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GENERAL VIEW OF CHEMISTRY AND MATTER
Chemistry – is the science that is concerned with the study of the composition,
structure, properties and transformation of matter. The different laws and principles governing
the changes that matter undergoes, as well as the energy transformation accompanying these
changes are also within the scope of the science of Chemistry.
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry as we know today has its roots in the earliest history of mankind. The
history of chemistry can be divided into five (5) periods, namely:
1. AGE OF PHILOSOPHERS (Earliest time to 600 B.C.)
The word Chemistry is derived from the word chemia, which means
“black art”. With the accidental discovery of fire, primitive man became
chemist. They learned to use it as a tool for transforming materials from one
form to another. The ancient were proficient in the arts of metallurgy, dyeing,
brewing and pottery, all of which are chemical in nature. Archeological
discoveries have shown that the earliest metals used by man were those that
occur in native form. These metals were copper, silver, gold, lead and tin.
Chemistry as an art was highly developed during this period. The
development however, was empirical that is, based on practical experience
alone without reference to underlying chemical principles. There were more
speculations and theories but little experimentation. In 600 B.C., the Greeks
developed the concepts that all substance found on earth are compose of four
element namely earth, air, fire and water. Another philosopherscientist,
Democritus, formulated a theory that matter consist of tiny indivisible
particles called atoms.
Aristotle summarized some earliest theories and proposed that were also
four fundamental properties – hot, cold, wet and dry.
The chemists involved were:
a) Thales – he was the first chemist.
b) Democritus – he gave the first idea of the composition of matter.
Matter is made of atoms.
c) Empedocles – He gave the first idea of elements classified as earth,
fire, air and water.
d) Aristotle – he was a philosopher and prolific writer in science.
2. PERIOD OF ALCHEMY (300 B.C. 1650 A.D.)
This period was characterized by Great Experimentation. Alchemy
started in China in the first century and then reached Europe and Spain by
the 12th century. Alchemy was the result of the union of ancient Egyptian art
and philosophical speculation of the Greeks. The first book of chemistry was
written in Egypt about 300 A.D. and contains diagram of chemical apparatus
and descriptions of many laboratory operations (for example: distillation,
crystallization and sublimation). A dominant interest of the alchemist was
the transmutation of base metals, such as iron and copper into gold. The
chemist involved was Geber. He was known as the greatest alchemist. He
invented filtration, sublimation, crystallization, distillation and was the first
to prepare nitric and sulfuric acid.
3. IATROCHEMISTRY (1400 1680 A.D., The Medical and Chemical
Period)
In the 16th and 17th Century, a school of iatrochemistry, a branch of alchemy
concerned with medicine, flourished. During this period, Parracelsus, a
Swiss medical practitioner, modified the term alchemy. To him, the most
important aim of alchemy was to prepare medicines which could restore
bodily balance disturbed by disease. He diverted the attention from the quest
for the gold to making drugs or chemicals in the laboratory. Thus, he started
the search for the “elixir of life” and fabled “Fountain of Youth”. During
this period, the four element theory was questioned, the study of gases was
begun and quantitative experiments were undertaken for the first time. The
first textbook of Chemistry was written on 1597. Robert Boyle did the study
and was the first to work with gases. He discovered the relationship between
volume and pressure of a gas. In 1661, Boyle wrote the book “The Skeptical
Chemist” in which he criticized the basic idea of alchemy.
The Chemists involved were:
a) Parracelsus – he started the making of drugs and medicines in the
laboratory
b) Robert Boyle – he wrote the book “The Skeptical Chemist” in
which he criticized the basic idea of alchemy. He was the first to work
with gases and discovered the relationship between volume and
pressure of a gas.
4. AGE OF COMBUSTION (1680 – 1790)
Early in the 18th Century, the Phlogiston Theory was proposed by
George Ernst Stahl, based on the earliest theories of Johann Becher.
Phlogiston was described as a substance in the combustible material that is
given off the material burns. Upon combustion, a substance was thought to
lose its phlogiston and reduced to simpler form. According to phlogiston
theory, the combustion of wood is represented the following term:
Wood therefore, was believed to be a compound composed of ashes
and phlogiston. Readily combustible material was thought to be rich in
phlogiston. The phlogiston theory was probably the first great
principle in chemistry. It persisted for about one hundred year and the
center of much discovery during this time.
During the last half of the 18th Century, much work done with gases
especially by Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish and Joseph Priestly in
England and Carl Scheele in Sweden. Oxygen probably discovered by
Scheele between 1772 and 1774. His work was not published until 1774,
however, and for this reason, Priestly was credited with the discovery in
1774. Even after his discovery of oxygen, he still believed in the Phlogiston
Theory.
The Chemists involved were:
a) George Ernst Stahl – He proposed the Phlogiston Theory
b) Carl Scheele – HE was the first to prepare Oxygen
c) Joseph Priestly – He was credited for the discovery of Oxygen.
d) Henry Cavendish – he was credited the discovery of Hydrogen.
e) Joseph Black – he was first to prepare Carbon Dioxide.
5. PERIOD OF MODERN CHEMISTRY (1790 to Present)
In the late 18th Century Antoine Laurent Lavoisier overthrew the
Phlogiston Theory. He is often called the Father of Modern Chemistry. In
his theory of combustion, he proposed that oxygen is necessary for
combustion and that the substance being burned or the metal being heated
combines with the oxygen. With his theory, he correctly explained the nature
of combustion.
Lavoisier also formulated the Law of Conservation of Mass, which
states that during chemical reaction, there is no detectable change in mass.
In other words, the total mass of all materials entering into a chemical
reaction equals the total mass of all products of the reaction. This law
became the cornerstone of his science. Among other contributions of Lavoisier
were: he shows that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen; proposed the
theory of indestructibility of matter; gave the clear definition of elements and
compounds; and proposed a system of chemical nomenclature. In his book
Traite Elementaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry)
published in 1789, Lavoisier used essentially modern terminology. The
presentday language of chemistry is base on this system of nomenclature
that Lavoisier devised.
At the beginning of the 19th Century, about 1803, John Dalton showed
by experimental evidence that matter is composed of atoms. This was
followed by the development of the periodic table in the last half of the 19 th
Century and formation of Compounds in the 20th Century. More has been
learned about Chemistry in the two centuries following Lavoisier than in the
twenty centuries preceding him, more discoveries were made not only in the
theoretical aspects of matter but also in the applications of those theories in
the various branches of chemistry. Until the present time, researchers are
being carried out to developed new products.
The Chemists involved were:
a) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier – He is the Father of Modern
Chemistry.
b) John Dalton – He formulated the Atomic Theory
c) D’mitri Ivanovich Mendeleev – He is the Father of Modern
Periodic Table.
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is generally divided into five (5) branches:
1. Organic Chemistry – is the study of compounds of carbon. Chemists who work with
polymers, petroleum and rubber are organic chemists.
2. Inorganic Chemistry – is the study of all elements and compounds other than
carbon compounds.
3. Analytic Chemistry – is concerned with the identification of substances through a
systematic determination of their composition. It is divided into:
a) Qualitative Analysis – is the determination of kinds of substance present in
matter.
b) Quantitative Analysis – is the determination of the amount of substance
present in matter.
4. Biological Chemistry – involves a chemical study of substance and processes that
occurs in living organism, both plants and animals. Biochemistry is concerned with
the chemical basis of disease and the way our body utilize food.
5. Physical Chemistry – is the study of the theoretical aspects of the structure and
changes of matter, such as how and why bonds are formed and energy changes takes
place.
Chemistry is a broad and existing field that contains other branches like:
1. Nuclear Chemistry – deals with reaction of the nucleus of the atom and its
fundamental particles.
2. Electrochemistry – is the study of relationship between electrical energy and
chemical process.
3. Industrial Chemistry – is the study of the physical and chemical processes applied
in the industrial manufacture of substances.
RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO OTHER SCIENCES AND INDUSTRY
Chemistry has been called the servant science, because it supplies description and
understanding of many kinds of matter that are studied in details in other sciences.
Chemistry, like Physics, is a fundamental science. Knowledge of such Geology, Botany,
Zoology and Medicine.
In Geology and Mineralogy, knowledge of chemistry is necessary in order to
determine the composition of rocks and chemical reaction that cause change to them.
In Botany, the botanist must know Chemistry to enable him to understand the part
which the different components of the soil play in plant growth.
In Agriculture, Chemistry is utilized in soil analysis and the manufacture of
fertilizers, insecticides and other agricultural inputs to increase production.
In Medicine, knowledge of chemistry leads to an understanding of man’s ailment
and the psychological effects of medical product of human body. New Vitamins are
continuously being discovered to improve our health.
In Zoology, Chemistry is used to determine the composition of animals and the food
they eat and the chemical reaction taking place in them.
In Industry, new and better products are being produced from basic raw materials
such as petroleum, coal, wood, limestone and natural gas. The chemists use chemical
changes to produce thousand of modern day conveniences and health aids.
IMPORATANCE OF CHEMISTRY (Why do we need to know Chemistry?)
The world in which we live is a chemical world. Everyday life is besieged with chemicals.
The human body is a complex chemical factor that uses chemical processes to change the food
we eat and air we breathe into bones, muscles, blood and the tissue and even into the energy
that we use in our daily living. The medicines that we take when we are sick are chemical
compounds. Most of the familiar products around us depend on the chemical industries;
modern transportation relies on synthetic rubbers, refined metals and highenergy fuel. The
construction industry needs paints, pigments, alloys, cement, glasses, plastic and ceramics.
Our clothing and fabrics are increasingly manufactured from artificial fibers such as nylon
and polyester, colored by synthetic detergents and solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, cosmetics,
drugs and adhesives are just a few of other products of synthetic chemistry.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific Method – is a set of logical and orderly procedures for acquiring
knowledge and explaining phenomena. It is reasoning process which is used in the search for
relationship among things.
Step in Solving Problem Using Scientific Method:
1. Make a clear statement of the problem
2. Gather facts or collect information that relates to the problem.
3. Form Hypothesis
4. Accept or reject the hypothesis. If there is no contradiction to the hypothesis
upon experimentation the, form a theory.
Usually is more formal and based on more facts.
5. Further experimentation and observation should be made after forming the
theory, then if no contradiction arises, report the result and form the law or
scientific law.
a Fact is an event or occurrence that is definitely true
a Hypothesis is a possible solution for a problem. It is a scientific guess
based on a few facts that requires further clarification through
experimentation
a Theory is a verified hypothesis. It is similar to hypothesis but
a Law is a concise statement which summarizes a large number of
related and experimented facts.
MATTER
DEFINITION OF MATTER
Matter – is anything that occupies space that has mass or weight.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
In Chemistry, properties of matter refer to qualities or distinguishing
characteristic of a substance used in its identification and description. Properties
may be classified into:
A. Physical Properties – are those that can be observed or measured without
changing the composition of the matter in question; no original substance are
destroyed and no new substances appear.
Example: Physical description such as color, hardness, smell or odor, and
taste. Likewise, melting, boiling and freezing point, density and viscosity are
also considered as physical properties.
B. Chemical Properties – are the tendencies of the substance to change,
either alone or by interacting with other substances and thus form another
substance. These are the characteristic behavior of substances which affect
their composition.
Example: Rusting of iron, Flammability and efflorescence.
Flammability is the tendency of a substance to burn. A substance
that burns has the chemical property of being flammable. If it fails to
burn, it is nonflammable.
Efflorescence – is the tendency of a substance to become dry, crispy
and powder due to the loss of moisture or water content when
exposed to atmosphere. Sodium Carbonate has this property.
Matter may also be described in terms of two qualities:
a) Intrinsic Properties are inherent characteristics of the substance
and depends on the kind or quality of the material itself.
Example: odor, taste, color, viscosity, hardness and solubility
b) Extrinsic Properties are permanent qualities of the substance
itself. These are qualities that describe the outside appearances of
matter.
Example: Size, Shape, Mass, Length
C. Other Properties
1. The general properties of matter are the following:
a) Volume – is the space that matter occupies.
b) Mass – is the total number of molecules found in the body; it is a
measure of the quantity of matter.
c) Weight – is the total pull of gravity upon a given mass.
d) Impenetrability – demonstrates that no two materials can
occupy the same space at the same time.
e) Inertia – is the tendency of a body in motion to keep on moving
unless an outside force applied to change the condition.
f) Density gives the material mass per unit volume.
2. Aside from the general properties, matter has special properties
like:
a) Brittleness – is the property of being hard but easily broken.
b) Malleability – is possessed by materials that can be pounded
into thin sheets.
c) Ductility – enables material to be formed into wires.
d) Porosity – causes the material to absorb liquid.
e) Plasticity – enables materials to be shapes into various forms.
f) Pliant – material that can be bent without breaking.
g) Elasticity – is the property of matter to return to its original
position when force applied to it is removed.
CHANGES IN MATTER
The materials around us are subject to constant changes. Things keep on
changing just as the world keep on moving. Man, animals and plant decays, fuel
burns, lake and seas evaporate. These changes can be classified as chemical changes
and physical changes.
1. Chemical Changes – are changes that result in the disappearance of
substances and formation of new ones.
Example: Souring Milk, decaying fruits
2. Physical Changes – are the changes that do not result in the formation of
new substances.
Example: Powdering of Salt, Melting of Sugar, Evaporation of Alcohol
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter is classified into two (2):
1. Pure Substances – are homogenous; perfectly uniform in composition cannot be
separated into simpler components by physical method.
a) Element – is made of only one type of atom. The elements in the periodic
table are considered pure.
b) Compounds – is consists of two or more different elements that are
chemically combined, but in a pure substance because it consist of one
kind of molecule or formula unit.
2. Mixtures – are materials which are not uniform in composition and contain two
or more different substances that are physically combined.
a) Homogenous – refers to material in which different parts cannot be
distinguished even with a microscope.
b) Heterogeneous – refers to material in which there are visible parts.
Example: Gravel & Sand, Halohalo
STATES OF MATTER
Classically, states of matter are distinguished by changes in specific heat
capacity, pressure and temperature. States are distinguished by a discontinuity in one of
those properties: for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a clear discontinuity
at 0 °C as energy goes into phase transition, instead of temperature increase.
In the 20th century, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter
has resulted in many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal
conditions.
The list is ordered roughly in terms of increasing energy density.
1. Lowenergy states
a) Classical states
b) Modern states
2. Very high energy states
LOWENERGY STATES
a) Classical state
1. Solid
Is the condition of matter where the molecules are compact. Crystals are
pure solid substances made up of beautiful geometric shape particles
formed by slowly cooling of liquid. In the solid state, cohesive forces are
dominant. It has definite volume and definite shape.
Kinds of Solid
a) Isomorphous – Solids are two or more substances existing in the same
crystalline form
b) Polymorphous or allotropic – Solid Substances are those that exists in
two different kinds of crystals
c) Amorphous – Solid Substances are those that posses a certain degree of
hardness and rigidity.
Example: Glasses, Glue
2. Liquid State
Is the condition of matter where the molecules are loose and less compact
but can be joined or chained up. It has definite volume and no definite
shape, but depends upon the shape of the container.
A mostly noncompressible fluid. Able to conform to the shape of its
container but retaining a (nearly) constant volume independent of
pressure.
Kinds of Liquid
a) Viscous Liquids – are glutinous and heavy resistance to flow.
b) Volatile– are easy to convert to gas or vapor
c) NonVolatile – are not easy to convert to gas or vapor.
3. Gaseous State
In this state, descriptive force completely dominate cohesive forces under
ordinary pressure. The particles are relatively far apart except when they
collide with each other. It has no definite volume or shape.
A compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its
container but it will also expand to fill the container.
4. Plasma
Is sometimes described as being the fourth state of matterthat is, one
phase farther from a gas. In fact, plasma is created by heating a gas to
such a high temperature that its atoms or molecules lose electrons and
become ions. The gas is almost fully ionized and become a very good
electrical conductor. the gases that are involved in the thermonuclear
reactions of the sun or other stars are in the form of plasma. The plasma
states are not related to blood plasma, the common usage of the word;
rather the term has been used to represent an ionized gas.
Free charged particles, usually in equal numbers, such as ions and
electrons. Unlike gases, plasmas may selfgenerate magnetic fields and
electric currents, and respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic
forces.
b) Modern states
1. Degenerate matter
Matter under very high pressure, supported by the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
1.1. Electrondegenerate matter: found inside white dwarf stars.
Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to
adjacent atoms.
1.2. Neutrondegenerate matter: found in neutron stars. Vast
gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the
electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta
decay, resulting in a super dense conglomeration of neutrons.
(Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus
will decay with a half life of just under 15 minutes, but in a
neutron star, as in the nucleus of an atom, other effects stabilize
the neutrons.)
1.3. Strange matter
A type of quark matter that may exist inside some neutron stars
close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately
2–3 solar masses). May be stable at lower energy states once
formed.
2. Photonic matter
Inside a quantum nonlinear medium, photons can behave as if they had
mass, and can interact with each other, forming photonic "molecules".
3. Quantum Hall state
A state that gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction
perpendicular to the current flow.
3.1. Quantum spins Hall state a theoretical phase that may pave the
way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less
energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum
Hall State of matter.
3.2. Bose–Einstein condensate a phase in which a large number
of bosons all inhabit the same quantum state, in effect becoming one
single wave/particle.
3.3. Fermionic condensate Similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate
but composed of fermions. The Pauli Exclusion Principle prevents
fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of
fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then
enter the same quantum state without restriction.
3.4. Super fluid A phase achieved by a few cryogenic liquids at extreme
temperature where they become able to flow without friction. A super
fluid can flow up the side of an open container and down the outside.
Placing a super fluid in a spinning container will result in quantized
vortices.
3.5. Super solid similar to a super fluid, a super solid is able to move
without friction but retains a rigid shape.
4. Quantum spin liquid A disordered state in a system of interacting
quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike
other disordered states.
5. Stringnet liquid Atoms in this state have apparently unstable
arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a
solid.
6. Supercritical fluid At sufficiently high temperatures and pressures the
distinction between liquid and gas disappears.
VERY HIGH ENERGY STATES
1. Quark–gluon plasma
A phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently
(rather than being perpetually bound into particles) in a sea
of gluons(subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds
quarks together). May be briefly attainable in particle accelerators.
1.1. Weakly symmetric matter for up to 10−12 seconds after the Big Bang
the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces were unified.
1.2. Strongly symmetric matter for up to 10−36 seconds after the Big
Bang the energy density of the universe was so high that the four forces
of nature — strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational — are
thought to have been unified into one single force. As the universe
expanded, the temperature and density dropped and the gravitational
force separated, a process called symmetry breaking.
COMPARISON OF GAS, LIQUID AND SOLID
GROUP OF MATTER
From one point of view, solid and liquids are classified as condensed matter, since
they have certain properties in common, like they both relatively incompressible so that
their volumes can hardly changed.
From a different point of view, Gases and liquid are Group as Fluids since they
can flow.
LAWS OF MATTER
The different laws of matter are:
1. Law of Conservation of Matter or Mass was formulated by Antoine Lavoisier
in 1789. It states that matter may be changed from one form to another but cannot
be created nor destroyed. It states that in any chemical reaction, the mass of the
system remains constant. To follow the law of conservation of matter, there must
be exactly the same number of each atom on each side of equation.
2. Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created nor
destroy. It can be changed from one form to another. Some forms of energy are
heat, mechanical, electrical, chemical and light or radiant energy.
3. Law of Definite Composition or Law of Constant or Definite Proportion
was formulated by Joseph Proust in 1799. It states that a pure compound is always
composed of the same elements combined in a definite proportion by mass.
Example: H2 O H = 11.11 %
O = 88.89 %
100.00 %
The compound water for example, is always formed from the elements
hydrogen and oxygen in that proportion state above.
4. Law of Multiple Proportion was formulated by John Dalton in 1805. It states
that when two elements combined to form more than one compound, the different
weights of one that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in the ratio of
small whole number.
For Example, Carbon forms two oxides, Carbon monoxide (CO) and Carbon
dioxide (CO2). The composition of carbon monoxide by weight is 12 parts of
carbon to 16 parts of oxygen. While that of Carbon dioxide is 12 parts of
carbon to 32 parts of oxygen. The weight ratio of oxygen in the two carbon
compounds is 16:32 or, expressed in small whole number, 1:2.
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. Changes in matter are accompanied by changes in
energy. Energy manifests itself in many forms. The familiar forms are:
1. Potential Energy – is the energy a body possesses because of its position relative
to the other bodies.
2. Kinetic Energy – is the energy a body possesses because of motion.
3. Radiant Energy – is the type of energy associated with ordinary light, Xrays and
radio waves.
4. Chemical Energy – is a form of energy which is involved in every chemical
reaction, it is termed as “stored energy”. It is the energy possessed by a substance
that allows it to be changed into a new substance.
5. Nuclear or Atomic Energy – is the energy associated with the manner in which
atoms are constructed.
6. Heat Energy or Thermal Energy – a measure of the internal energy of
substance which is due to its temperature.
Two Kinds of Reaction in Heat Energy
a) Exothermic Reaction – is the reaction wherein heat is given off to the
surroundings.
b) Endothermic Reaction – is the reaction wherein heat is absorbed by
the system.
7. Electrical Energy – is the energy of an electric current or discharge.
8. Mechanical Energy – is the energy involved in doing work by mechanical
appliances or machines.