Conflict Management Styles

Depending on personality and past experiences in dealing with conflict in the workplace,
individuals naturally develop their own conflict manage- ment styles. Through training in
assertiveness and conflict management, individuals can learn to recognize their own style as
well as those of others. They can learn how and when to adapt their behavioral style to
effectively deal with conflict situations.

p. 24

Assertive Person Aggressive Person Nonassertive Person TABLE 2 In conflict situations

Communicates Dominates directly Avoids the conflict Behaviors Exhibited by Assertive,
Aggressive, and Nonassertive Persons Allows others to choose In decision- making situations
Chooses Chooses for self for self and others In situations Open, direct, expressing feelings
Holds true Expresses feelings in allowing others a threatening to express their manner, honest,
while feelings inside puts down, inhibits others feelings Indirect, unclear Direct, clear, "I"
statements: demeaning "I believe Clear, but In group meeting situations "you" statements
Would you that..." statements: "You should have known better.." mind if." whe

Robert Maddux has proposed a model of conflict management styles that combines two factors:
degree of assertiveness and degree of coopera- tion (see Figure 1). He suggests that there are
five different styles resulting from various combinations of assertiveness and cooperation.
Maddux takes the position that differing styles may be appropriate in different situations. He
says, for example, if you must win at any cost, then the win/lose style may be your best option.
If your goal is to maximize cooperation, even at the expense of personal goals, then the
accommodating style would be your best choice, you This ther give wher can

Avoidance Style (Uncooperative /Nonassertive) This style is appropri- ate when the conflict
is too minor or too great to resolve. Any attempt to resolve the conflict might result in damaging
a relationship or simply waste time and energy. ThinH 1. nizati

Accommodating Style (Cooperative/Nonassertive) This style is ap- propriate when resolving

the conflict is not worth risking damage to the relationship or general disharmony. 2. How Who
to bet

p.25

ive FIGURE 1 Win/Lose Style Confrontational, assertive and aggressive. Must win at any cost.
High Problem-Solving Style Needs of bath parties are legitimate and Important. High respect for
mutual Conflict Management Styles support. ners Assertive and cooperative. Compromising
Style Important all parties achleve basic goals and maintain good relationships. Aggressive but
cooperative. side Avoldance Style Nonconfrontational. Ignores or passes over issues. Denies
issues are a problem Accommodating Style Agreeable, nonassertive behavior. Cooperative
even at the experse of personal goals. >High Low Degree of Cooperation Du Source: Adapted
from Robert B.Maddux, Team Building: An Exercise in Leadership

Win / Lose Style (Uncooperative / Assertive) This style is appropriate when the conflict involves
"survival of the fittest," when you must prove your superior position, or when it is most ethically
or professionally correct. styles pera- ulting takes tions. style

Compromising Style (Moderately Assertive / Moderately Cooperative) This style is appropriate

when no one person or idea is perfect, when there is more than one good way to do something,
or when you must give to get what you want.

Problem-Solving Style (Assertive /Cooperative) This style is appropriate when all parties openly
discuss the issues and a mutually beneficial solution can be found without anyone's making a
major concession. even ld be ropri- empt mply
Thinking/Learning Starters

1. Imagine and describe the human relations atmosphere in an orga- nization where win/lose
strategies are consistently applied.
2. Briefly describe the most recent conflict you had with another person. How assertive were
you? How assertive was the other person? Who won? Who lost? How might you have changed
your conflict management style to better handle the situation?

p. 26

ASSIGNMENT 7
KEY ELEMENTS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

When employees in an organization understand the nature of conflict and know constructive
methods to resolve it, they can usually work out disagreements themselves. The conflict
resolution process permits a group to resolve conflict effectively without intervention process
involves three key elements: attitude adjustment for all parties involved, an effective leader, and
a plan for discussing the problem or issue, generating a solution, and implementing it.

Attitude Adjustment ‘

Conflict triggers the emotional responses of all involved. One of the first steps toward solving a
problem is to channel that emotional energy toward constructive ends by adopting the right
attitudes. Each person involved in the process should strive to adopt these positive attitudes.
more s tenden feel. A environ The judges effectiv points leaders The pl

1. Accept anger and conflict as common responses that create the opportunity to share opinions
and get things done. Understand that you may get some feedback that you do not like and that
you may need to grow and accept needed changes.

2. Believe that there is a win/win solution to the problem, and focus on the positive results

3. Remember that all participants are entitled to their opinions. Each person's opinionis must be
respected regardless of his or her level of experi- ence, personality, communication style, or
position in the organization.

4. Understand that either party could compete aggressively with the other, but because a
mutually acceptable outcome is so important, each side should choose to cooperate.

5. Believe that a difference of opinion is healthy and beneficial, not an attack on an idea or a
person.

6. Maintain an attitude of patience. Impatient people get things started. Patient people get things
done.

If emotions get out of control and the discussion becomes aggressive, those involved should be
willing to disengage from the conflict resolution process. Everyone involved becomes
particularly vulnerable when chan- neling anger into conflict resolution. Sometimes it is
necessary to back control you expect from the solution, A Con Mo with en on sol involve Ste a
prob ficult t of the to hav

Стр.27
away from the confrontation to regain perspective. Then, when the partics meet again, the focus
can return to solving the problem by dealing with the issues, not the emotions. of conflict

An Effective Leader

According to Gordon L. Lippitt, former professor of behavioral science at George Washington

University", leadership in resolving organizational conflict constructively requires empathy and
equality but not neutrality. A neutral position recognizes neither side and leaves the problem
unre- solved. An empathetic leader recognizes the cmotions and ideas of both sides without
necessarily agreeing completely with either. Equality means that everyone is treated with cqual
respect and consideration. A sensitive leader also realizes that there are many reasons people
are hesitant to deal with conflict openly. They may feel anxious about con- fronting others. They
may have any one of a number of fears: of losing the acceptance of the group if they talk about
their true thoughts and feelings; of taking risks; of solving one problem only to create another,
more serious one; or of violating what has been termed groupthink work out sa group ent. This l
parties oblem or e of the energy person ades. the people to conform to whatever others in a
group think or ency feel. As a result, the leader has to foster a cooperative, nonthreatening
environment in which conflicts may be addressed. The leader can help depersonalize the
conflict so that neither party judges the other. By focusing the dispute on the facts and basic
issues, the effective leader allows everyone to view the conflict objectively and find points of
common agreement. A good rule of thumb, Lippitt states, is for leaders to look coolly at the
issues and warmly at the people involved. The plan described here has six steps. ate the nat
you need to focus Each peri- ation h the each

A Conflict Resolution Plan

Most groups have found value in having a plan to follow when dealing with emotional conflicts.
A step-by-step plan helps everyone stay focused on solving the problem, saves time and
preserves the self-esteem of all involved. The plan described here has six steps. not rted.

Step 1: Define the problem. The saying "A problem well defined is a problem half solved" is not
far from the truth. It is surprising how dif- ficult this step can be. Everyone involved needs to
focus on the real cause of the problem, not the symptoms or results. At this stage, it is helpful to
have everyone write a one-or-two-sentence definition of the problem. ive, ion an- ack 27

Стр 28.
esc When everyone is allowed to define the problem, the real cause of the conflict will often
surface.

Step 2: Collect facts and opinions, Once the partics have defined the basic problem, the next
step is to gather the facts and opinions needed to understand the situation What is the
situation? What happened? Who is involved? What policies and procedures are involved? The
leader points out what was done right as well stage that the discussion may become bogged
down. Some groups may put off 2. (collect do you Formal Hor found alleged perfora with h
when e gossip is a go Da and a what caused the problem. It is at this shift solving the conflict
until "all the facts are in." They may procras- tinate until the conflict becomes a crisis. Collection
of all the facts may be impossible in opinions are identified, the process can keep moving.

Step 3: Consider all solutions proposed. When the problem has been defined and the facts
surrounding it have been brought out, the group should brainstorm solutions. It is important to
remember that the group is not looking for one final solution but for creative ideas about solving
the problem. No one should be allowed to evaluate, judge, or rule out any proposed solution, no
matter how unorthodox or improbable it may seem. This approach will encourage group
members to tap their creative energies without fear of ridicule or criticism.
Step 4: Define the expected results. Obviously, not all solutions to a problem are feasible or
desirable. How does the group eliminate poor solutions and settle on the most appropriate
ones? Part of the process involves focusing on the desired goals: What end results should
follow from solving this problem? What does the group want to see happen?

Step 5: Select the solution(s). Which solutions will give the desired results? In light of the goals
the group has set, one - or perhaps two three group can then systematically select the best
solution(s) to achieve the desired goals.

Step 6: Implement the solution(s). Establish timetables for implementing the solution(s) and
provide some way to evaluate the results. On a regular basis, make a point to discuss with
others how things are going. Even the best solutions can fail unless all involved make the
attempt to follow them through. a particular case; but as long as the major points and fn a moc
includ 1. 2. 3. uphol of rew 4. The select sourc of the solutions will stand out as the most
appropriate. The comp Althc gram

Thinking / Learning Starters

1. Why is it so important to have the proper attitudes before you enter into the problem-solving
sequence? How would the double-win attitude of "If you win, I win" affect negotiations? 28

Стр 29.
2. Quite often conflict resolution breaks down at step 2 of the plan (collecting facts and options)
and step 3 (considering all solutions). Why do you think this happens? What can be done to
prevent the break down? e of the ned the eded to Who is

Formal Conflict Resolution Plans

Honeywell Inc." is one of a growing number of companies that have found creative ways to
handle conflict. When a Honeywell employee alleged that he was fired for reasons of personal
animosity rather than performance, a management appeal committee heard his case and
agreed with him. The employee was reinstated at another division. At a time when employees
are quick to quit, sue, protest лохsilently through backbiting gossip, or work more slowly, a plan
for dealing effectively with grievances is a good idea.

David Ewing, an authority on complaint handling in organizations and author of Justice on the
Job, says Federal Express5 has developed a model grievance system. Their Guaranteed Fair
Treatment Procedure includes these steps:

1. Discussion of the problem with the immediate supervisor.

2. Review by the supervisor's manager. 3. Review by the senior vice president of the division.
He or she can uphold or overtum the previous management decision or initiate a board of
review.

4. Establishment of a board of review consisting of five voting members. The employee with the
complaint selects two peers, and the company selects two managers. The fifth member is
someone from the human re- source department. Decisions by the board are final and binding
on the company as well as the employee, points at this ps may rocras- cts may nts and as been
group group solving ale out it may reative ons to e poor rocess follow en? esired s two The re
the

Every effort is made to process a complaint within one or two weeks. Although Federal Express
spends $2 million a year to administer the pro- gram, it is viewed as a good investment that
keeps the company productive. enting egular e best pugh. enter tude 29
Стр.4
ASSIGNMENT 2

HUMAN AGGRESSION in

(by Anthony Storr, Penguin Books, 1971

Introduction is

That man is an aggressive creature will hardly be disputed. With the exception of certain
rodents, no other vertecbrate habitually destroys members of his own species. No other animal
takes positive pleasure in the exercise of cruelty upon another of his own kind. We generally de-
scribe the most repulsive examples of man's cruelty as brutal or bestial, implying by these
adjectives that such behaviour is characteristic of less highly developed animals than ourselves.
In truth, however, the extremes of 'brutal' behaviour are confined to man; and there is no
parallel in na- ture to our savage treatment of each other. The sombre fact is that we aro the
cruellest and most ruthless species that has ever walked the earth; and that, although we may
recoil in horror when we read in newspaper or history book of the atrocities committed by man
upon man, we know in our hearts that each one of us harbours within himself those same say-
age impulses which lead to murder, to torture and to war,

To write about human aggression is a difficult task because the term is used in so many
different senses. Aggression is one of those words which everyonc knows, but which is
nevertheless hard to define. As psy- chologists and psychiatrists use it, it covers a very wide
range of human behaviour. The red-faced infant squalling for the bottle is being aggres- sive;
and so is the judge who awards a thirty-year sentence for robbery. The guard in a concentration
camp who tortures his helpless victim is obviously acting aggressively. Less manifestly, but no
less certainly, so is the neglected wife who threatens or attempts suicide in order to regain her
husband's affection. When a word becomes so diffusely applied that it is used both of the
competitive striving of a footballer and also of the bloody violence of a murderer, it ought either
to be dropped or else more closely defined. Aggression is a portmanteau term which is fairly
bursting at its seams. Yet, until we can more clearly designate and comprehend the various
aspects of human behaviour which are subsumed under this head, we cannot discard the
concept.

One difficulty is that there is no clear dividing line between those forms of aggression which we
all deplore and those which we must not disow is

Стр.5

if we are to survive, When a child rebels against authority it is being ag- grossive: but it is also
manifesting a drive towards independence which is a necessary and valuable part of growing
up. The desire for power has, in extreme form, disastrous aspects which we all acknowledge:
but the drive to conquer diffculties, or to gain mastery over the external world, underlies the
greatest of human achievements. Some writers define that response which follows frustration',
or as 'an act whose goal-response is injury to an organism (or organism surrogate). In the
author's view these definitions impose limits not in accord with the underlying facts of human
nature which the word is attempting to express. It is worth noticing, for instance, that the words
we use to describe intellectual effort are aggressive words. We attack problems, or struggled
with and overcome its difficulties. We sharpen our wits, hoping that our mind will develop a keen
edge in order that we may better dissect a problem into its component parts. Although
intellectual tasks are often frustrating, to argue that all intellectual effort is the result of
frustration is to impose too negative a colouring upon the positive impulse to com- prehend and
master the external world.
The aggressive part of human nature is not only a necessary safeguard, against predatory
attack. It is also the basis of intellectual achievement, of the attainment of independence, and
even of that proper pride which enables a man to hold his head high amongst his fellows. This
is no new conception. The historian Gibbon, in a famous passage, displays a very similar idea
of human nature to that which psychotherapists profess. Whereas the latter refer to sexual
instincts and aggressive instincts, Gib- bon writes of the love of pleasure and the love of action":
aggression as With the desroys olcasue is nerally de- or becial stic of les e extreme llel in n is
that we the carth, of aggression which are supon the concept our teeth into them. We master a
subject when we have newspaper we know same sa part of human nature is not only a
necessary safeguard aggressive e the tem Ose words e As psy of human robbery victim is inly,
so is to regain plied that so of the -/se more bursting

…To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most of the agreeable, to the love of action
we may attribute most of the useful and respectable qualifi- cations. The character in which both
the one and the other should be united and harmonized would seem to constitute the most
perfect idea of human nature.

Gibbon recognizes quite clearly that the most deplorable manifesta- tions of aggression share
identical roots with valuable and essential parts of human endeavour. Without the aggressive,
active side of his nature man would be even less able than he is to direct the course of his life or
to influence the world around him. In fact, it is obvious that man could never have attained his
present dominance, nor even have survived as a species, unless he possessed a large
endowment of aggressiveness. mprehend nder this ose forms of disown

Стр.6

It is a tragic paradox that the very qualities which have led to man's extraordinary success are
also those most likely to destroy him. His ruth- less drive to subdue or to destroy every apparent
obstacle in his path does not stop short at his own fellows; and since, he now possesses
weapons of unparalleled destructiveness and also apparently lacks the built-in safeguards
which prevent most animals from killing others of the same species, it is not beyond possibility
that he may yet encompass the total elimination of homo sapiens. What follows are the
reflections of a psychotherapist upon the ag- gressive component in human nature. The views
which are put forward are anything but dogmatic. All psychotherapists suffer from the fact that.
although their knowledge of a few people may be rather profound, their conclusions are
necessarily drawn from a limited and highly selected sample of the population. Moreover, many
of the theories which are available in the practice of psychotherapy are difficult to substantiate
scientifically, because the psychotherapist is endeavouring to deal with the person as a whole.
Psychologists working in laboratories can construct experiments in which, for cxample,
aggressive emotions can be more or less separately aroused and studied; and the conclusions
which they reach can be statisti- cally expressed. The disadvantage of nearly all such
experiments is that the situations upon which they are based are so restricted that they are far
removed from life as it is lived. Aggression, for example, is inextrica- bly mingled with fear and
sex in many situations. It is very much to be hoped that, in time, there will be a rapprochement
between the precise but limited viewpoint of the experimentalist, and the less defined but wider
conceptions of the psychotherapist. In the meantime, we must do the best we can with
incomplete and unproved hypotheses. The present preoccupation of Western society with the
problem of aggression is, of course, dictated by the fear of destruction by nuclear weapons
which overhangs us all. The problem of war is more compelling that ever before in history. The
complexities of the circumstances which provoke war are such that no one man and no one
viewpoint can possibly comprehend them all. Anyone who promises a solution to a problem so
perennial is too arrogant to be trusted; and no such solution will be put forward here. The author
believes, however, that if stability in world af- fairs is ever to be achieved, the psychological
point of view deserves equal consideration with the political, economic and other aspects. The
study of human aggression and its control is, therefore, relevant to the problem of war although,
alone, it cannot possibly provide a complete answer. Thinki 1. When might 2. What a chilc
childre 6.

Стр.7

Thinking / Learning Starters 1. In what kinds of situations are you most likely to be aggressive?
When has this been a disadvantage for you? Under what conditions, if any, might this be an
advantage to you? 2. Sometimes abusive parents say they merely teach stick discipline. What
do you think is the difference between punishing and disciplining a child? When do people
overstep their parental authority to punish their children?