DR. MONALEE A.

DELA CERNA
Intended Learning Outcomes:
During learning engagement, students shall have to:

 Define what is research

 Discuss the benefits derived from research

 Formulate one’s concept of research

 Share the current researches in their field

 TOPICS
Introduction to Research
Definition of Research
Importance of Research
Purpose of Research
Objectives of Research
Values of Research to Man
Classification of Research
Characteristics of Research
Steps of Research Process
 TOPICS
 Basic Characteristics of the Research Process
 Sources of Problems
 Criteria for Selection of a Research Problem
 Theory
 Role and Purpose of Theory in Research
 Interdependence of Theory and Research
 Developing a Theoretical Framework
 Guidelines for Selecting and Organizing the Most
Relevant Sources of Information
 Review of Literature
 Importance of the Review of Literature in
Developing the Theoretical Framework
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
MEDICAL
BUSINESS
SOCIAL
COMPUTER
DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
 KERLINGER
“Scientific research is a systematic,
controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of natural
phenomenon guided by theory and
hypothesis about the presumed
relations among such phenomena.”
 GOOD
the “careful, critical, disciplined
inquiry, varying in technique and
method according to the nature
and conditions of the problem
identified, directed toward the
clarification or resolution (or both)
of a problem.”
 SCHMALLEGER

“the use of standardized

systematic procedures in the
search for knowledge”
 SANCHEZ

“the continuous discovery and

exploration of the unknown”
 PAREL

“the systematic study or

investigation of something for
the purpose of answering
questions posed by the
researcher.”
 TREECE AND TREECE

“in its broadest sense, an attempt

to gain solutions to problems.
More precisely, it is the collection
of data in a rigorously controlled
situation for the purpose of
prediction or explanation.”
 CALDERON AND GONZALES

in a more comprehensive form, “a

purposive, systematic and scientific
process of gathering, analyzing,
presenting, and interpreting data for
the solution of a problem, for
prediction, for invention, for the
discovery of truth, or for the expansion
or verification of existing knowledge, all
for the preservation and improvement
of the quality of human life.”
 FRENCH

“essentially a problem-solving
process, a systematic, intensive
study directed toward further
scientific knowledge of the subject
studied.”
 NOSTER

“the more formal, systematic,

and intensive process of
carrying on a scientific method
of analysis for the purpose of
discovery and the
development of an organized
body of knowledge.”
 HALLWAY
“a method of study by which through
the careful and exhaustive investigation
of all the ascertainable evidence
bearing upon a definable problem, we
reach a solution to that problem and its
purpose is to discover facts and ideas
not previously known to man.”
 SCHMITZ

“represents a serious effort to

satisfy an intellectual curiosity
about a chosen subject and to
pass on to someone else by
means of the written word the
information gained.”
 SEVILLA, ET AL.

“searching for a theory,

for testing theory or for
solving a problem.”
 CRAWFORD
“a systematic and refined
technique of thinking,
employing specialized tools,
instruments and procedures in
order to obtain a more
adequate solution of a
problem than would be
possible under ordinary
means.”
 INTERNET
“Focused, systematic study and
investigation undertaken to increase
knowledge and understanding of a
subject. . . refers to scholarly,
empirical, creative, critical, and/or
expressive activities in the sciences,
humanities, arts, and other scholarly
fields which expand, clarify, reorganize
or develop knowledge or artistic
perception.”
 INTERNET
“. . . an active, diligent and
systematic process of inquiry in
order to discover, interpret or revise
facts, events, behaviors or theories
or to make practical applications
with the help of such facts, laws or
theories. The term “research” is
also used to describe the collection
of information about a particular
subject.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is a vehicle for mobility. It is
because of research that society
does not remain stagnant.
It is the major contributor towards the
attainment of national development
goals.
The attempt of emerging nations to
use research for their development
and modernization is an expression of
their faith in research.
Research then assumes the role of
shaping the nation’s future. Then, too,
research has brought about progress
and a much better life for all.
A research paper is not simply a
compilation of ideas of writers read but
an organization of their views in one’s
on way to the relation of the different
ideas and if possible, to draw
conclusions based on one’s readings.
THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

Thebasic purpose of
research is to satisfy
one’s curiosity; that is, to
answer specific question
and to solve a particular
controversy or issue.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

To seek new knowledge

and to provide useful
information in the form of
verifiable data.
 VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN
 Research improves the quality of life.
 Research improves the instruction.
 Research improves student’s achievement.
 Research satisfies man’s needs
 Research reduces the burden of work.
 Research has deep-seated psychological
aspects.
 Research improves the quality of products
and augment productivity.
Classification of Educational Research

Wiersma describes two systems of

classifying educational research
according to:

 1) the goal or purpose, and

2) the way the research is

conducted.
Types of Research
Based on Goal or Purpose
1. Basic (pure/theoretical/fundamental
research)
– primary purpose is the extension of knowledge. i.e.,
adding to the existing body of knowledge;
concerned with the formulation or affirmation of a
theory; does not necessarily provide results of
immediate, practical use, although such a possibility is
not ruled out. If this result does occur, however, it is
supplement, not the primary purpose.
Examples
study on human rights
violations in the Philippines;
 content analysis of the
speeches of Ferdinand
Marcos;
 autobiography of Hillary
Clinton, effects of smoking
 2. Applied (practical or field research)

 purpose is the solution of a practical

problem; conducted to obtain knowledge
for useful ends; tests theories in the field
setting. In producing a solution to a
specific problem, applied research may
contribute to the general knowledge of the
field.
Examples:

design and construction of low-cost

housing;

biogas production from agricultural

wastes,

assessment of aquaculture projects

in Eastern Visayas
3. Action Research (on-the-spot
research) –
a type of applied research focused on the

solution of day-to-day problems at the local

level; aimed at the solution of an immediate

problem.
Examples:
study on poor
attendance in a school
activity;

causes of a company
strike
 Types of Research According
to General Methodology
1. Experimental – At least one variable is

manipulated to determine the effect of the

manipulation. Subjects are randomly assigned

to experimental treatments.
2.Quasi-experimental – At least one
variable is manipulated to determine
the effect of the manipulation. Intact,
naturally formed groups are used.

3. Survey – the incidence, relationships

and distributions of variables are
studied. Variables are not
manipulated but studied as they
occur in a natural setting.
4. Historical – A description of past
events or facts is developed.

5. Ethnographic – A holistic
description of present phenomena
is developed.
Basic Characteristics of the
Research Process
 Systematic

– follows an orderly and sequential

procedure; observations are tightly

disciplined such that among alternatives or

possible explanations of a phenomenon, all

but one is ruled out. Research can

conclude that the tested relation is as it is.

 Empirical

– capable of being
verified/disproved by experience;
researcher subjects his belief to
empirical inquiry and tests it against
a reality-referent.
 Logical

– observes system of scientific

thinking. Logical examination of the
procedures applied in an experiment
with reference to the requirement of
internal validity enables the
researcher to check the validity of
the conclusions drawn.
 Reductive
– translates data from reality to abstract or
conceptual state to understand the
relationships between events and to
attempt to predict how these relationships
might operate in other contexts.
Researcher sacrifices some of the
specificity and uniqueness associated with
individual objects or vents in order to
identify general relationships.
 Replicable

– procedures are transmittable

enabling other researchers to
use the results of a study or to
build upon the results of another.
 Universal

– process and procedures

are transmittable which
enables other researchers
to replicate them and to
assess their validity.
 Cyclical
– research starts out and ends
with a problem. Even if the
specific problem in a research
has been answered; the
interpretation may spark off
other problems, and another
cycle begins.
 Critical

– researcher assumes a skeptical,

doubting or questioning attitude in
order to bring a higher level of
confidence and certainty to one’s
understanding than what is possible
by belief, faith or simplistic reasoning
alone.
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
 Researcher’s own field of interest and professional
experience (intellectual interest & professional
goals)

 Undergraduate program/ courses
 2.1 classroom lectures and class discussions of
problematic situations
 2.2 consultations with undergraduate faculty,
especially those doing research
 2.3 consultations and discussion among scholars
of different social-science discipline
Survey and critical reading of
literature
3. 1 Research journals and
articles, books or abstracts
available in the library
3.2 Recommendations in
undergraduate theses
(“offshoots”)
3.3 Replications of previous
investigations
Attendance at professional
lectures, symposia, research
colloquia or seminars

Involvement or participation
in intensive research projects
Consideration of existing practices
and social, political or economic
issues of society as a thesis topic
devoted to the solution of a social
problem, e.g., poverty, pollution,
health

Needs of some organizations which

act as sponsor, subsidizing or
contracting agency
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
 Feasibility of the problem as to:

 1.1 availability of subjects and relevant

data
 1.2 limits and constraints of time
 1.3 limits and constraints of resources
 1.4 manageability of research
methodology
 1.5 competence/experience of
researcher (technical expertise)
Relevance/importance/useful
ness of the problem with
reference to:
 2.1 researcher’s background and
career interest
 2.2 advancement of knowledge
 2.3 improvement of educational
practice
 2.4 contribution to the community
Ethical considerations:
 3.1 Informed consent
 3.2 Freedom from harm
 3.3 Privacy
 3.4 Anonymity and confidentiality
 3.5 Knowledge of outcome
 3.6 A copy of results
 THEORY

 Definition:

 “a set of concepts and their relations which
explains, predicts, and interprets how a
particular phenomenon exists and
operates”
 “a generalization or series of generalizations
by which we attempt to explain some
phenomena in a systematic manner”

 Role and Purpose of Theory in
Research:
 Serves as the point of departure for the pursuit of a
research problem

 provides a systematic view of the crucial factors

under study

 aids in defining the research problem, i.e., helps

identify the proper questions to be asked in the
context of the specific project

 identifies gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies

that indicate the need for additional research
Also serves the purposes of
explaining observed
phenomena and predicting
as yet unobserved or
undiscovered factors by
indicating their presence
 Interdependence of theory
and research
 Scientific
investigation aims to advance
theories to explain the realities it deals
with. To attain this objective, theories are
gradually modified through continuous
interaction with ongoing observation and
data analysis. When a theory is regularly
strengthened by empirical support and
evidence, it tends to be accepted but it
is discarded if research consistently fails to
support it. Research, therefore, tests
theory.
 On the other hand, theory is used to
guide and direct research. It is theory
that leads a researcher to search for a
new theory to meet/correct/improve the
inadequacies, inconsistencies and
weaknesses of existing theories and
previous researches. Thus, it is necessary
that a researcher must have “a
theoretical perspective to structure and
conceptualize the problems of interest
within a given theoretical area.”

DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Purpose of Theoretical Framework:
A theoretical perspective is
essential for the following reasons:
A theory is useful in organizing
existing data meaningfully in
a specific area of
investigation. A useful theory
is productive of hypotheses
for further research.
Any research suggested or guided
by a theory provides an evaluation
of that theory.

A theory can be a useful device for

interpreting, criticizing, and unifying
established scientific law, modifying
them in the face of unanticipated
data, guiding the discovery of new
and more powerful generalizations.
 Theorizing takes stock of what there is to
learn, pondering on observations,
generalizing from data, forming these
generalizations into systems of concepts
and relationships and conducting
experiments to test deductions from the
system evolved. In short, theorizing
provides a system for achieving creative
solutions to problems not met before.
 Operational Definitions of
Theoretical and Conceptual
Framework
 Operationally,the term theoretical framework
may be taken into mean a comprehensive
integration and summarization on a high scientific
level of the major empirical generalizations within
a given field which serve as the basis or
springboard of one’s investigation or research.
The term conceptual framework refers to the
paradigm presenting the theoretical
underpinnings which serve as the bases of the
researcher’s study.
Guidelines for selecting and
organizing the most relevant
sources of information
Of two or more similar articles on
the same subject, select the
more/most recent for detailed
analysis, but give credit to earlier
relevant works.

 Example: “Several authors found that

migration of women is positively related with
their level of education.” (Shah, 1984,
Findley & Williams, 1991)
Give some reason for the inclusion
of each reference in the review of
literature.
 Example: “Although Pavlov (10) appears
to have been the first investigator to
employ the differential effect of partial
versus continuous reinforcement, it was
Skinner (12, 46) who recognized the
theoretical and practical importance of
Pavlov’s discoveries.”
In presenting various theoretical
positions or contradictory findings,
describe the major points of view for
each position and simply provide a
reference to the advocates of each. In
cases of disagreement in opinion or
methodology, select articles for
inclusion in the review which seem to
be representative of various points of
which have used different techniques.
 Example: “Whereas Skinner (1958) has
advocated the use of many small steps in
preparing material suitable for
programmed instruction, Crowder (1960)
has suggested that some students may
skip materials which are simple for them.
In partial support of Skinner’s contention
Coulson and Silberman (1960) found that
the use of small steps led to significantly
higher scores on examinations than did
the use of larger steps.”
Cite references dealing with
each of the variables in the
study; also include literature
on conceptually similar or
related variables.
Choose a particular method
of organizing the review, e.g.,
chronological (historical
approach); thematic
approach; country approach.
Organize the literature review
by subheadings which reflect
the relationship between the
variables and the problem.
Begin the subsection after each
subheading with a sentence
introducing the purpose, content,
or relevance of the literature to be
reviewed in the subsection and
end with a sentence summarizing
the conclusion or trends evident
from the literature reviewed.
 Example: Theory of Career
Development
 Thepurpose of this subsection is to identify
relevant concepts and data relating to career
development. Such concepts and data should
help to clarify the human as well as social
factors in career development. . . . (discussion
on concepts follows.)

 Based upon the aforementioned research, the

following can be stated as relevant to career
development: (1) to (6) . . . (relevant concepts
are enumerated.)
In making a critical
review of literature, be
careful of personal
biases creeping into your
work.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 Definition:locating, reading, and

evaluating research reports as well as
those of casual observation and opinions
that are related to one’s planned study.
Functions:
 provides the theoretical framework of a
study
 provides information about related studies
 ensures having all constructs related to
intended study
 gives information about research methods
used, sampling instruments, statistical
treatment
 provides findings and conclusions of past
investigations related to one’s own findings
Purpose: to expand upon the
context and background of the
study, to help further define the
problem, and to provide an
empirical basis for the subsequent
development of hypotheses. The
length of the review will depend
upon the number of relevant articles
available and the purpose for which
the research report is being written.
A good guideline for selecting the
literature in the review section is to
cite references dealing with each
of the variables in the study,
paying special attention to those
articles dealing with them.
Literature concerning
conceptually similar or related
variables should likewise be cited.
 Subheadings should reflect the major
variables of the literature review. The
more relevant the article to your study,
the more detailed your description of it
may be. Remember that the purpose of
the literature review is to provide a basis
for the formulation of hypotheses. In
other words, articles are not reviewed for
their own sake but as a basis for
generalizing from them to your own
study.
Importance of the Review of
Literature in Developing the
Theoretical Framework

 Indeveloping the theoretical

framework of the study, a
researcher needs to make an
exhaustive but selective review of
the related studies and literature.
Such a review has the following
main purposes:
To show the current state of
knowledge on the topic to be
investigated – researcher
would know what has been
done and what aspects have
not been investigated or
explored before, thus giving
him a basis for working on a
new problem on same subject
To show the relation of a study
to other investigations on the
same topic – researcher would
have insights on the
weaknesses and problems of
previous studies, thus showing
him how to handle or avoid
the same limitations/problems
To provide an empirical basis for
the subsequent development of
hypotheses
 Although the usual practice in the past
was to devote an entire chapter to the
review of literature and related studies,
the current trend is to build the review into
the theoretical background and
conceptual framework of the study. This
has the advantage of “forcing the writer
to keep it relevant to the problem
statement and hypotheses that surround
it.”
 Conducting a Computer
Search
 With the advance in technology, computer-
assisted searches of the literature on
educational issues and research works are
available through university and public
libraries. A number of databases that contain
research information are available. Thus
Internet searches make available the
maximum reservoir of information on a topic.
Such search had the advantage of
comprehensiveness and speed. Although it
may involve expenses, it is highly cost-effective
in terms of time and effort.