by continuous PD [Okabe-2010]
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Figure 7.3 : Influence on the diameter of Lichtenberg figure due to the magnitude of apparent charge
and duration of applied voltage [Okabe-2010]
Similar results were obtained in experiments with a metallic particle hidden between pressboard plates.
Based on the analysis of these two experiments carried out on models of transformer electrical insulation
systems (oil impregnated pressboard), it is concluded that a harmful magnitude of apparent charge for a
permanent PD activity is assumed between 10 nC and 20 nC. In relation to the damage of the surrounding
insulation, PDs of a sparking type will be more harmful than PDs of a corona type. It is important to note, that
this statement is only valid for the apparent charge measured directly at the location of the PD source.
Figure 7.4 shows an example of a continuous increase in amplitude of apparent charge during the constant test
voltage.
Level in pC
time
Figure 7.4 : Example of increasing amplitude and number of counts [Okabe-2010]
Investigation of signal damping of PD signals in the model representing a 500 kV electrical insulation system
showed that the minimum transmission rate may be as low as 2.2% (for PD sources located between windings)
[Okabe-2010]. Based on the results from these experiments and considering safety factors (long operation time,
different design), the acceptance criterion for harmful PD activity in an electrical insulation system of a
transformer may be derived as follows:
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5000 pC x 2.2% = 110 pC
These experiments confirm that the amplitude of the apparent charge measured at the bushings of a
transformer is not a meaningful criterion to assess the quality of an electrical insulation system. According to
discussions within the working group, for all PD sources whose location is not known, the magnitude of
apparent charge should not exceed 100 pC [Okabe-2010].
As shown in Figure 7.2, a permanent PD activity inside solid material causes carbonised tracks. Such
carbonised tracks will sooner or later (time is not predictable) bridge the insulation and the electrical insulation
system of the transformer will fail. This destructive process is schematically shown in Figure 7.5. A change in
the symmetry of a PD pattern indicates the proximity of the PD source to one of the electrodes, i.e. slowly
bridging the insulation distance between the electrodes. Consequently, a change in the PD pattern and a
continuous decline in apparent charge is a sign of a progression in damage at the location of the PD source.
a) PD pattern at the begin of the test
b) Development of carbonized tracks
c) Complete electrical breakdown

Figure 7.5 : Consequences of permanent PD activity in an electrical insulation system
[Fuhr-PD test, Power Diagnostix]
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Dangerous PD sources are characterised by the following typical behaviour when PD amplitudes (according to
IEC) and PD pattern are recorded:
- the shape of the PD pattern is changing during the test due to continuous damage inside and outside
the weak region
- superimposed PD pattern due to generation of new PD sources
- inception voltage is decreasing with time of applied test voltage due to the sufficient supply of starting
electrons
- amplitude of apparent charge and number of counts is increasing due to the continuous damage inside
and outside of the weak region
- amplitude of apparent charge is decreasing and the number of counts is increasing due to the
continuous damage inside the weak region (bridging the insulating distance)
When PD signals are recorded using the conventional method (according to IEC 60270), but no acoustic signals
are detectable, this may be indicative that acoustic signals are heavily attenuated. In this case, the PD source is
likely hidden inside the windings (electrical signal are measured) and therefore the risk associated with such PD
sources is expected to be high. The same argument should be considered in the situation when electrical PD
signals are measurable but no UHF signal can be found, in this case the reason is most likely that the UHF
sensor is placed in the wrong position (i.e. is shielded).
LESS DANGEROUS PD SOURCES

PD sources located outside of the active part, like bubbles in oil or metallic particles lying on the surface of solid
insulation are considered to be less dangerous (see Figure 7.6).
Less dangerous PD sources are characterised by following typical behaviour:
- bubbles in oil usually disappear after a certain time during the test
- metallic particles on a surface are usually detectable with acoustic sensors placed on the tank
- increase of the inception voltage due to the conditioning effect of the PD activity smoothing off the tip of
the metallic particle
Figure 7.6 : Location of less dangerous PD sources [Moser-1979]
LIMITS IN IDENTIFICATION OF DANGEROUS PD SOURCES

As discussed in section Measurement of apparent charge, the amplitude of the apparent charge qm at the
measured at the bushing of a transformer is definitely not a reliable criterion for recognising a dangerous PD
source. Only PD sources positioned close to the bushings can give correct amplitudes of the apparent charge
(pC or µV) in accordance with the calibration. For dangerous PD sources which are hidden deep in the electrical
insulation system, the measured amplitude of apparent charge is influenced by attenuation and reflection
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phenomena of the RLCM network (see Limitations of electric PD signal detection within a transformer).
Therefore, a low amplitude of the apparent charge does not mean that it relates to a less dangerous PD source.
According to the definition in IEC 60599 [IEC-1999], the PD patterns of the corona type, which are caused by
discharges in the gas phase (voids filled with gas), are less dangerous compared to PD patterns of the sparking
type, which are assumed to be small arcs occurring in oil or solid insulation. Unfortunately, this definition is not
applicable for the analysis of PD patterns recorded in transformers. I was demonstrated in several examples
that voids in glue, for example in press plates or in the main insulation, can change from the original corona type
discharge to the sparking type discharge (see Figure 7.5). Due to the fact, that each PD pattern reflects the
specific physical process of a discharge (as discussed in section PD pattern), bubbles or metallic particles
hidden in solid insulating materials (dangerous PD sources) generate the same PD pattern as less dangerous
PD sources, like bubbles in oil or metallic particles on the surface of solid materials. Therefore, using only the
PD patterns recorded in transformer tests, it is not possible to distinguish between dangerous and less
dangerous PD sources without having an idea of the location of the PD source.
Studying the behaviour of PD sources (changes in the PD patterns) during different test conditions delivers
important information about the potential risk of the PD defects. Final identification of dangerous PD sources is
only possible if the origin of the PD activity was clearly localised. Limitations in localisation are discussed in
Principles of PD localization in transformers.
7.2 PD monitori ng system for transfor mers

Power transformers are critical components of the electrical supply network (e.g. generator step up or grid
transformers). We know that failure rates have dropped significantly over the last 30 years. During this time
period, the transformer industry has learned to optimize the design of the insulation system by reducing
insulation thicknesses and clearances, but also improved material handling and quality control in the
manufacturing process. To keep the failure rate low, the quality control during design, manufacturing and
especially during final testing in the laboratory (FAT) are very important.
One method to prevent service aged transformers from causing uncontrolled outages would be to use
continuous monitoring of changes in the electrical insulation system. It is commonly accepted that internal PD
sources are the first indication of elevated dielectric stresses (high electrical field) within the transformer. A
continuous PD in the solid insulation (PD of the sparking type) during service can lead to a complete electrical
breakdown in an unpredictable time. A continuous PD activity in gas bubbles in oil (PD of the corona type)
during service is considered to be less dangerous. On the other hand, continuously increasing amounts of
dissolved gases in oil can cause saturation of the oil followed by electrical breakdown. Hence universities,
research institutes and manufactures of PD measuring systems are working on systems for on-site monitoring
of PD activity. The reasoning behind the use of reliable PD monitoring systems is:
- Capital cost of transformer replacement is harder to justify in the context of competitive operating
markets. Hence there is justification for increased monitoring if expenditure can be reduced through life
extension.
- Environmental and safety concerns mean that more attention must be paid to any risk of transformer
failures, because of potential secondary consequences.
Presently, the simplest form of a commercially available “PD monitoring system” is the on-line measurement of
dissolved combustible gases in oil. There exists a wide range of different gas sensors, beginning with a simple
and cheap sensor for recording only Hydrogen and ending with sophisticated and expensive units performing
comprehensive on-line dissolved gas in oil analysis (DGA), [CIGRE-2006]. From experience with DGA, there is
a minimum concentration of gases before suspecting that a PD source is damaging the insulating system of the
transformer. Unfortunately, there are cases where no combustible gases were detected despite an active PD
source [Werle-2013].
Due to the fact that UHF methods are less sensitive to external disturbances at site, the use of UHF techniques
in future PD monitoring systems for transformers looks promising, especially for new transformers. In a CIGRE
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working group [CIGRE -2008-1] it has been recommended that strategic transformers should be equipped with
DN50 valves at positions suitable for UHF probes to locate internal PD sources. Oil valve probe sensors
therefore play an increasingly important role in future diagnosis and monitoring of PD activity in transformers.
Internal sensors installed on the tank of new transformers (in the factory) represent an alternative and are being
specified within the transformer procurement process by an increasing number of utility companies.
Since UHF monitoring systems are widely used in gas insulated substations, where PD levels of concern are
typically 1 or 2 orders of magnitude smaller than in transformers, care is required when transferring UHF
monitoring technology from GIS to transformers. Logically, the sensitivity of the system for transformers should
be lower than for GIS (by at least 20 dB) to avoid unnecessary alarms. It will be evident from this document that
no single monitoring technique is sufficient to resolve all PD issues which could arise in transformers. For
example, dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is likely to remain necessary and important. However, techniques such
as those based on UHF methods, that give an immediate and continuous record of PD activity with good
immunity to noise, can provide valuable additional diagnostic information. Furthermore, any actions taken to
eliminate PD activity can be immediately validated if UHF probes are available to detect PD activity before and
after remedial action.
The standard UHF PD monitoring system can record phase resolved PD patterns that offer signal trending and
other forms of more conventional diagnostics. Examples of recorded UHF signal PD pattern are shown in
Figure 7.7.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.7 : Examples of phase resolved UHF PD signals

(note that the amplitude scale is a relative value, so no units are shown here)
(a) PD pattern of UHF signals (circa 600 pC)
(b) PD pattern of the similar PD source on all three phases [Judd-2005]
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There are already several manufacturers of PD monitoring systems, whose equipment is mainly based on
continuous recording of electrical and UHF signals. The limitation of on-site measurement of electrical PD
signals has been discussed in Suppression of electromagnetic interference.
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8 Conclusions
Partial discharge (PD) measurements on power transformers have been in use for over 50 years due to their
ability to detect local defects in the insulation system. PD measurements are amongst the most important
measurements made for the reliable assessment of the condition of new or service aged HV components. The
interpretation of PD results is still based upon the recorded amplitude of apparent charge in pC or μV. The
acceptance criteria, as recommended in International Standards (IEC, IEEE), are based on experience from
factory acceptance tests (FAT) and in service testing, in particular from investigations of clearly identified PD
sources in defective units. A critical review confirms that the conventional measurement of the apparent charge
at bushings of a transformer, in particular for PD sources hidden inside the insulation system (which are
considered to be dangerous), and the measured value of the apparent charge do not sufficiently reflect the real
risk of the detected PD activity. Therefore, any detected PD activity in a transformer during the factory
acceptance test, especially at the level of the nominal rated voltage, should be investigated and localized. For
detected PD activity in transformers in service, for example detected by Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA), a
sensitive PD measurement on-site using an external voltage source should be applied to identify and localize
the PD source. As presented in this Technical Brochure, the proposed investigation procedures for the
identification and localization of PD sources in the insulation system of transformers are the most efficient and
economical way to solve PD problems.
Despite the large number of practical examples with identified and localized PD defects, as shown in the Annex
of this report, the unambiguous identification of dangerous PD sources in the electrical insulation system of
power transformers still remains a topic for further research.
Page 102
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Page 110
10 Annexes
10.1 Recorded variations of PD pattern
TIP ELECTRODE AT THE GROUND POTENTIAL

PD source PD pattern Remarks
Tip electrode at ground
Tip electrode inside the

transformer
Page 111
FLOATING CONDUCING PARTICLE INSIDE INSULATING MATERIAL

Several floating particles
amplitude in pC
phase
Floating particle close to LV

bushing (synchronization with
other phase)
Several floating particles
Floating metallic part inside the

transformer
Page 112
FLOATING CONDUCTING PARTICLE ON THE SURFACE OF THE INSULATING MATERIAL

Floating particle with surface
discharge
amplitude in pC
phase
Conducting particle on the

surface of the bushing
Conducting particle on the

surface of the insulating
material-> surface discharge
Creepage discharge
Page 113
FLOATING CONDUCTING PARTICLE ON THE SURFACE OF THE INSULATING MATERIAL

Floating particle with surface
discharge
Creepage discharge
Page 114
VOID WITH THE CONTACT TO THE ELECTRODE

Void at the ground electrode
Void at the HV electrode

amplitude in pC
phase
Page 115
FLOATING VOID INSIDE THE INSULATING MATERIAL

Voids in insulation system
(filled type)
amplitude in pC
phase
Void close to HV bushing (line

type), synchronization at other
phase
Several voids in insulation

system (line type)
amplitude in pC
phase
Voids in insulation system

(filled type)
amplitude in pC
phase
Page 116
FLOATING VOID INSIDE THE INSULATING MATERIAL

Voids in the winding (“diamond”
paper problem)
Page 117
FLOATING VOID WITH INTERACTION AT THE SURFACE OF THE INSULATING

MATERIAL
Voids with surface discharge
amplitude in pC
phase
Page 118
FLOATING VOIDS IN THE GLUED INSULATING PLATES

Voids in isolation system
(at the begin of test)
Voids in isolation system

(at the end of test)
Page 119
FLOATING VOIDS IN DIFFERENT GLUE MATERIALS

Voids in glue material 1
Page 120

Page 121
FLOATING VOIDS INSIDE INSULATING MATERIALS

Several voids in the
insulating material (filled type
and line type)
Voids due to moisture in the

insulating material (filled
type)
Voids due to the moisture in

oil (filled type)
Page 122
CARBONIZED TRACKS ON THE SURFACE OF THE INSULATING MATERIAL

Carbonized tracks at leads of the
regulating winding
Carbonized tracks at the leads of

tap changer
Carbonized track on the barrier

and LV lead
Carbonized track on the

pressboard barrier
Page 123
BAD CONTACT OF SHIELDING ELECTRODES

Floating metallic part of high
capacitance
3nC
Page 124
10.2 Case Studies
CASE 1: ELECTRICAL AND ACOUSTIC METHOD

- Transformer 33 MVA 63/192kV
- PD detected during the FAT (recorded amplitude of apparent charge up to 1nC)
- Localization by combined method: simultaneous measurement of electrical (PD pattern) and acoustic
signals
- PD source was confirmed by opening the transformer: too small a separation between the LV lead and
yoke
Description of the investigation procedure

In Figure 1 shows three different PD patterns which belong to the one PD source. During the investigation
procedure the PD source and its location changed (time dependence of PD pattern).
Whilst recording the PD pattern, acoustic signals were measured in the region of the top yoke at the LV side.
1nC
First stage: this PD pattern is similar to the ones
measured in the lab with a ‘floating void type’ fault. At
this stage we assume that the paper and pressboard
were clean and the discharges appeared in the oil
between the LV lead and yoke.
2nC
Second stage: this changed PD pattern tends to look
like ‘creepage discharge’ and voids, we assume that the
paper and pressboard started to PD
Page 125
60nC
Third stage: at this last stage the PD source is likely to
be caused by discharge of carbonized tracks (floating
conducting particle with surface discharge
Figure 1: Development of PD pattern during the investigation procedure (evolving PD source)
In Figure 2 the identified PD source from above is shown. An LV lead had moved and was too close to the core.
Discharges appeared between the LV lead and the core through the insulation paper of the LV lead and
pressboard which was around the core.
Figure 2: Identified PD source in the transformer insulation system
Confirmation of the PD pattern using a small scale experiment
The mock up in the first experiment is made of two Bakelite pieces with a void between each; the void is filled by
air and sealed.
PD pattern Model for void in solid material
Figure 3: Recoded PD pattern of the mock up in the first experiment
Page 126
The mock up in the second experiment is built by using pressboard between two electrodes.
The recorded time dependent PD patterns on the second mock up are similar to those which were recorded on
the real transformer. After removing the pressboard of the second mock up, there were black marks found,
which were created during the test.
PD pattern Model for pressboard between electrodes
150pC
1st stage
30 000pC
2nd stage
Figure 4: Recoded PD pattern of the mock up in second experiment
Page 127

- Transformer
- PD detected during the FAT (recorded amplitude of apparent charge up to 1nC)
- Localization by combined method: simultaneous measurement of electrical (PD pattern) and acoustic
signals
- PD source was confirmed by opening the transformer: two metallic parts were not in proper contact.
After reconnection of these, the fault disappeared.
Typical PD pattern is shown in Figure 1.
3nc
Figure 1: PD pattern recorded during the FAT on the transformer
Confirmation of the PD pattern by a small scale experiment
The pattern below has been measured in the lab on a very small mock up: pressboard between two electrodes
and one metallic piece of mock up, badly screwed on the HV lead (no insulation on the lead) and created a ‘bad
contact’ fault in oil. The shape of PD pattern as shown in Figure 2 is typical for a bad contact.
Usually, bad contact faults create PD patterns with nearly constant amplitude centered around zero crossing of
the test voltage. The pattern below is not centered around zero because the fault is not between two potentials
(HV and GND) but between HV and a floating potential, which is supposed to be connected to HV.
PD pattern Model for pressboard between electrodes
Figure 2: PD pattern recorded on the mock up
Page 128
CASE 3: ACOUSTIC METHOD

- Transformer
- PD detected by DGA during operation of the transformer (strong development of Hydrogen)
- Localization by acoustic method
- PD source was confirmed by opening the transformer: bad contact of the shielding electrode at the
OLTC.
Within a few months of operation a new transformer strongly indicated Hydrogen (typical gas for PD activity) in
its DGA. The transformer was directly connected to LV and HV cables. The way to decouple electrical PD
signals was via the external ground connection of the core and the core frame outside the tank. Additionally the
connection to the neutral terminal of the transformer was accessible. Due to a lack of time the transformer was
excited in a no load connection (50Hz) using mains power. As a first step the PD pattern were recorded at the
ground of the core using a high frequency current transformer sensor (HF CT). As shown in Figure 1, no typical
phase correlated PD signals were detected, only noise signals are visible. Figure 1 demonstrates that
measurement of electrical PD signals on transformers excited from the power line may not deliver meaningful
results.
Figure 1: PD pattern recorded at the core earth via HF CT
From DGA though there was a clear indication of a PD problem inside the transformer. In the next step, acoustic
methods were applied.
Four microphones as shown in Figure 2 indicated as A.1 to A.4 (physical acoustics sensors, resonance
frequency 150 kHz) were installed on the tank. After several changes of the position of the acoustic sensors, the
PD source was identified close to the OLTC.
The origin of the PD activity was a floating shielding cap in the OLTC (PD pattern type floating metallic particle).
Rerecorded acoustic PD signals at four microphones are shown in Figure 3.
Page 129
Figure 2: Position of acoustic sensors
A1
A2
A3 A4
Figure 3: Acoustic PD signals emitted from the PD source close to the OLTC
Page 130
CASE 4: ACOUSTIC METHOD

- Transformer 500 MVA
- PD detected by DGA during operation of the transformer (strong development of Hydrogen and
Methane)
- Localization by acoustic methods
- PD source was confirmed by inspection via manhole at site: defect of insulation elements and lead
holders of the OLTC.
During the initial PD location procedure, electric signals could not be utilized. The detection of acoustic signals
at the tank walls was not successful, presumably due to magnetic shunts which are known to have a significant
attenuation. Finally acoustic sensors were placed on top of the tank (see Figure 1). The analysis of recorded
acoustic signals indicated a PD source location at the middle phase, near to the tap changer or to the 220kV
bushing (see Figure 2 left). After repositioning of the acoustic sensor closer to the expected location of the PD
source and solving the localizing equations, the correct location of the PD source was identified (see Figure 2
right). An on-site inspection (via a tank manhole) of the leads going to the tap changer, identified defects of
different insulation elements and lead holders of the OLTC. The replacement of these elements was possible
on-site.
Figure 1: Transformer under test and first position of acoustic sensors
Page 131
Figure 2: Results with initial position of acoustic sensors (left) and final position of acoustic sensors
with surfaces representing the solution of localizing equations (right)
Page 132

- Transformer 500 MVA, 230 kV (LV)
- PD detected during the FAT
- PD source was confirmed by opening the transformer
PD activity was observed prior to the final acceptance tests. PD patterns were detected at phase’s u and v on
230kV LV side. Typical PD patterns recorded at bushings u, v and w are presented in Figure 1. It is obvious,
that the PD activity shows nearly identical behaviour on two phases, but no cross coupling is visible on the third
phase, which is quite unusual. The 3-phase Amplitude Relation Diagram (3PARD) also displays PD pulse
clusters right between phase’s u and v (see Figure 1 right).
Figure 1: Typical PD pattern detected at LV side
PD source localisation was initiated by using the acoustic method. Based on information about the phase
position of the PD source from the recorded electric signals (PD pattern), four acoustic sensors were placed
close to windings u and v at the LV side of the transformer. The installed coolers limited the accessibility to the
tank wall, so that the area between windings was not reachable. However all four sensors clearly detected
acoustic PD signals. The first result of the PD source location system did not point into the area between the
windings but indicated the PD source as being located between the leads of the regulating windings to the tap
changer (OLTC). Therefore the acoustic sensors were relocated to get them closer to the expected PD source
location. The new arrangement proved and refined the initial assumption. Figure 2 shows the position of
acoustic sensors during the step-by-step optimization process together with the results indicated by the software
of the localisation system. The results are shown as blue circles and as a brown dot in the most right part of the
picture. The coordinates of the PD fault were finally determined as follows: 6.23 m from left tank corner at a
height of 3.12 m and 27 cm behind the wall (depth). The localisation accuracy was better ± 10 cm. The electrical
PD signals used to trigger the acoustic system ranged between 60 pC and 2 nC.
The transformer was opened and at the indicated positions a defective insulating pressboard was found,
revealing the PD marks as shown in Figure 3. The affected pressboard covered a crossover of regulating
winding leads coming from phase’s u and v. This corresponds with the electrical PD signals (PD pattern and
may explain the invisibility of PD signals at phase w. The defective insulation barrier has been replaced and no
PD activity was recorded during the retesting of the transformer.
Page 133
Figure 2: Position of acoustic sensors and indicated location of the PD source
Figure 3: Pressboard with PD marks (black dots)
Page 134
CASE 6: ELECTRICAL AND UHF METHOD

- Transformer 100 MVA, 230 / 20 kV
- PD detected during the FAT
With the help of a simultaneous three phase PD pattern measurement the U-phase was identified as the
affected phase. The synchronously measured UHF signals and PD pattern of the U-phase are shown in Figure
1.
Figure 1: Typical PD pattern detected with UHF probe and conventional impedance Z m.
The recorded PD patterns, measured using two different systems, have a similar shape. This is a confirmation
that both sensors are detecting signals from the identical PD source (same statistical behaviour of one PD
source). In this case either an electrical PD signal or UHF signal can be used to trigger the acoustic system.
Here the UHF signal was selected as the trigger source for the acoustic localisation procedure. After an analysis
of the frequency spectrum of the UHF PD signal as shown in Figure 2, a bandpass filter with a bandwidth of 1.5
MHz and centre frequency of 160 MHz was used to obtain the UHF trigger signals.
Figure 2: Frequency spectrum of the UHF signal of the PD source
Page 135
Based on the comparison of the frequency spectrum of the noise in the laboratory (lower line in Figure 2) with
the frequency spectrum of the UHF PD signal recorded during the excitation of the transformer (upper part in
Figure 2) the centre frequency at 160 MHz gave a suitable signal to noise ratio (blue line in Figure 2).
According to the information of previous tests the PD source was identified in U-phase. Therefore 4 acoustic
sensors (Piezo-electrical sensors with resonance frequency 75 kHz) were positioned close to the U-phase as
shown in Figure 3. This final position was reached after twice moving the acoustic sensors.
Figure 3: Position of all PD sensors
The acoustic system used automatically calculates the PD source location based on time delay between UHF
signal (used as a trigger, cal. 10mV) and the detected acoustic signals. The result is shown in Figure 4.
According to the calculation the PD source position was indicated to be on the outer surface of the regulating
winding, between the winding and the tap changer. The subsequent visual inspection of the active part verified a
close match of the PD source with the estimated location by the acoustic system.
Page 136
Figure 4: Estimated PD source location by the software of the acoustic system
Page 137
CASE 7: ACOUSTIC AND UHF METHOD

- Shunt reactor 1850 MVA, 400kV
- PD detected during FAT (up to 500pC)
- Localisation by acoustic and UHF method
- PD source was not confirmed due to decreasing PD activity during the test
The PD activity was first localized using acoustic methods. The tank of this shunt reactor was designed to have
6 UHF probes fitted for an on-line monitoring system. The 6 UHF probes were placed as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Position of UHF probes
Unfortunately the UHF probes were not wisely placed for an efficient localization; they were all facing each other
on the same x-coordinate. A better configuration would have been if the UHF probes were in opposite positions
top/bottom. However, 6 sensors are enough to localize a PD source.
Arrival times of the UHF probes were analyzed using one sensor (the first responding) as a reference sensor
and using the equations shown in Figure 2.
Page 138
Figure 2: Analysis of the response time of four UHF probes
Distances d2, d3 and d4 are computed by multiplying the time difference between each sensor’s response and
S1 response (taken as the reference sensor) and the speed of UHF signals in oil. It is best to measure this
speed for a specific transformer by injecting a UHF signal using an UHF probe and measuring the response
time of all other sensors (characterization of the transformer). Depending on their distance from the ‘source’
sensor (reference sensor where UHF signal is injected), we can compute an average UHF signal speed for the
transformer. It is best to perform this calibration at working temperature (after long duration tests for example).
During the PD measurement the UHF probe S1 is the sensor responding first and becomes the reference
sensor (see Figure 2). The sensor’s coordinates are noted x1, y1, z1 for sensor 1, x2, y2, z2 for sensor 2 etc.
Solving the system of equations g1, g2 and g3 gives one result which is supposed to be the PD source position.
Using this technique, a minimum of 4 sensors is theoretically required to have a suitable result. However, due to
the high speed of the UHF signal transmission and due to the precision required to determine the right time
response, even 4 sensors sometimes don’t give meaningful results. In this case, 6 sensors were on the tank,
which allowed for more intersections to line up, as the system of equations can be solved for several sensor
combinations.
After computation, the result of our system of equations gave a satisfactory localization for the X and Y
coordinates but a less precise one in the Z axis.
When we check the error in time responses, it appeared that the worst sensor responses were from the sensors
on the top of the transformer (UHF’s 5 and 6), thus, most of the intersection points come from the system of
equations involving the 4 others sensors with 3 of them which all had at the same Z axis coordinates. This
explained the lower accuracy on this axis as shown in Figure 3.
The PD source coordinate estimated using the acoustic method is the following:
X=1404 Y=2146 Z=3795
The PD source coordinate estimated using the UHF method is the following:
X=1431 Y=2187 Z=2433
Note that despite their large distance from the fault (~5 meters), sensors 2 and 3 have a pretty good response
time measured, the theoretical times (with first sensor as reference) and measured times are the following:
Theoretical times: T= [0, 28.5, 29.8, 3.2, 5.4, 4]; (ns)
Measured times: T1= [0, 26, 29, 3, 10, 9]; (ns)
Page 139
Figure 3: Result of the localisation using UHF probe
Page 140
CASE 8: ACOUSTIC AND UHF METHOD

- Transformer 333 MVA 400 /220 /30 kV
- PD detected by the DGA
- Localisation by acoustic and UHF method
Because of increased Hydrogen content in the transformer oil (see Figure 1), which is a typical gas for PD
activity in the insulation system, the transformer was tested on-site by exciting it from the network [Tenbohlen-
2010].
Figure 1: DGA results
A grid-coupling transformer (333 MVA, 400/220/30 kV) manufactured in 1966, has three oil filling valves where
three identical UHF probes were installed.
Figure 2 shows the positions of UHF probes (UHF 1 – UHF 3). Two probes are opposite each other at the top
of either front end of the tank. The third probe (UHF 3) is located at the bottom in the middle of the side tank wall
(approximately middle of the active part of the transformer). Six acoustic sensors A1 to A6 (piezo-electric
sensors, frequency range between 50 to 200 kHz) were distributed on the tank wall as shown in Figure 2.
Before exciting the transformer in a no load condition from the network, the functionality of the acoustic sensors
was confirmed as usual by striking the tank with a pen.
The functionality of the UHF probes was confirmed by the "Dual Port Performance Check". Artificial UHF
impulses were injected at each probe with a signal generator (60 V at 50 Ω). It was not possible to detect
artificial impulses at any combination of emitting and receiving UHF probes. The explanation by the transformer
manufacturer was that there are tubes behind the oil filling valves directing the oil flow around the winding. From
the unsuccessful “Dual Port Performance Check” it could be concluded that the UHF probes were
electromagnetically decoupled from each other. Furthermore UHF probes might also be shielded against UHF
signals generated by internal PD sources. A further explanation might be that the maximum signal generator
output voltage of 60 V is not sufficient to transmit detectable UHF waves through the active part of the
transformer.
Page 141
Figure 2: Position of acoustic and UHF probes
During the PD test using a nominal voltage (connected to the 50Hz power line), UHF signals were detected at
all three UHF probes i.e. indicating an internal PD source in the electrical insulation system of the transformer
(see Figure 3). Analysis of frequency spectra derived via FFT from the measured UHF signals in time-domain
at installed UHF probes demonstrates the shielding characteristic of the tank (see Figure 3).
This example shows that the “Dual Port Performance Check” is just a rough estimate of the sensitivity of UHF
sensors. In specific cases even if the Performance Check is not successful, UHF signals might still be
detectable during the PD test on the transformer.
In the first step, the detected UHF signals delivered confirmation of an internal PD source in the insulation
system, whilst connected to the power line in a no load condition. UHF signals from internal PD sources are not
affected by external corona discharges, if there are no electrical windows for electromagnetic interference to
enter the tank.
The analysis of UHF signals in the time and frequency domain (FFT of time based signals) indicates that the PD
source might be close to the tap changer (UHF probe 2 in Figure 3). Both the time signal and the frequency
spectrum recorded at the UHF probe 2 (close to the tap changer) are different compared to signals at UHF
probes 1 and 3 (see Figure 3). UHF probe 2, nearest to the tap changer, delivers the highest output of 10 mV,
whereas the other UHF probes did not indicate more than 5 mV. Therefore UHF probe 2 was used as a trigger
signal for estimation of the delay times between the three UHF signals. There is a measurable delay in the
range of nanoseconds (ns) between the UHF signal at probe 2 and UHF signals at probes 1 and 3 (see Figure
3).
Page 142
Figure 3: UHF signals in the time and frequency domain, recorded at UHF probes
To prove that the UHF signals belong to one PD source, PD pattern (PRPDA) of the UHF signals were recorded
(see Figure 4). The UHF system was synchronized to the voltage supply of the measuring unit (LDS6/UHF).
Simultaneous measurements of electric signals via the measuring impedance connected to the bushing
measuring tap (according to IEC 60270) were as expected, highly disturbed by audible corona discharges in the
substation (see Figure 4 right). Only the typical PD patterns representing three phase corona discharges were
recorded.
Page 143
UHF signals PD pattern Electric signals PD pattern (apparent charge)

On-site measurement On-site measurement (connected to power line)
Figure 4: PD pattern recorded with UHF probe and measuring impedance at bushings
To confirm the assumed location of the PD source based on the analysis of UHF signals, simultaneous
recording of acoustic signals was also performed. The acoustic system (6 sensors as shown in Figure 1) was
triggered by the UHF signal from the UHF probe 2. By using averaged acoustic signals (averaging in the time
domain, approx. 100 times), the 60 dB amplified acoustic PD impulses remain constructively overlapped
whereas the white background noise is averaged to near zero. Figure 5 shows an example of a measured
acoustic signal at sensor A1.
The run times of the acoustic signals can be computed objectively with the help of the Hinkley criterion
[Markalous-2006]. This criterion is based on a signal energy calculation of the measured signal (see Figure 5).
The complete acoustic signal was recorded with a record length of 10 ms (see Figure 5A). The arrival time was
determination with the help of the Hinkley criteria as shown in Figure 5B, the calculated signal energy is shown
in Figure 5C. The minimum of the calculated signal energy defines the start of the acoustic signal, in this
example tA1 = 0.72 ms.
Page 144
Figure 5: Typical acoustic signal recorded at sensor A1 (close to the tap changer)
Run time determination with the help of the Hinkley criterion
Figure 6 shows examples of measured and averaged acoustic signals at sensors A5 and A6. The arrival times
tA5 = 1.03 ms and tA6 = 2.07 ms were determined using Hinkley criteria as shown in Figure 5C.
Analysis of acoustic signals confirmed that the position of the PD source was in the vicinity of the tap changer.
In this case the geometric uncertainty was in the range of approximately 40 cm in all axes. This uncertainty is
caused both by the combinations of unlike arrival times and by the use of different localisation methods
[Markalous-2006]. The arrival time differences were measured with six different sensors: three UHF probes
(UHF 1 – UHF 3) and three acoustic sensors placed near the PD source (A1, A5, A6).
Page 145
Figure 6: Typical acoustic signal recorded at sensors A5 and A6
After the confirmation of a PD source inside the tank, the transformer was transported to the manufacturer.
During the entrance PD test in the HV laboratory the on-site PD results were confirmed by a classical PD test
according to IEC with simultaneous detection of acoustic signals. The recorded PD patterns (amplitude of
apparent charge) are shown in Figure 7.
UHF signals PD pattern Electrical signals PD pattern (apparent charge)

On-site measurement Measurement in the lab
Figure 7: PD pattern recorded during the entrance test in the factory (right)
Comparison with the UHF signal PD pattern
Page 146
It was decided to de-tank the active part for visual inspection. Carbonized tracks and damaged paper insulation
were found on the leads to the tap changer (see Figure 8), agreeing with the on-site PD measurements.
After repair, the transformer passed the acceptance test without any indication of PD activity and was put back
into service.
Figure 8: Confirmation of the PD source by visual inspection
Page 147
CASE 9: UHF METHOD

- Transformer 132 / 11 kV
- PD detected during FAT
- Localisation by UHF method
- Confirmation of the PD source by visual inspection
A small three phase transformer (132/11kV) provided an opportunity to make UHF measurements in parallel
with a calibrated IEC 60270 measurement. This particular unit passed it’s over potential PD tests. During the
single phase test at 1.3 UN of the A-phase, PD activity of 200pC was measured at the HV bushing using a
conventional system (no PD pattern were recorded).
Figure 1 gives details of the tank size (4.2 × 1.6 × 3.1 m) and installation of 4 UHF probes. 3 UHF probes are
on the top plus one UHF probe fitted through the oil cooler valve at the bottom at one end. One example UHF
signals is given in Figure 2, which shows both the amplitude of UHF signals obtained for a 200 pC discharge
(recorded at A-phase HV bushing) and the variation of signal levels among the 4 UHF probes, which in this case
is just over 4:1 in terms of peak-to-peak UHF signal voltage.
Figure 1: Details of the experimental set up

a) tank dimensions and position of installed UHF probes labelled S1 – S4
b) view of the top sensor S3 and the valve sensor S1
Page 148
Figure 2: UHF signals corresponding to the PD source of 200 pC at 1.3 UN during the FAT
(single phase test)
The PD source was confirmed by the visual inspection close to sensor S3.
Page 149
CASE 10: UHF METHOD

- Transformer 18 MVA 132 / 25 kV
- PD detected in service by DGA
A single phase transformer of 18 MVA, 132/25 kV (feeding an electric rail network) showed excessive hydrogen
and acetylene in its DGA results. Internal inspection had failed to locate any signs of PD activity. The three
inspection hatches located on the top of the tank were replaced with a dielectric window for mounting a UHF
probe. Figure 1 shows the transformer sensors. 24 m long coaxial cables were made for connecting to the
sensors at a safe distance. Cable delays were measured using a network analyzer as 115.8 ns, matched to
within ° 0.1 ns.
Figure 1: Position of UHF probes
When the transformer was energized, quite large UHF signals were recorded, in the range 50 – 100 mV peak-
to-peak. Timing of signals to locate the source of PD was carried out using a digital sampling oscilloscope
running at 10 GS/s with an analogue bandwidth of 3 GHz. A representative set of UHF signals is shown in
Figure 2. The order of signal arrival at the sensors was: S1, S3, S2. Time differences were measured and the
source of the signals was predicted as being under one of the off-load tap changer mechanisms, as highlighted
in the graphic at the left of Figure 3. Before an outage could be arranged to inspect this region, a through fault
on the load side of the transformer was followed by rapid gas accumulation that tripped the Buchholz relay.
When the transformer was later de-tanked for examination, considerable evidence of physical damage was
apparent, including failure of the winding clamp. Paper on the tap changer leads was burnt in the place where
PD activity had been predicted and black sludge from this discharge had accumulated nearby. No other signs of
arcing were evident. Underneath the area of blackened paper there were bulky joints between the solid
conductors and flexible leads. Several views of the area in question are shown at the right of Figure 3. The
location of this discharge site was about 15 cm from the center of the highlighted suspect region in the PD
location model.
The PD activity observed was not the likely cause of failure but was probably initiated by mechanical
deterioration arising from the demanding loading conditions (and accompanying magnetic forces) that the
transformer had been subjected to during its operational life. Deformation of the internal structure moved the
Page 150
two leads closer together, causing the onset of PD activity at the sharp edge of a brazed joint. Further
dismantling of the core and winding assembly revealed an interturn fault in the LV winding.
Figure 2: Typical UHF signals recorded during the test
Figure 3: Modeled PD location (left) compared with photographs from the forensic investigation (right)
Page 151
CASE 11: UHF METHOD

- Transformer 112 MVA 118 / 68.172-70.6 / 40.761-13.8 kV
- PD detected during FAT
The autotransformer failed its over potential test due to PD levels approaching 1000 pC. An example of the
recorded PD pattern (statistical analysis of apparent charge values) is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: PD pattern (circa 800pC) recorded
To achieve localisation, four UHF probes were installed on the main tank of this unit, but even the largest UHF
signals had an amplitude of only 4 mV (peak to peak) when the PD source was active. This did not correspond
well with the relatively large PD level recorded. Although the time difference of arrival (TDOA) measurements
were challenging with these small UHF signals (see Figure 2), it was identified that their origin was on the side
wall of the tank where the on-load tap changer (OLTC) was mounted. The OLTC was in fact in a separate tank,
with relatively small feed-through apertures into the main tank, which would not be ideal for UHF signal
propagation. Consequently, two small UHF probes were specially designed to fit oil filling ports on the OLTC
housing (see Figure 2 left). After installation, the PD signals received from these sensors were much larger than
those from the more sensitive main tank sensors (in fact reaching over 100 mV (peak to peak), see Figure 2).
This result confirmed the PD source location as being in the OLTC, thereby eliminating the main transformer
tank from any suspicion of PD activity. Note that in this transformer the tap changer operates on the LV winding,
which accords with the largest IEC60270 PD levels being measured at one of the LV bushings.
Page 152
View of a small UHF probe sensor installed on the

external OLTC tank.
a) Main tank UHF signals for the PD shown in (a). The
largest UHF signal is only 4 mV pk-pk.
b) UHF signals from the OLTC probes. Largest signal is

now 100 mV pk-pk.
Figure 2: Example of UHF signals from the PD source located in the external OLTC tank,
a) UHF signals recorded at four sensors on the main tank
b) UHF signals recorded at sensors on the OLTC tank
Page 153
CASE 12: ADVANCED PD SYSTEM

- Transformer 400 MVA
- On-site PD measurement
- Localisation not needed
- No PD activity
The three phase induced voltage test arrangement for a generator step up transformer (GSU), 400 MVA, is
shown in Figure 1. The low voltage side of the GSU transformer is connected to the step up transformer of the
mobile HV test system via three HV cables.
Figure 1: Three phase induced voltage test on a 400MVA GSU
A non-standard PD system as described in chapter 2.2 was used for PD measurements.
Before the excitation of the transformer, calibration of all measuring terminals was performed. The calibrating
procedure is important not only for the control of the measuring chain (PD sensor, measuring cable, measuring
system) but also for the investigation of ambient noise on-site. Using a spectrum analyser in full span mode,
three frequency spectra were recorded 1) the noise level without operating the frequency converter, 2) the noise
level with operating the frequency converter and 3) the calibration signal (see Figure 2). Based on a
comparison of these frequency spectra the centre frequency of the tuneable bandpass filter (quasi integration of
PD current impulses) was selected to achieve the highest sensitivity. This choice of the optimum signal to noise
ratio is only valid for PD sources close to the calibrated bushing. As discussed in chapter 6.2, the centre
frequency itself should be as low as possible due to decreasing sensitivity at higher frequency. Generally the
best sensitivity is reached at the resonance frequency of the specific measuring chain.
In this case recording of the PD pattern was carried out with the spectrum analyser operating in zero span mode
at a centre frequency of 1MHz, achieving a sensitivity of better than 15pC at the HV measuring terminals.
The PD test was performed at 140 Hz (as a step test), with the maximum voltage applied for 43 seconds at 80%
of the standard test level.
Figure 3 shows no phase correlated PD activity at the HV bushing during the highest test voltage, with the
same result at the other HV bushings, thus passing the on-site PD test.
Using the described mobile voltage source including an advanced PD measurement system, transformers up to
1400 MVA and 400 kV have been successfully tested all around the world. The mobile voltage source is
typically installed in a standard 40 feet container, which can be easily transported by truck. A mobile voltage
source offers new repair and maintenance opportunities for power transformers. It is no longer necessary to
transport the problem transformer for repair and testing to a factory, which is usually quite expensive.
Page 154
Figure 2: PD noise and calibration levels
Figure 3: No PD activity detected at the test voltage at HV- bushing
Page 155

- Transformer 75 MVA, 132 / 50 kV
- PD detected in service by DGA
- Localisation by analysis of electrical PD signals in the time and frequency domain
- Confirmation of the PD source by on-site drying
After a revision of the tank (corrosion problem) and visual inspection of the active part, a 75 MVA transformer
(132/50 kV) had multiple Buchholz relay operations during operation. It was decided, to perform an off-line
partial discharge measurement to search for the origin of the gas production. The test circuit is shown in Figure
1.
Figure 1: Test circuit for on-site PD measurement using diesel generator group
with a step-up transformer
Very strong PD activity (about 100 nC) was recorded on the u- and v-phase 50 kV bushings at 44% of the
nominal voltage Un (see Figure 2); as the patterns are nearly identical it indicates the same PD source. These
PD patterns are typical for localised moisture.
Figure 2: PD activity detected at LV bushing (44% U n)
As shown in Figure 3, PD signals in the time and frequency domain recorded measured at the two LV bushings
are also quite similar. Both PD signals are in good agreement with the calibrator signals injected in the two
bushings (characteristic data of the transformer under test).
Page 156
PD signals at 2u and 2v in frequency domain PD signals at 2u and 2v in time domain
Response of the RLCM network to the “characteristic“ calibrating signal recorded at LV bushings
(superimposed calibrating signals at 2u, 2v and 2w)
Figure 3: Comparison of PD signals in time and frequency domain with the characteristic
data of the transformer
The measurements indicated that the PD signals run through a similar propagation path and that both PD
sources are not too far from the LV bushings on u- and v-phase (i.e. PD sources are not in the winding).
Acoustic measurements pin-pointed the PD sources to the bundled 50 kV leads. The transformer was then
subjected to a “low frequency heating” treatment. In a subsequent test, no partial discharges were recorded,
and the transformer was put into service.
Page 157

- Transformer 250 MVA, 220 / 150 / 24 kV
- PD detected during on-site acceptance test (SAT)
- Localisation by analysis of electrical PD signals in time and frequency domain
During the on-site acceptance test (SAT) of a 250 MVA transformer (220/150/24 kV) partial discharges with a
magnitude of about 1500 pC were recorded at 50% of the nominal voltage Un at the HV bushing 1U (see PD
pattern in Figure 1).
Figure 1: PD activity detected at HV bushing 1U (50% Un)
The localization of the PD source was based on the comparison of PD signals in the time and frequency domain
with the calibrator signals recorded on different bushings. As shown in Figure 2, frequency spectra of the PD
activity are in good agreement with the frequency spectra of the calibrating signal injected at the HV Bushing
1U.
Measured frequency spectra of the PD activity at 1U, 2u Calibrator signals injected in 1U, measured frequency
and 1N spectra at 1U, 2u and 2v
Figure 2: Comparison of frequency spectra of PD signals and calibrating signal (50% U n)
Page 158
The comparison of PD signals in the time domain with the calibrating signal injected at HV bushing 1U, shows a
discrepancy in the shape of both signals (see Figure 3). The calibrating signal is much slower than the real PD
signal (both signals are recorded at 50ns/div). After these first measurements it seemed evident that the PD
source was close to the bushing 1U. Despite the discrepancy in the time signals it was decided to replace the
bushing. The replacement of the bushing didn’t yield the expected result; the same PD activity was still
recorded.
Measured PDs on 1U and 2u Calibrator signals injected in 1U,

measured on 1U and 2u
Figure 3: Comparison of PD signals and calibrating signal in time domain
The very fast PD signal recorded at HV bushing 1U is an indication that the PD source must be very close to the
measuring tap which is directly connected to the measuring impedance as shown in Figure 4.
Measuring impedance (HF CT)
Voltage divider
Figure 4: Coaxial connection of the measuring impedance to the measuring tap
Page 159
Therefore the calibrating signal was directly injected to the input of the impedance (see Figure 5) to reach better
agreement between real PD signal and the calibrating signal. In this case there is good agreement between
both signals as shown in Figure 6.
Calibrator signal injected directly into the measuring Calibrator signal injected in 1U,
impedance (HF CT) measured on 1U and 2u
Figure 5: Calibrator connected directly to the input of the measuring impedance (HF CT)
Measured PD signals at 1U and 2u Calibrator signal injected directly into the measuring
impedance (HF CT)
Figure 6: Comparison of PD signals and calibrating signal in time domain
This practical example confirms the theory that the PD source can only be correctly located if both the recorded
frequency spectra and the signals in time domain of the PD activity are in good agreement with the calibrating
signal injected close to the position of the PD source. Additionally this example shows that important information
about the location of the PD source is included in the frequency spectrum as well as in the time signal.
The location of the assumed PD source was confirmed by recording of acoustic signals as shown in Figure 7.
Two acoustic sensors were positioned on the dome of the HV bushing 1U.
Page 160
Acoustic sensor
Figure 7: Result of acoustic measurement

Upper trace: electrical PD signal
Middle and lower trace: acoustic PD signals
Both the PD signals in the time domain (see Figure 6) and the result of acoustic measurements (see Figure 7)
showed that the PD source must be some 40 cm below the tank cover i.e. very close to the measuring tap. The
inspection through a manhole showed particles on the press-plate (see Figure 8). After removal of the particles,
the transformer was free of partial discharges.
Figure 8: Cause of the PD activity

(particles on the surface of the press-plate due to the finals assembly of bushings on-site)
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Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-379-8

2 PARTIAL DISCHARGE DETECTION SYSTEMS FOR TRANSFORMERS ....................... 13

3 COMMON TYPES OF PD SOURCES IN TRANSFORMER INSULATION ........................ 25

4 PD SIGNALS IN TRANSFORMER ELECTRICAL INSULATION SYSTEMS ..................... 36

5 PD MEASUREMENTS ON TRANSFORMERS IN A HV LABORATORY .......................... 70

6 PD MEASUREMENTS ON-SITE ....................................................................................... 87

7 RISK ASSESSMENT BASED ON PD MEASUREMENT ................................................... 94

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES .................................................................................... 103

10 ANNEXES .................................................................................................................... 111

INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF PD RESULTS

Figure 1: Typical PD results

PROCEDURE FOR SOLUTION OF PD PROBLEMS

STEP 1: ANALYSIS OF PD PATTERN AND “CALIBRATION”

PD pattern [Fuhr-PD test]

PD signal in time domain [Fuhr-PD test]

PD signal in frequency domain [Fuhr-PD test]

STEP 2: POSITION OF ACOUSTIC AND UHF PROBES

Acoustic sensors [OMICRON]

Analysis of recorded acoustic signals using software (3D

UHF probe [OMICRON, Judd-2005]

Analysis of recorded UHF signals [Appendix-case 8]

STEP 3: SIMULATION OF THE PD SOURCE

Injection of calibrating signals at locations on the active

Comparison of PD signals in the time and frequency

Measured PD signal [Fuhr-PD test] Calibrating signal [Fuhr-PD test]

There are two generic classifications of PD measurement scenarios:

Group I) Laboratory PD measurements at a transformer manufacturer’s facility where PD measurements are

2 Partial Discharge Detection Systems for Transformers

Physical effects of partial discharge

Heat Partial discharge High frequency wave

Two basic kinds of detection

Figure 2.1 : Overview about physical effects of the PD [Schwarz-Siemens]

- Electric signals are measurable at bushings of the transformer.

2.1 Measuri ng system for detection of electric signals

CONVENTIONAL PD MEASURING SYSTEM

- wide band (bandwidth 900kHz, upper frequency:1MHz)

a) coupling capacitance Ck is the bushing b) external coupling capacitance Ck

Figure 2.4 : Example of conventional PD system [CIGRE-2008-2]

PHASE RESOLVED PD DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM

Figure 2.5 : Main component of the PRPDA-system

a) linear unipolar b) liner bipolar c) three dimensional

Figure 2.6 : Different representations of PRPD patterns [Fuhr PD-test, OMICRON]

Figure 2.7 : Definition of different values of apparent charge [Carlson-2010]

2.2 Non-standard electrical PD signal detection systems

Oscilloscope for measurements

Spectrum analyzer for measurements

PRPDA for recording

Figure 2.8 : Equipment for non-standard measurement of PD signals [Haessig-2003]

High frequency current transformer (HF-CT)

Trace 1 = phase [deg]

b) typical frequency response (phase and amplitude) of the HF-CT

Figure 2.9 : High frequency measuring impedance [Haessig-2003]

time domain time domain

frequency domain frequency domain

Calibrating signal at HV-bushing PD current impulse at HV-bushing

2.3 Syste m for detection of acoustic sound wave s

There are two types of acoustic sensors available:

Acoustic sensor [OMICRON] Preamplifier and acoustic sensors [OMICRON]

Figure 2.11 : Example of acoustic sensor (resonant type)

Figure 2.12 : Example of typical acoustic PD signal [Markalous-2006]

2.4 Syste m for detection of UHF signal s

Figure 2.13 : Examples of UHF probes suitable for transformers

Figure 2.14 : Example of typical UHF PD signals