782 Chapter 24 The Magnetic Field Section 24-1 The Force Exerted by a Magnetic Field 783

11
Figure 24-1 Magnetic-field lines
of the earth indicated by iron
filings around a uniformly magne­
tized sphere. The lines are some­
what similar to but not exactly the
same as those of a bar magnet.
by one pole on another varies inversely with the square of the dist a
between the poles. These results were confirmed by Coulomb shortly th;
after.
Although the force between two magnetic poles is similar to that be­
tween two electric charges, there is an important difference between elecb;
charges and magnetic poles, namely, magnetic poles alwa!s occur in P
airs
If a magnet is broken in half, there will be equal and opposite poles at ei the
side of the break point; that is, there will be two magnets, each with a north
and south pole. There has been much speculation throughout the years as
the existence of an isolated magnetic pole, and in recent years considerabl
experimental effort has been made to find such an object. Thus far, there
seems to be no conclusive evidence that an isolated magnetic pol e exist
The connection between electricity and magnetism was not known un
the nineteenth century, when Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an
electric current affects the orientation of a compass needle. Subsequent e.
periments by Andre-Marie Ampere and others showed that electric current
attract bits of iron and that parallel currents attract each other. Amp er e pro­
posed a theoretical model of magnetism that still serves as the basis of the
modem theory of magnetism. He speculated that the fundamental source ot
magnetism is not a magnetic pole but rather an electric current. He further
proposed that the magnetism of a permanent magnet is due to the align­
ment of molecular current loops within the material. Today, we know that
these current loops result partly from the motion of electrons within the
atom and partly from electron spin, a quantum-mechanical property of the
electron. The basic magnetic interaction is the magnetic force one moving
charge exerts on another moving charge. This force is in addition to the
electric force between the two charges. As with the electric force, we con­
sider the magnetic force to be transmitted by another agent, the magnetic
field. The moving charge produces a magnetic field, and the field, in turn,
It is observed experimentally that, when a charge q has velocity v in a
Jllllgnetic �eld, there is a f�rce on it fhat depends on q and on the magnitude
nd direchOn of the velocity. Let us assume t!iat we know the direction of
�e magnetic fi �ldB a� a point in space from a measurement with a compass.
Exp eriments With vanous charges moving with various velocities at such a
in the following results for the magnetic force:
pa t give
1. The force is proportional to the charge q. The force on a negative charge
is in the direction opposite that on a positive charge with the same veloc­
ity.
.z The force is proportional to the speed v.
3, The force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity.
,. The force is proportional to sin 8, where (J is the angle between the
velocity vand the magnetic field B. If vis parallel or antiparallel to B, the
force is zero.
These experimental results can be summarized as follows. When a
hargeq moves with velocity vin a magnetic field B, the magnetic force Fon
the charge is
F=qvxB 24-1 Magnetic force on a
moving charge
ince F is perpendicular to both v and B, it is perpendicular to the plane
defined by these two vectors. The direction of Fis given by the right-hand
rule as v is rotated into B, as illustrated in Figure 24-2.

L
exerts a force on the other moving charge. Since a moving charge constitutes F F Figure 24-2 Right-hand rule for
an electric current, the magnetic interaction can also be thought of as an determining the direction of the
Paul A. Tipler interaction between two currents. magnetic force exerted on a
Physics for scientists and In the early 1830s, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry demonstrated in charge moving in a magrn7tic
independent experiments that a changing magnetic field produces an elec· field. (a) The force is perpendicu­
engineers, lar to both v and B and is in the
tric field. Some years later (about 1860), James Clerk Maxwell develope� a (_) q
3rd edition, 1991, Worth complete theory of electricity and magnetism that showed that a changing V V
direction in which a right-hand­
threaded screw will advance if it
Publishers electric field produces a magnetic field. . . (a) (b) is turned in the direction that will
In this chapter, we will consider only the effects of a given magneti c fiel_d rotate v into B through the
on moving charges and on wires carrying currents. The sources of magnetic smaller of the two possible
fields will be discussed in Chapter 28. Exampl�s �f the direction of the forces exerted on moving charges when the angles. (b) If the fingers of the
magnetic-field vector B is in the vertical direction are given in Figure 24-3. right hand are in the direction of
Note that the direction of any particular magnetic field B can be found exper­ v such that they can be curled
unentally by measuring F and v and then applying Equation 24-1. into B, the thumb points in the
24-1 The Force Exerted by a Magnetic Field _
Equation 24-1 defines the magnetic field B in terms of the force exerted direction of F.
on a moving charge. The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T). A charge of
The existence of a magnetic field* B at some point in space can be demon·
strated in a straightforward way. We simply place a compass needle at that
point and see if it tends to align in a particular direction. If there �en�
magnets or electric currents nearby, the needle will point in the direction°
the magnetic field of the earth. If there are magnets or electric currents
nearby, the needle will point in the direction of the net magnetic field due to
the earth and the magnets or currents. Figure 24-3 Direction of the
X
X
magnetic force on a charged parti­
• For historical reasons, the magnetic field B is sometimes called the magnetic-i11d11ctio11 vector
or cle moving with velocity v in a
the magnetic flux density. We will refer to it as the magnetic field.
magnetic field B. The shading
indicates the plane of v and B.
840
A cross section of a pickup for
an electric guitar. The pickup con­
sists of a cylindrical permanent
magnet wrapped with a wire coil.
The guitar string is magnetized by
the magnet below it and produces
an oscillating magnetic flux
through the coil of the pickup
when it vibrates. A current of fre­
quency equal to that of the vibrat­
ing string is thereby induced in
the coil. The current is amplified
and sent to a speaker. (For this
photo, the guitar ,,string has been
placed parallel to six pairs of
pickups. When mounted for
playing, the strings are perpen­
dicular to the direction shown
here with each string crossing
over one pair of pickups.)
Section 26-1 Magnetic Flux 841
et is moved toward or away from the coil. The momentary deflection
agn
own by the galvanometer during the motion indicates that there is an
duce d electric current in the coil-galvanometer
. . . A cur:ent·1s �Iso_
crrcmt.
duced if the coil is moved toward or a�ay fr�m t�e magnet, �r 1� the �oil 1s
t t ed in a fixed magnetic field. A coil rotating m a magnetic field 1s the
� element of a generator, which converts mechanical or thermal energy
. .
Magnetic Induction SIC •
t electrical energy. In a hydrostatic power pIant, a nver is
o _ dammed up
d the water is released in a controlled way to turn the c01ls. In a steam­
nsed power plant, water is heated and converted to steam by �nergy from
urning coal or from nuclear fission. The pressure of the steam 1s then used
turn the coils.
Figure 26-1 Demonstration of induced emf. When the
magnet is moving away from the coil, an emf is
induced in the coil as shown by the galvanometer's
deflection. No deflection is observed when the magnet
is stationary.
All of the various methods of magnetic induction can be summarized by
single relation known as Faraday's law, which relates the induced emf in a
circuit to the change in magnetic flux through the circuit.
.,
In the previous chapter, we learned that a current in a wire creates a mag­
netic field. In the early 1830s, Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry
in America independently discovered that a magnetic field induces a current_
in a wire but that this happens only when the magnetic field is chan?mg.
When you pull the plug of an electric cord from its socket, you sometimes
observe a small spark. Before the cord is disconnected, it carries a current,
which, as we have seen, produces a magnetic field encircling the current.
When the cord is disconnected, the current abruptly ceases and the mag­
netic field around it collapses. The changing magnetic field produces an emf
that tries to maintain the original current, resulting in a spark acro ss the
plug. Once the magnetic field has reached zero and is therefore no lon ger
changing, the emf is zero. The emfs and currents caused by changing �at
netic fields are called induced emfs and induced currents. The process 1tse
is referred to as magnetic induction.
In the case of an electric cord being disconnected from its power source,
the changing magnetic field is caused by a change in the electric currents.
However, a chan�ng magnetic ?eld can also be produced by movin? a ma
_ ;�
net. Figure 26-1 illustrates a simple classroom demonstration of mduc
currents. The ends of a coil are attached to a galvanometer and a strong