1.

Part of speech

-The 8 Part Of Speech

A. What is a noun?

Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas. There are many different types of nouns.

Here are a few: proper nouns, common nouns, collective nouns, possessive nouns, and
compound nouns. example=

-A peacock walked through our yard.

-The dog howled.

B. What is a pronoun?

Pronouns take the place of nouns. There are many different types of pronouns.

Here are a few of them: reflexive pronouns, indefinite pronouns, possessive pronouns, and
relative pronouns. example=

-We walked across the bridge.

-woke the baby.

C. What is a verb?

Verbs show actions or states of being. Linking verbs, action verbs, and helping verbs are
described on the page above.

Modals are described here, and you can learn even more about action verbs and linking verbs
here. example =

-The shuttle flew into space.

-The loving mother comforted the baby.

D. What is an adjective?

Adjectives describe, or modify, nouns and pronouns.

example =

-The wise, handsome owl had orange eyes.

-The caring father rocked the baby.

E. What is an adverb?

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

The extremely cute koala hugged its mom very tightly.

example =

-The dog howled loudly.

F.What is a preposition?

Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some other word in the
rest of the sentence. example=

-The frog sat in the flower.

-The baby cried for a long time.

G.What is a conjunction?

Conjunctions join two or more words, phrases, or clauses. example =

-The hummingbird sat and waited.

-The baby gazed at his mother and father.

H.What is an interjection?

Interjections show excitement or emotion. They are not grammatically related to the rest of the
sentence. example=

-Wow! That jump was amazing!

-Phew, the baby finally fell asleep.

2. Word order is important: it’s what makes your sentences make sense! So, proper word order
is an essential part of writing and speaking—when we put words in the wrong order, the result
is a confusing, unclear, and an incorrect sentence.

A .Examples of Word Order

Here are some examples of words put into the correct and incorrect order:

I have 2 brothers and 2 sisters at home. CORRECT

2 brothers and 2 sisters have I at home. INCORRECT

I am in middle school. CORRECT

In middle school I am. INCORRECT

How are you today? CORRECT

You are how today? INCORRECT

As you can see, it’s usually easy to see whether or not your words are in the correct order.
When words are out of order, they stand out, and usually change the meaning of a sentence or
make it hard to understand.

B. Types of Word Order

In English, we follow one main pattern for normal sentences and one main pattern for
sentences that ask a question.

a. Standard Word Order

A sentence’s standard word order is Subject + Verb + Object (SVO). Remember, the subject is
what a sentence is about; so, it comes first. For example:

The dog (subject) + eats (verb) + popcorn (object).

The subject comes first in a sentence because it makes our meaning clear when writing and
speaking. Then, the verb comes after the subject, and the object comes after the verb; and
that’s the most common word order. Otherwise, a sentence doesn’t make sense, like this:

Eats popcorn the dog. (verb + object + subject)

Popcorn the dog eats. (object + subject + verb)

B. Questions

When asking a question, we follow the order auxiliary verb/modal auxiliary + subject + verb
(ASV). Auxiliary verbs and modal auxiliaries share meaning or function, many which are forms of
the verb “to be.” Auxiliary verbs can change form, but modal auxiliaries don’t. Here’s a chart to
help you:

As said, questions follow the form ASV; or, if they have an object, ASVO. Here are some
examples:

Can he cook? “Can” (auxiliary) “he” (subject) “cook” (verb)

Does your dog like popcorn? “Does” (A) “your dog” (S) “like” (V) “popcorn” (O)

Are you burning the popcorn? “Are” (A) “you” (S) “burning” (V) “popcorn” (O)

C. Parts of Word Order

While almost sentences need to follow the basic SVO word order, we add other words, like
indirect objects and modifiers, to make them more detailed.

a. Indirect Objects
When we add an indirect object, a sentence will follow a slightly different order. Indirect objects
always come between the verb and the object, following the pattern SVIO, like this:

I fed the dog some popcorn.

This sentence has “I” (subject) “fed” (verb) “dog” (indirect object) “popcorn” (direct object).

b. Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases also have special positions in sentences. When we use the prepositions
like “to” or “for,” then the indirect object becomes part of a prepositional phrase, and follows
the order SVOP, like this:

I fed some popcorn to the dog.

Other prepositional phrases, determining time and location, can go at either the beginning or
the end of a sentence:

He ate popcorn at the fair. -Or- At the fair he ate popcorn.

In the morning I will go home. I will go home in the morning.

. Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, adding things like time, manner, degree;
and often end in ly, like “slowly,” “recently,” “nearly,” and so on. As a rule, an adverb (or any
modifier) should be as close as possible to the thing it is modifying. But, adverbs are special
because they can usually be placed in more than one spot in the sentence and are still correct.
So, there are rules about their placement, but also many exceptions.

In general, when modifying an adjective or adverb, an adverb should go before the word it
modifies:

The dog was extremely hungry. CORRECT adverb modifies “hungry”

Extremely, the dog was hungry. INCORRECT misplaced adverb

The extremely dog was hungry. INCORRECT misplaced adverb

As you can see, the word “extremely” only makes sense just before the adjective “hungry.” In
this situation, the adverb can only go in one place.

When modifying a verb, an adverb should generally go right after the word it modifies, as in the
first sentence below. BUT, these other uses are also correct, though they may not be the best:
The dog ran quickly to the fair. CORRECT * BEST POSITION

Quickly the dog ran to the fair. CORRECT

The dog quickly ran to the fair. CORRECT

The dog ran to the fair quickly. CORRECT

For adverbs expressing frequency (how often something happens) the adverb goes directly after
the subject:

The dog always eats popcorn.

He never runs slowly.

I rarely see him.

Adverbs expressing time (when something happens) can go at either the beginning or of the
end of the sentence, depending what’s important about the sentence. If the time isn’t very
important, then it goes at the beginning of the sentence, but if you want to emphasize the time,
then the adverb goes at the end of the sentence:

Now the dog wants popcorn. Emphasis on “the dog wants popcorn”

The dog wants popcorn now. Emphasis on “now”

5. How to Use Avoid Mistakes with Word Order

Aside from following the proper SVO pattern, it’s important to write and speak in the way that is
the least confusing and the most clear. If you make mistakes with your word order, then your
sentences won’t make sense. Basically, if a sentence is hard to understand, then it isn’t correct.
Here are a few key things to remember:

The subject is what a sentence is about, so it should come first.

A modifier (like an adverb) should generally go as close as possible to the thing it is modifying.

Indirect objects can change the word order from SVO to SVIO

Prepositional phrases have special positions in sentences

3. Singular and Plural Nouns

The difference between singular and plural nouns is easy to spot. When a noun indicates one
only, it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more than one, it is plural.

Singular Noun Examples

The following sentences contain singular nouns examples.

The boy had a baseball in his hand.

My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.

That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box.

You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.

Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp.

It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.

I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you drive.

Plural Noun Examples

The following sentences contain plural noun examples.

The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases.

Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles.

Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those boxes.

You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.

Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to parties.

It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of water.

I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are driving.

4.Determiners

Determiner (noun): a word like the, an, this or some that comes at the beginning of a noun
phrase
These pages explain the grammar and usage of determiners, with example sentences.

What is a Determiner?

Main Determiners

These are the main determiners. There can be only ONE main determiner in a noun phrase (for
more about this, see order of determiners):

Articles

a/an, the

Demonstrative Determiners

this/that, these/those

Possessive Determiners

my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Pre-Determiners and Post-Determiners

Pre-determiners come before main determiners and post-determiners come after main
determiners. (For how many and where, see order of determiners.)

Quantifiers

all, every, most, many, much, some, few, little, any, no...

Numbers

cardinal and ordinal numbers

double/twice/three times...

Interrogative Determiners

whose, what, which

5.Causative Verbs : Structures & Examples

The causatives are the verbs that are used to indicate that one person causes another person to
do something for the first person. One can cause somebody to do something for him/her by
asking, paying, requesting, or forcing the person.
Causative Verbs:

Have

Get

Make

This kind of verbs constitutes different structures for their sentences.

Have

Structure 1:

Subject + have (any tense) + object (usually person) + base form of verb + . . . .

Example:

John had Alex clean the bedroom.

He always has me do his work.

Mary will have Alex prepare her homework.

Structure 2:

Subject + have (any tense) + object (usually thing) + past participle form of verb + . . . .

Example:

John had his car washed.

He always has his work done.

Mary will have her homework prepared.

Get

Structure 1:

Subject + get (any tense) + object (usually person) + infinitive + . . . .

Example:

John got Alex to clean the bedroom.

He always gets me to do his work.

 Mary will get Alex to prepare her homework.

Structure 2:

Subject + have (any tense) + object (usually thing) + past participle form of verb + . . . .

Example:

John got his car washed.

He always gets his work done.

Mary will get her homework prepared.

Make

‘Make’ is stronger than ‘have/get’. It constitutes only one structure as it does not take anything
‘passive’ as its object.

Subject + make (any tense) + object (always person) + base form of verb + . . .

Example:

Robert made me beat that little child.

He always makes me do his work.

Mary will make me prepare her homework.

I made him wash my car.

He makes me laugh whenever I am down.

Note: According to the grammar rules and structures, there are two more similar verbs that are
not causative verbs by definition but they constitute similar sentence structures.

Those two verbs are:

Let

Help

Let

‘Let’ means ‘allow/permit’ but the use of ‘let’ in the sentence is different from these words.

Structure:
Subject + let (any tense) + object (always person) + base form of verb +. . Example:

Robert let me escape the prison.

Let me go. (Subject ‘you’ is hidden)

The teacher let the students discuss among themselves.

I let him drive my car.

Let’s (let us) laugh and live a happy life.

The verb ‘permit’/’allow’ does not follow this structure. It follows the regular sentence pattern
of English language.

Subject + permit/allow + object + infinitive + . . . .

Example:

John allowed him to drive his car.

He always allows him to do that.

The teacher allowed me to sit for the exams.

Help

Help is not actually a causative verb either but is generally regarded as a causative verb because
of its grammatical use in a sentence. It has two structures.

Structure 1:

Subject + help (any tense) + object (usually person) + base form of verb +. . .

Example:

Robert helped me escape the prison.

He helps me prepare my presentations.

The teacher had helped the students understand a complex theory.

I helped him learn driving.

It will help you move on.

Structure 2:
Subject + help + object + infinitive + . . . .

Example:

John helped him to lift his car.

He always helps me to find my stuff.

The teacher helped me to understand the topic

6.What is Tense?

tense (noun): a verb-based method used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation
or completeness, of an action or state in relation to the time of speaking. ORIGIN Latin tempus
"time"

The concept of tense in English is a method that we use to refer to time - past, present and
future. Many languages use tense to talk about time. Other languages have no concept of tense
at all, but of course they can still talk about time, using different methods.

So, we talk about time in English with tense. But, and this is a very big but:

we can also talk about time without using tense (for example, going to is a special construction
to talk about the future, it is not a tense)

one tense does not always talk about one time (for example, we can use the present tense, or
even the past tense, to talk about the future - see tense and time for more about this)

Note that many grammarians take the view that there are only two tenses in English: present
tense and past tense. That is because we make those two tenses with the verb alone - he walks,
he walked. They do not consider that he will walk, he is walking or he has walked (for example)
are tenses because they are not formed solely from the verb "walk". For English learners, most
EFL teachers and books treat all these constructions as tenses. On these pages we do the same.

We cannot talk of tenses without considering two components of many English tenses: time and
aspect. In simple terms...

Time expresses:

past - before now

present - now, or any time that includes now

future - after now

Aspect can be:

progressive - uncompleted action

perfective - completed action or state

The following table shows how these components work together to create some basic tenses.

time

past present future

simple (no aspect) sang sings will sing

aspect progressive was singing is singing will be singing

perfective had sung has sung will have sung

(Some say that simple tenses have "simple aspect", but strictly speaking simple tenses are
simply unmarked for aspect.)

The progressive aspect produces progressive or "continuous" tenses: past continuous, present
continuous, future continuous.

The perfective aspect produces perfect tenses: past perfect, present perfect, future perfect.

And the two aspects can be combined to produce perfect continuous tenses: past perfect
continuous, present perfect continuous, future perfect continuous.

The above is a summary of the concept of tense in English. There are other factors, including
voice and mood, that allow us to create more than the twelve tenses referred to on this page.
We deal with those under the English tense system and tenses.

7.Passive Voice

What this handout is about

This handout will help you understand what the passive voice is, why many professors and
writing instructors frown upon it, and how you can revise your paper to achieve greater clarity.
Some things here may surprise you. We hope this handout will help you to understand the
passive voice and allow you to make more informed choices as you write.
So what is the passive voice? First, let’s be clear on what the passive voice isn’t. Below, we’ll list
some common myths about the passive voice:

A. Myth: Use of the passive voice constitutes a grammatical error.

Use of the passive voice is not a grammatical error. It’s a stylistic issue that pertains to clarity—
that is, there are times when using the passive voice can prevent a reader from understanding
what you mean.

B. Myth: Any use of “to be” (in any form) constitutes the passive voice.

The passive voice entails more than just using a being verb. Using “to be” can weaken the
impact of your writing, but it is occasionally necessary and does not by itself constitute the
passive voice.

C. Myth: The passive voice always avoids the first person; if something is in first person (“I” or
“we”) it’s also in the active voice.

On the contrary, you can very easily use the passive voice in the first person. Here’s an example:
“I was hit by the dodgeball.”

D. Myth: You should never use the passive voice.

While the passive voice can weaken the clarity of your writing, there are times when the passive
voice is OK and even preferable.

D. Myth: I can rely on my grammar checker to catch the passive voice.

See Myth #1. Since the passive voice isn’t a grammar error, it’s not always caught. Typically,
grammar checkers catch only a fraction of passive voice usage.

Do any of these misunderstandings sound familiar? If so, you’re not alone. That’s why we wrote
this handout. It discusses how to recognize the passive voice, when you should avoid it, and
when it’s OK.

Defining the passive voice

A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a
sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject
of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:

Why was the road crossed by the chicken?

Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this
sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to
be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the
chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something
—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent
that “doing,” whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading
houses (more on that shortly).

Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of “to
be” (is, are, am, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being)
followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not
always, ends in “-ed.” Some exceptions to the “-ed” rule are words like “paid” (not “payed”) and
“driven.” (not “drived”).

Here’s a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:

form of “to be” + past participle = passive voice

For example:

The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon’s fiery breath.

When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.

Not every sentence that contains a form of “have” or “be” is passive! Forms of the word “have”
can do several different things in English. For example, in the sentence “John has to study all
afternoon,” “has” is not part of a past-tense verb. It’s a modal verb, like “must,” “can,” or
“may”—these verbs tell how necessary it is to do something (compare “I have to study” versus
“I may study”).

8. Subject/Verb Agreement Examples

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement (the subject is bolded and the verb
underlined):

My dog always growls at the postal carrier.

Basketballs roll across the floor.

I don't understand the assignment.

These clothes are too small for me.

Peter doesn't like vegetables.

Compound Subjects

Compound subjects (two subjects in the same sentence) usually take a plural verb, unless the
combination is treated as singular in popular usage or the two subjects refer to the same thing
or person. Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with compound subjects:

Sugar and flour are needed for the recipe.

Neither my dad nor my brothers know how to ski.

Pepperoni and cheese are great on a pizza.

Corned beef and cabbage is a traditional meal in Ireland. (popular usage)

The creator and producer is arriving soon. (both refer to same person)

When using "or" or "nor" in a compound subject containing a singular and plural subject, the
verb agrees with the closest subject. Examples of compound subjects using or, neither-nor, or
either-or include:

My mom or dad is coming to the play. (singular)

Neither gray nor white is my favorite color. (singular)

Either Grandpa or my sisters are going to the park. (closest subject is plural)

Either my sisters or Grandpa is going to the park. (closest subject is singular)

Neither she nor I am going to college. (closest subject is singular)

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with singular indefinite pronouns:

Each gets a trophy for playing.

Somebody will pay for this.

Anybody is more fun than you.

Something is very wrong here.

Everybody enjoys a good book.

Nothing has been determined as of yet.

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with plural indefinite pronouns:

Both are qualified for the job.

Many went to the beach and got sunburned.

Few know what it really takes to get ahead.

Several are already on location.

Some sugar is required for taste. (sugar is uncountable so singular verb used)

Most of the cookies were eaten. (cookies are countable so plural verb used)

Midsentence Phrase or Clause

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with a phrase or clause between the
subject and verb:

A theory of physics ascertains that a body in motion stays in motion.

A virus in all the company's computers is a real threat to security.

The causes of this prevalent disease are bad diet and lack of exercise.
The couch and chair I got at the store look really nice in here.

The members of the choir are very happy with the performance.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns can be singular or plural depending on meaning. Here are some examples of
subject verb agreement with collective nouns:

The committee meets here every Thursday. (singular)

The crowd is getting angry. (singular)

The jury has finally reached a decision. (singular)

The majority rules most of the time. (singular)

The staff have gone their separate ways for the holidays. (plural)

Inverted Subjects

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with inverted subjects where the subject
follows the verb:

There are seven clean plates in the dining room.

There is a hair in my lasagna.

Over the rainbow flies a bird.

How are the employees enjoying the new building?

A good gift is a gift card.

Subject/verb agreement is essential to ensure that a sentence is grammatically correct. To learn

more and see more examples, check out these articles - 20 Rules of Subject Verb Agreement
and Subject Verb Agreement.

9. Gerund vs Infinitive Practice

Poor

Okay

Good
Great

Grammar

A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing."

Infinitives are the "to" form of the verb.

It can be tricky to remember which verbs are followed by the infinitive (the to form) of the verb
and which are followed by the gerund (the ing form) of the verb.

Try to remember that:

Gerunds are often used when actions are real, fixed, or completed. "I enjoy cooking."

Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or future: "He wants to swim."

Sometimes the use of a gerund or an infinitive can change the meaning of a sentence. Can you
explain the difference between these two sentences? Leave your answer in the comments area.

"I remembered to take my umbrella."

"I remembered taking my umbrella."

10. Asjective, Adverb, Noun clause

A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A clause is
different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject
or a predicate or both.

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears
immediately following the noun or pronoun.

To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which one? What
kind? Most adjective clauses begin with "who," "whom," "which," or "that." Sometimes the
word may be understood. The words "that" or "who," for example, might not specifically be in
the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask "who?" or
"what?" and then insert the verb.

Example:
The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library.

Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually "when," "where," or

"why."

Example:

Home is the place where you relax.

Adverb Clauses

Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence.
They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation
existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence.

Example:

When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR

We know the cake is done when the timer rings.

Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions

introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence.

Noun Clauses

Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs, and
they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns.
A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a
preposition.

A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like "that," "which," "who," "whoever,"
"whomever," "whose," "what," and "whatsoever." It can also begin with the subordinating
conjunctions "how," "when," "where," "whether," and "why."

Example:

Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.

11. Pararel Structure

Parallel structure, or parallelism, means using the same pattern of words to show that two or
more words or ideas are of equal importance. Words and phrases should not only match in
structure, but also in tense. Writers use parallel structure to add clarity to their writing and to
make it easier to understand. It also adds value to a writer's overall composition and shows that
their writing is structurally and grammatically correct.

Proper Use of Parallel Structure

Writers use parallel structure in the words and phrases in their sentences. This grammatical
form can be used with a variety of structures including infinitives, words, clauses and lists.
Parallel structure should be used when you connect clauses with a coordinating conjunction
such as: for, and, nor, or, but, so, or yet. Some examples of this include:

Correct: Every morning, we make our bed, eat breakfast and feed the dog.

Incorrect: Every morning, we make our bed, eating breakfast and feed the dog.

Correct: I will not sing a song, nor will I dance.

Incorrect: I will not sing a song, nor dance.

In addition to coordinating conjunctions, parallel structure is also used with correlative

conjunctions such as: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also. Some examples of this use
include:

Correct: They argued not only about the article, but also about the review.

Incorrect: They argued not only about the article, but they argued also about the review.

Correct: Either she likes to see him or she doesn't like to see him.

Incorrect: Either she likes to see him or doesn't like seeing him.

Parallel structure should be used with infinitives. Some examples of parallel structure with
infinitives:

Correct: Ashley likes to ski, to swim and to jump rope.

Incorrect: Ashley likes to ski, to swim and jump ropes.

Correct: She likes to dance and to sing songs.

Incorrect: She likes dancing and to sing songs.

Be consistent and use parallel structure with words that end in -ing. Some examples of parallel
structure of words that end in -ing:
Correct: Joe likes running, walking and being active.

Incorrect: Joe likes running, walking and outdoor activities.

Correct: We enjoy relaxing and sitting out in the sun.

Incorrect: We enjoy relaxing and like to sit out in the sun.

Parallel structure should be used when writing clauses. Some examples of clauses using parallel
structure are:

Correct: The teacher told them that they need to study and that they should practice their
words every night.

Incorrect: The teacher told them to study and that they should practice their words every night.

Correct: My parents said get a good education and do not settle for less.

Incorrect: My parents said to get a good education and not settle for less.

Some more examples of parallel structure include:

Correct: Mary wanted to make sure that she made her presentation creatively, effectively and
persuasively.

Incorrect: Mary wanted to make sure she made her presentation creatively, effectively and
persuaded others.

Correct: Tim was considered to be a good employee because he was always on time, he was
very motivated and he was a good leader.

Incorrect: Tim was considered to be a good employee because he was always on time, he was
very motivated and led the team well.

Examples of Parallel Structure on Lists

When you have items on a list following a colon, the items should all be in the same form in
order to avoid a parallel structure error. Some examples can illustrate this point:

Correct: The following activities can be done at the mall: buying groceries, eating lunch, and
paying bills.
Incorrect: The following activities can be done at the mall: buying groceries, eating lunch and
bill payment.

Correct: In your bedroom, you will find the following: a bed, a closet, and a desk.

Incorrect: In your bedroom, you will find the following: a bed, a closet and, sitting at a desk.

Correct: Dogs are great pets for the following reasons: they are loyal, they are loving, and they
are obedient.

Incorrect: Dogs are great pets for the following reasons: they are loyal, they are loving, and
because of their obedience.

12. Comparison

Comparison Definition

Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people,
places, things, or ideas. In our everyday life, we compare people and things to express ourselves
vividly. So when we say, someone is “as lazy as a snail,” you compare two different entities to
show similarity i.e. someone’s laziness to the slow pace of a snail.

Comparisons occur in literary works frequently. Writers and poets use comparison in order to
link their feelings about a thing to something readers can understand. There are numerous
devices in literature that compare two different things to show the similarity between them,
such as simile, metaphor, and analogy.

Examples of Comparison in Literature

In the following comparison examples, we will try to analyze literary devices used to show
comparisons.

Metaphor

A metaphor makes a hidden comparison between two things or objects that are dissimilar to
each other, but have some characteristics common between them. Unlike simile, we do not use
“like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. Consider the following examples:
Example #1: When I Have Fears (By John Keats)

These lines are from When I Have Fears, by John Keats.

“Before high-pil’d books, in charact’ry

Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain,”

John Keats compares writing poetry with reaping and sowing, and both these acts stand for the
insignificance of a life and dissatisfied creativity.

Example #2: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare)

This line is from As You Like It, by William Shakespeare.

“All the world’s a stage and men and women merely players…”

Shakespeare uses a metaphor of a stage to describe the world, and compares men and women
living in the world with players (actors).

Simile

A simile is an open comparison between two things or objects to show similarities between
them. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words “like” or “as.”

Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov)

This line is from the short story Lolita, by Vladimir Nabokov.

“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”

In this line, Vladimir Nabokov compares old women leaning on their sticks to the Leaning Tower
of Pisa. Here the comparison made between two contrasting things creates a hilarious effect.

Analogy

An analogy aims at explaining an unfamiliar idea or thing, by comparing it to something that is

familiar.

Example #4: The Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman)

These lines are from Walt Whitman’s poem The Noiseless Patient Spider“:

“And you O my soul where you stand,

Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space,

Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them,

Till the bridge you will need be form’d, till the ductile anchor hold,

Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.”

Walt Whitman uses an analogy to show similarity between a spider spinning a web and his soul.

Example #5: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell)

These lines are from Night Clouds, written by Amy Lowell:

“The white mares of the moon rush along the sky

Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens.”

Amy constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the
white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground.

Allegory

An allegory uses symbols to compare persons or things, to represent abstract ideas or events.
The comparison in allegory is implicit.

Example #6: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)

Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that compares animals on a farm to the
Communist Revolution in Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm can be
compared with the greed and corruption after the revolution. The animals on the farm
represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution.

For instance, “Pigs” can be compared to those who became the authority after the
revolution;”Mr. Jones,” the