RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

(EE 468)

Dr. A. Kirubakaran
Assistant Professor,
Electrical Engineering Department,
NITW, Warangal

CHAPTERS
1) Introduction

2) Wind Power Plants

Technical Barriers
Equivalent Circuits
3) Photovoltaic Power Plants Mathematical Modeling
Power Electronic Interfaces
4) Fuel Cell Plants Control Schemes

5) Induction Generators

6) Storage Systems

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 1. Introduction

Past

3
Present

Source: New Internationalist, Issue 309, January 1999

4

2
 By the year 2024, the global population is projected to be
8.0 billion.

At any level of development, human impact (I) on the

environment is a function of population size (P), per capita
consumption (C) and the environmental damage caused by
the technology (T) used to produce what is consumed.

I=PxCxT

Development in Energy Technology

• Power Generation-India

State
Sector
Private
31%
Sector
44%

Central
Sector
25%

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 1.1. Power Generation-India

• Electricity production as on June 2017

25-35%

98-99%

95%

Utility Structure of past and present 8

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Efficiency:
Thermal Power Plant : 25-35 % (based on size, age, and capacity
utilization)
Transmission Efficiency: 98-99 % (transformer efficiency is usually
98-99%)
Sub transmission Efficiency: 96% (Envisaged losses 4%)
Distribution Efficiency: 95% (Envisaged losses 5%)
Total system efficiency from the output of transmission and
distribution: (.98*.96*.95) = 89 %
At the end user the standard technical losses are around 17%
(Efficiency: 83%).
But in many literatures, it is in the ranges from 17-50%. All these
may not constitute the technical losses, since un-metered and
pilferage are also accounted in this loss.

Industrial End User:

Transformer efficiency 95% ; Motor efficiency 90%; 30 % is (Eff:
70%) lost in the mechanical system.
The overall efficiency is (.95*.90*.60) 50%.
Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units9
generated in the power plant (1Unit / 0.5 Eff = 2 Units)

Fuel constraints

• A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is

of low calorific value and high ash content. The iron content is low
in India's coal, and toxic trace element concentrations are
negligible.

• On average, the Indian power plants using India's coal supply

consume about 0.7 kg of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United
States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per
kWh.

• On average, Indian coal has a GCV of about 4500 Kcal/kg,

whereas the quality elsewhere in the world is much better; for
example, in Australia, the GCV is 6500 Kcal/kg approximately.

• GCV: Gross Calorific Value

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5
 Power Demand?
Peak power deficit in January 2013 was 11.4 per cent. The power
demand then was 1,32,948 MW against a supply of 1,17,790 MW,
according to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) data.

The north-eastern region was the worst effected, registering a deficit

of 8.2 per cent or 171 MW. The total demand for electricity in the
seven sister states --Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura and Mizoram -- was 2,096 MW as
compared to a supply of 1,925 MW.

The peak power deficit in the southern region of the country --

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry,
Lakshadweep -- was 4.4 per cent at 1,573 MW.

Country's peak power deficit -- shortfall in electricity supply when the

demand is at the maximum point -- was 5,378 MW or 4 per cent last 11
month.

Projected Power Demand (TWh)

1997 BAU 2020 BCS 2020

1400
1221
1200 1134

1000

800

570
600 510

400 329
262 235
202181
200 137 165163
89
45 47 48
7 22
0
Industry Transport Agriculture Commercial Residential Total

BAU-business-as-usual BCS: Best case Scenario 12

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 Global Warming

• Everyday, the world produces carbon dioxide that is

released to the earth’s atmosphere and which will still be
there in one hundred years time.

• This increased content of Carbon Dioxide increases the

warmth of our planet and is the main cause of the so
called “Global Warming Effect”

• The effect of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans.

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• There are several greenhouse gases responsible for warming,

- Most come from the combustion of fossil fuels in cars,
factories and electricity production. The gas responsible for
the most warming is carbon dioxide, also called CO2.

- Other contributors include methane released from landfills

and agriculture (especially from the digestive systems of
grazing animals)

- Nitrous oxide from fertilizers, gases used for refrigeration

and industrial processes, and the loss of forests that would
otherwise store CO2.
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7
 Nitric oxide
6% CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
14%

CO2
50% Methane
18%

Ozone
12%
Gasses in the Atmosphere

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Domestic heating
5% Pow er Stations
15%

Transport Industry
60% 20%

Where CO2 comes from

16

8
It was agreed that
the developed nations of the world must reduce
their greenhouse gas emissions
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 19

1.2. Grid Connected Power (MHRD)

• Wind Power:
- The average wind farm requires 17 acres to produce 1MW of
electricity (about enough electricity for 750 to 1000 homes)

- It aims at generation of competitively priced grid-interactive wind

power. The programme also covers research and development and
survey and assessment of wind resources.

• Solar Power
- Solar thermal generation requires large tracts of land, and this
affects natural habitat.

- The environment is also affected when buildings, roads,

transmission lines, and transformers are built.

- Aims to generate competitively priced Solar Thermal and Solar

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Photovoltaic Power.

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• Bio-power:
- The organic matter that makes up plants is known as biomass
- Four sets of programmes are being implemented with the aim to
generate competitively priced bio power and/or heat from
agricultural, agro-industrial residues and plantations and urban &
industrial wastes. These are:
- Biomass power / bagasse cogeneration
- Non-bagasse cogeneration
- Biomass gasifier
- Urban & Industrial wastes

• Small Hydro Power

- Aims to generate competitively priced Small hydro power (upto
25 MW station capacity).

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• The thickness and hence cost of conducting cables is inversely

proportional to the voltage of power.

• The practical limits relate to safety issues especially sparking and

insulation at high voltage.

• In practice, the voltage of long distance transmission is 50 to 750kV.

Local area distribution is 6 to 50 kV, and supply to consumers is 100
to 500V. Internally, in equipment, it is 3 to 48V.

• Grid electricity is converted from the primary source by:

- Moving wires in magnetic fields (Faraday effect)
- Photovoltaic generation with sunlight (photovoltaic effects)
- Chemical transformations as in fuel cells and batteries
(electrochemical effects)
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11
• To regulate power, voltage, speed, and frequency, each method
depends on matching, instantaneously, load to generation.

• Generation is distinguished by its economic and physical ability to

vary to match load.

1. Base load generation (difficult or expensive to vary; e.g., nuclear

power, large coal, and large biomass)
2. Peaking generation (easier to vary quickly but may be expensive;
e.g., gas turbines and fuel cells)
3. Standby generation (easy to increase generation rapidly from off
or idling modes; e.g., diesel, fuel cells, and gas turbines)
4. Intermittent generation (e.g., run-of-the-river hydro, wind, and
most renewables, except biomass and geothermal)

Note that intermittent does not mean unpredictable availability but

guarantees that load always equals generation. 23

Losses?

India's network technical losses is 24% in 2013

compared to world average of less than 15%.

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 1.3. Distributed Generation

• Distributed power generation (DG) is any small-scale power

generation technology that provides electric power at a site closed to
customers than central station generation.

• Energy sources are termed as Distributed Energy Sources (DERs)

• Common attributes of DGs are

- It is not centrally planned by the power utility, nor
centrally dispatched.
- It is normally smaller than 50 MW.
- The power sources or distributed generators are usually
connected to the distribution system which are typically of
voltages 230 /415V up to 145 kV.

Why integration of distributed generation?

Yesterday
Tomorrow
Centralized Power
Clean, local Power

Better Service at Lower Cost

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• The need for argumentation of fossil fuels is neglected.

• Reduction of environmental pollution

• Better scope for setting up co-generation, tri generation or combined

heat and power (CHP) plants for utilizing the waste heat for
industrial/domestic/commercial applications.

• Reduction in transmission and distribution (T&D) losses.

• Standalone and grid-connected operations of DERs help in

generation augmentation, thereby improving overall power quality
and reliability.

• Factors to be considered while integrating renewable

energy source into the grid are:
– The variation with time of power generated
– The extent of the variation (availability)
– The predictability of the variation
– The capacity of each generator
– The dispersal of individual generators
– The reliability of plants
– The experience of operators
– The technology for integration
– The regulations and customs for embedded generation

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 Comparison of Different DGs

Power Quality Issues

Source

Power Electronic Interface

Load
Load

Sustained Interruptions
Voltage Regulation
Voltage Ride Through
Harmonics
Voltage Sags
Load Following
Power Variation

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 Interconnection of DG

Typical Voltage and Frequency Relay Setting for DG Interconnection for

a 60 Hz System

Voltage Deviation:
Interconnection system response to Abnormal Voltages per IEEE 1547

Frequency variation

Interconnection system response to Abnormal Frequencies per IEEE 1547

Current Harmonics

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 DG Integration Schemes

1. Simple Standby Generation Scheme

Useful for long-term outage and without projecting loads from any
short-term and voltage fluctuations.
A typical diesel generator takes 10 seconds for supplying power to
loads

2. Secondary DG system with Power Quality Support

• Useful for long-term power outage.

• It provides protection against short-term and voltage fluctuations
by sophisticated control system.

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 3. Primary DG system with Power Quality Support
to Priority Loads

• The CHP operates in parallel with the utility grid to provide low cost
electric and thermal energy.

4. Soft grid-connected DG with power quality

support to priority loads

• It is also similar to the previous one.

• It is capable of grid-independent operation with anti-islanding protection.

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5. DG with intermittent Solar PV within power
quality environment

6. DG with intermittent wind generator within

power quality environment

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 7. Ultra-high reliability scheme using dual link DC
bus
Operated as
main power supply

To meet voltage fluctuations

during step changes in loads

Advantages
1. Source voltage failure don’t draw power from other sources.

2. Priority load faults are isolated to UPS motor generator.

3. No system failure takes place due to control system failure.

4. There is no reverse power flow.

5. Synchronisation or cascade failure are remote.

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 1.4 Renewable Energy Economics
• New electricity infrastructures have been set up to provide high
penetration levels of up to 100% electricity from renewable sources.

• Based on Electricity grid availability (specially for large wind form).

Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs

• A distinction must be made between existing and potential plants

• Existing Plant: the running costs (short-term marginal costs) are

relevant only for the economic decision as to whether to use the
plant for electricity generation.

• For new capacities, long-term marginal costs are important.

• Existing Plants: Annual running costs are split into

i) Fuel costs and

Function of the fuel price of the primary energy
carrier and efficiency

ii) Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs.

Refers to electricity output, hence must be coupled

with full load hours

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• The full-load hours represent the equivalent time of full operation for
a year.

• This is calculated for a power plant by dividing the amount of

electricity generated per year by the plant’s nominal power capacity.

• For theoretical cost–resource curves, this reflects an important

aspect: the suitability of sites.

• In the case of wind energy, the full-load hours are determined by the
wind speed distribution and the rated wind speed of the machines.

• Knowing the expected full-load hours, the quantity of electricity to be

generated can be calculated. Hence, costs per unit are determined.

• The number of full-load hours divided by the number of hours in a

year (8765 hours, on average) equals the system capacity
(dimensionless).

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• New Plants: Electricity generation costs consist of variable
costs and fixed costs.
Generation costs are given by

Fixed costs occur whether or not a plant generates electricity. These costs are
determined by investment costs (I) and the capital recovery factor.

• Investment Costs: Investment costs differ according to technology

and energy source.

• In general, investment costs per unit of capacity for renewable

energy systems are higher than for conventional technologies based
on fossil fuels.

• Also, differences exist among renewable energy technologies (e.g.,

investment costs per unit of capacity for small hydropower plants are
generally at least twice those for wind turbines).

• Investment costs decrease over time and are usually derived

annually.

• It is usual to consider renewables as having zero fuel costs, apart

from biomass (biogas, solid biomass, and sewage and landfill gas),
so running costs are determined by operation and maintenance
costs only.

• Therefore, the running costs for renewable energy systems are

normally low compared with those of fossil-fuel systems.

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• Capital Recovery Factor The capital recovery factor allows
investment costs incurred in the construction phase of a plant to
be discounted.

• The amount depends on the interest rate and the payback time
of the plant.

• For the standard calculation of generation costs, these factors

may be set as follows for all technologies:
Payback time (PT) of all plants: 15 years
Interest rate (z): 6.5%

• Different interest rates may be applied in any economical study.

The interest rate depends on stakeholder behavior and is a
function of a guaranteed political planning horizon of promotion
scheme of technology of investor category.

• Generation costs are calculated per unit of energy output, so fixed

costs must be related to generation. Hence, fixed costs per unit of
output are lower if the operation time of the plant—characterized by
full-load hours—is high.

• Deriving generation costs for CHP plants is similar to calculating

them for plants that produce electricity only.

• Both short-term marginal costs (i.e., variable costs) and fixed costs
must be considered for new plants.

• Of course, variable costs differ between CHP and conventional

electricity plants because the revenue from heat power must be
considered in the former. In general, no taxes are included in the
various cost components.

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 1.5 Energy Recovery Time
• The cost of electricity depends entirely, or largely, on the size of
power stations

• Between 1960 and 1980, the ideal size of a station rose from 400
MW to 1000 MW.

• These days, 5 MW is regarded as ideal because small-scale power

generation permits a flexible response to energy demand and return
of capital.

• The lower the specific energy content, the more energy intensive is
the conversion process.

• The cost effective energy conversion system with high efficiency

gives profit in power plant.

• The energy recovery time, is highly dependent on the specific

energy content of the primary source.

Recovery Time of Selected Sources of Energy

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• The recovery time for power stations fired by gas and oil is 0.09 of a
full-load year (approximately 0.13 of a calendar year); for coal-fired
power stations, it is 0.15 of a full-load year (approximately 0.21 of a
calendar year).

• Modern gas-fired power stations that generate and supply

commercial heat, alternative sources of energy such as nuclear
power plants, wind turbines, and photovoltaic systems can generate
only electricity.

• The recovery time of 0.7 full-load year for gas- or oil-fired power
stations, which is approximately one calendar year. Coal fired power
stations have a longer recovery time.

• In Australia,47% of the annual emissions of greenhouse carbon

dioxide come from fossil fuel–fired power plants

• Solar is considered as better alternate for fossil fuel.

• Balanced and optimized are terms frequently used to indicate that a

system is designed to size the renewable, storage, and fuel-based
components to deliver minimal all-of-life costs in a specific site and
for a specific customer loading pattern.

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 1.6 Modern Electronic Controls of Power
Systems
• Power electronics is a part of electronic application systems that
encompasses the entire field of power engineering, from generation to
transmission and distribution to transportation, storage systems, and
domestic services.

• The progress of power electronics has generally followed

microelectronic device evolution and influenced the current
technological status of renewable energy conversion.

• The power produced by renewable energy devices such as

photovoltaic cells and wind turbines varies on hourly, daily, and
seasonal bases because of variation in the availability of the sun, wind,
and other renewable resources.

• The variable output from renewable energy devices also means that
power conditioning and control equipment is required to transform this
output into a form (i.e., voltage, current, and frequency) that can be
used by electrical appliances. Therefore, energy must be stored and
power electronics used to convert this energy.

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