Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Silica fume and waste glass in cement concrete production: A review

Ankur Mehtaa, Deepankar Kumar Ashishb,c,∗
a
Arkade Consultants, Hisar, India
b
Civil Engineering Department, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Maharaja Agrasen University, Baddi, India
c
Civil Engineering Department, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University), Chandigarh, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The vast emission of greenhouse gases from industrial wastes is a global problem. The non-biodegradable nature
Concrete of industrial wastes like silica fume, glass, bottom ash, and rubber tyres increases the severity of the problem.
Silica fume Past studies suggest that the use of waste materials in the cement and construction industry could be a viable
Waste glass solution to prevent natural resources from extinction. The chemical composition of silica fume and waste glass
Waste management
are attracting cement and concrete industries as a sustainable solution. In recent years, green concrete is very
Recycled waste
Sustainable concrete
popular among researchers and academicians, but green concrete is still at an early stage. This paper studies the
influence of silica fume and waste glass on the workability, strength, and durability properties of concrete.
Moreover, the microstructural analysis was also studied.

1. Introduction
Global warming and climate change are the major environmental
issues raised with the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) [1,2]. The
construction sector has a significant impact on the environment that
contributes to a major part of carbon dioxide emission [3]. According to
the past studies, the cement industry is estimated to emit 522 million
tonnes of CO2 in 2016 [4], one ton of cement production generates
approximately 0.8 ton of CO2 [5,6]. Worldwide production of cement is
increasing at lightning speed with an annual increase of 2.5% and a
gross production of 4.6 billion tonnes in the year 2015 [5,7]. The World
Council for Sustainable Development and its sustainability Initiative
has initiated a project called “Getting the Numbers Right” that provides
a database for CO2 and energy performance. Recent studies reported
that India is the second largest producer of cement after Europe; some
of the other regions with high cement production are presented in Fig. 1
[4]. Researchers around the world are in continuous search of new
materials that can fully or partially replace cement [8]. Use of sup-
plementary cementitious materials namely fly ash, GGBS, metakaolin,
rice husk ash, and silica fume as cement replacement has been in focus
from last decade [9–12]. Supplementary cementitious materials react in
pore solution by hydrating cement hydraulically or pozzolanically [13].
In the U.S., production of concrete generally includes adding supple-
mentary cementitious materials; ready-mixed plants uses 60% of sup-
plementary cementitious materials [14]. However, using
supplementary cementitious materials has its limitation; that is, the
reactivity of additives or pozzolans is generally lower in comparison to
cement [15]. Recent studies showed that fly ash has an annual pro-
duction of one billion tons and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag
having an annual production of 360 billion tons are the globally used
supplementary cementitious materials and only part of it can fulfill
rising demands. So, it has become a global need to find new materials
that can be used in replacement to cement [14].
One such abundantly available material is silica fume that can be
used in replacement to cement. The fine particle size of silica fume
allows it to act as a filler and improve packing as it enters the spaces
between particles of cement. The replacement of cement with silica
fume in small portions can be feasible due to the high reactivity of silica
fume with calcium hydroxide that is produced during the hydration of
Portland cement [16]. It is an ultrafine powder also known as micro
silica having 75% or more silicon content containing non-crystalline
silica in the range of 85–95%. The type of alloy produced in the pro-
duction unit is related to the amount of SiO2 content present in silica
fume [17]. The requirement of water increases for the concretes having
silica fume due to its ultra-fineness; therefore, superplasticizers are used
to achieve required workability [18,19]. Incorporation of silica fume to
concrete mixtures could result in lower bleeding, lower porosity as well
as permeability because oxides of silica fume react with and consume
Ca(OH)2 that is CH produced by the hydration of cement. The pozzo-
lanic reactions would result in strength development, lower heat

∗
Corresponding author. Civil Engineering Department, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Maharaja Agrasen University, Atal Shiksha Kunj, Kalujhanda,
Barotiwala, Baddi, Distt. Solan, HP 174103, India.
E-mail addresses: deepankar1303@gmail.com, dashish@mau.edu.in (D.K. Ashish).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100888
Received 3 March 2019; Received in revised form 18 July 2019; Accepted 19 July 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Ankur Mehta and Deepankar Kumar Ashish, Journal of Building Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100888
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 1. Total production volumes of cement by region.
liberation, small pore size distribution, and lime-consuming activity
[19]. The pozzolanic properties of silica fume and its physical filling
effect makes it widely acceptable supplementary cementitious material.
Due to the presence of highly reactive amorphous silica, it can react
with calcium hydrate (CH) to form calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)
which is an important hydration product that promises binding and
strength properties in cementitious materials [20].
Another such abundantly available material that can be used as a
replacement to cement is waste glass. Only a part of waste glass is re-
used in making of new glass, and remaining glass is disposed of due to
impurities available in it or color or cost [10]. In 2010, the approximate
production of waste glass was 425,000 out of which 192,000 t was only
recycled [20]. Crushed waste glass has the number of properties such as
the presence of large amount of silicon [21] and calcium having an
amorphous structure. Thus, waste glass has pozzolanic or cementitious
properties and can be used as a partial replacement to cement [22,23].
Past studies observed that chemical composition of glass depends on the
application of waste glass rather than color or origin of glass. Glasses
can be classified into 32 types [24], but they can be mainly char-
acterized as soda-lime, lead, vitreous silica, borosilicate, alkali silicates,
aluminosilicate, and barium glasses. In the production of glasses, ad-
ditives are used to give them variant color or properties. The most
common type of glasses are soda-lime glasses which are used in the
production of float, sheets, or containers. The presence of around 73%
SiO2, 13% Na2O, and 10% CaO in soda-lime glass makes it pozzolanic
cementitious material and can be suitably used in concrete. Another
major type of glass used is lead glass, but the presence of lead in this
glass makes it unsuitable for cement and concrete [25]. Due to varying
properties, it is not possible to recycle every waste glass.
A thorough search has been conducted on the several research ar-
ticles having glass powder or silica fume as a cement replacement to
overcome environmental impacts caused due to production of cement.
Reusing wastes not only solves the problem of landfills but also
Table 1
Physical properties of silica fume.
Properties Mastali and Hasan-Nattaj and
Dalvand [51] Nematzadeh [49]
Specific Gravity (g/cm3) 2.21 1.9–2.3
Specific Surface Area 14000 20,000–25,000
(m2/kg)
Particle Size (nm) – 229
Density (g/cm3) – –
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
provides an attractive way to use these materials in the construction
sector. The authors have carefully discussed the relevant properties of
each material to determine the effects of additives on the properties of
concrete. This paper provides valuable information for the researchers
for further studies.
2. Silica fume
Silica fume is a by-product of silicon and ferrosilicon alloy pro-
duction industries [26,27]; the production of silica fume takes place at
high temperatures from the reduction of quartz. High-purity quartz is
heated with coal, coke or wood chips in an electric arc furnace at a
temperature of 2000℃ to eliminate oxygen. Silicon monoxide vapor is
released on the reduction of quartz to alloy and is collected at the base
of the furnace. The fume oxidizes and condenses in the upper parts of
the furnace producing microspheres of amorphous silica that is silicon
oxide [26]. It is an ultrafine powder also known as micro silica having
75% silicon content containing non-crystalline silica in the range of
85–95%. The type of alloy produced in the production unit is related to
the amount of SiO2 content present in silica fume [17,28]. The re-
quirement of water increases for the concretes having silica fume due to
its ultra-fineness; therefore, superplasticizers are used to achieve re-
quired workability. The test results from past studies show that silica
fume concrete could result in lower bleeding, lower porosity as well as
permeability because oxides of silica fume react with and consume Ca
(OH)2 that is CH obtained from the hydration of cement. The pozzolanic
reactions would result in strength development, lower heat liberation,
small pore size distribution, and lime-consuming activity [19]. The
pozzolanic properties of silica fume and its physical filling effect makes
it widely acceptable supplementary cementitious material. Due to the
presence of highly reactive amorphous silica, it can react with CH to
form CSH, which is an important hydration product that promises
binding and strength properties in cementitious materials. The small
size of silica fume particles fill in the pores of the hardened cement
matrix, thus increasing the strength as well as the density of hardened
paste [29]. Use of silica fume contents could achieve the required
hardened properties of self-compacting lightweight concrete [30,31].
Moreover, improvement in crack resistance was studied on the re-
placement of cement with silica fume [32]. Despite various advantages,
there is a major problem with silica fume that is its ultrafine particles
could cause health risks as fine particles can get through the digestive
tract, lungs, skin easily [33,34]. However, this problem is somehow
avoided by using silica fume slurry using 50% weight of solid content.
This decreases the difficulties encountered by operators to a certain
limit from handling silica fume in dry powder form [29].
2.1. Physical properties
Silica fume is premium white or gray in color. The particles are very
fine and spherical in shape, 95% of particles are smaller than 1 μm. The
surface area of particles varies from 13000 to 30000 m2/kg [17,35,36].
The particles of silica fume are around 100 times smaller than the
average cement particle [35]. Table 1 presents the physical properties
of silica fume.
Fallah and Nematzadeh Wu et al. Ju et al. Soliman and Tagnit- Pedro et al.
[50] [52] [82] Hamou [63] [66]
2.21 2.2 – 2.2 –
14,000 18,500 – 20,000 20,000
229 – 200 150 –
0.3–0.5 – 2.23 – 2
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Table 2
Chemical properties of silica fume.
Compound (wt Mastali and Rostami and Hasan-Nattaj and Fallah and Karthikeyan and Bajja Wu et al. Wang Ju et al.
%) Dalvand [51] Behfarnia [65] Nematzadeh [49] Nematzadeh [50] Dhinakaran [64] et al. [88] [52] et al. [89] [82]

SiO2 85–95 88–94 95 93 97.36 95 93.9 98.48 94.4

Al2O3 0.5–1.7 0.6–1.2 0.6 1.7 0.53 0.2 – 0.40 0.8
Fe2O3 0.4–2.0 0.3–1.6 1.3 1.2 0.15 0.4 0.59 0.03 1.2
MgO 0.1–0.9 0.95–1.8 1.1 1.0 0.79 0.3 0.27 0.40 0.6
K2O 0.15–1.02 0.7–1.2 0.9 1.1 0.29 0.1 0.86 0.72 –
Na2O 0.15–0.20 0.7–1.2 0.3 0.6 0.06 0.6 0.17 0.25 –
CaO – 0.95–1.8 0.5 0.3 0.14 0.5 1.85 0.44 1.4
SO3 – – – – 0.51 – 0.42 0.42 –
pH – – 6.8–8.0 – – – –
Moisture – – – 0.01–0.4 – – – – –
Loss on ignition – – – – 2.5 0.90 0.90 0.75

2.2. Chemical properties
The chemical composition of silica fume shows the presence of si-
licon oxide between 85 and 98.5% with an average of 94.2%. Iron,
magnesium, and alkali oxides were also observed in small amounts, as
depicted in Table 2. Presence of silicon oxide in silica fume increases its
pozzolanic reactivity and cementitious properties, which makes it sui-
table for the use in concrete.
2.3. Mineralogical characteristics
Mineralogical characterization study was conducted using x-ray
diffraction for silica fume. The spectra in Fig. 2 shows no indication of
crystalline phase, the hump for the amorphous matrix of SiO2 was also
observed at 2θ = 23° [37].
2.4. Morphological characteristics
The amorphous silica particles with an average diameter of about
0.1 μm can be observed in Fig. 3. The color of silica fume particles
darker or lighter depends on carbon or iron content present; it is gen-
erally white or gray in color [38].
3. Waste glass
The glass is a product of supercooling of a mixture containing sand
(silicon dioxide) and soda ash (sodium carbonate). In this process, su-
percooled material does not allow to crystallize and retain the internal
structure of a melted liquid [39]. The glass industry has high recycling
values; flat glass rejects and post-consumer containers such as bottles an
jars can be recycled repeatedly with the same purity and no loss in
quality [40]. The use of recycled glass for new objects can save energy;
however, due to the color imbalance between manufactured product
and the product consumed in the market, container industry cannot
recycle all the available waste glass [41].
Past studies observed that chemical composition of glass depends on
the application of waste glass rather than color or origin of glass.
Glasses can be classified into 32 types [24], but they can be mainly
characterized as soda-lime, lead, vitreous silica, borosilicate, alkali si-
licates, aluminosilicate, and barium glasses. In the production of glass,
additives are added to give them different color or properties. The most
common type of glasses are soda-lime glasses which are used in the
production of float, sheets, or containers. The presence of around 73%
SiO2, 13% Na2O, and 10% CaO in soda-lime glass make it pozzolanic
cementitious material and suitable for the use in concrete. Lead glass is
the other major type of glass used, but the presence of lead in this glass
makes it unsuitable for cement and concrete [25]. Due to varying
properties glasses, it is not possible to recycle every waste glass. In the
past, broken glasses were sorted, and glasses with the same color were
collected, glasses having some contaminants were not remanufactured
due to its incompatibility to reuse. It was studied that a tonne of glass
can be contaminated with only 5 g of contaminate glass during manu-
facturing [42]. Addition of waste glass to concrete gives rise to tri-
calcium silicate and lower the amount of di-calcium silicate and tri-
calcium aluminate that makes concrete resistant to sulfate attack [43].
Waste glass could be easily incorporated in concrete as it is pozzolanic
as well as cementitious in nature due to large amount of silicon and
calcium present in the waste glass, using waste glass will also fully
utilize energy imparted to glass during glass making process [44].
However, the increase in the waste glass will give rise to liquid content
in clinker that will result in the formation of Na compounds and in-
crease alkali content in cement [25].
3.1. Physical properties
Glass is an inorganic and non-metallic material that cannot be de-
composed as well as incinerated in nature. It is high abrasion resistance
and highly durable material with in-combustible characteristics. It has
high ductility at high temperatures with the translucent surface [45].
Glass is generally brittle in nature with smooth surface texture, hy-
drophobic [46,47]. The aspect ratio of glass is higher than natural sand.
Glass is moisture resistant with 0.3–0.4% water absorption [46]. De-
pending on the different manufacturing process of the glass, physical
properties may vary for different studies. Table 3 represents the phy-
sical properties of waste glass powder.

3.2. Chemical properties

Table 4 presents the chemical properties of waste glass powder. The

Fig. 2. XRD pattern of silica fume (Fig. 8 in Ref. [37]).
chemical composition depends on the application of waste glass rather
than significantly on color or origin of glass. To give desired color or
property to glass, additives are generally added in the production of
glasses. The presence of around 72.4% SiO2 and 10.8% CaO in waste
glass makes it pozzolanic cementitious material and suitable for the use
in concrete. The alkali content in the waste glass was observed between
7.2% and 13.7% as depicted in Table 4, with an average of 11.5%.

3
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 3. Silica fume as seen under an electronic microscope: (a) scanning electronic microscope e silica fume particles are naturally agglomerated in an as-produced
silica fume; (b) Transmission electronic microscope e dispersed individual particles (Fig. 4.15 in Ref. [38]).

3.3. Mineralogy characteristics
Mineralogical characterization study was conducted using x-ray
diffraction for glass powder. The XRD pattern of glass powder is given
in Fig. 4, which shows no peaks in the graph and can be referred to as
an amorphous structure [48].
3.4. Morphological characteristics
The scanning electron micrograph of amorphous glass powder
particles shows an angular shape for most of the particles and con-
glomeration in the particles can be clearly seen as depicted in Fig. 5
[48].
4. Fresh properties of concrete incorporating silica fume and
waste glass
One of the most important factor of concrete mix design is work-
ability. It is the effort with which fresh concrete can be handled, placed,
compacted, and finished. Slump, mini-slump flow, and slump flow tests
are the most common methods to measure the workability of concrete.
The main factor in controlling workability is water content. Influence of
silica fume and waste glass on workability properties of concrete has
been evaluated by many researchers.
Hasan-Nattaj and Nematzadeh [49] studied slump flow of high
strength concrete and observed that slump decreases with the increase
in percentage replacements of silica fume in concrete where steel fiber
is 1% for all concrete samples including control concrete, as shows in
Fig. 6. The increasing dosage of superplasticizer even hardly provides
suitable workability in high strength concrete. Similar results were
observed by Fallah and Nematzadeh [50].
Mastali and Dalvand [51] studied the influence of silica fume on the
workability of SCC. The study reported that workability of concrete
tends to reduce on partial replacement of cement with silica fume
content, as shown in Fig. 7. On replacement of 7% and 14% cement
content with silica fume, slump flow diameter was observed to reduce
up to ~3.2% and ~7.8%, respectively, as compared to control concrete.
For slump flow time (T500), the increase of 20% and 40% was observed
in T500 time with the replacement of 7% and 14% silica fume, respec-
tively, as compared to control concrete. The increase of 14.3% and
42.9% were observed in V-funnel time with the replacement of 7% and
14% silica fume, respectively, as compared to control concrete.
Wu et al. [52] conducted a slump flow test on fresh ultra-high
strength concrete with varying percentages of silica fume. Slump flow
of reference concrete mixture without silica fume content was 113 mm,
on replacement of cement with 10% and 15% silica fume showed 150
and 175 mm slump values, respectively. As presented in Fig. 7, the
addition of more than 15% silica fume showed a decrease in the slump
of concrete. However, with reference to control concrete higher values
for slump flow could be noticed on the addition of even up to 25% silica
fume. Due to the high surface area of silica fume, high content of silica
fume reduces workability.
Incorporation of silica fume can improve results of slump flow due
to its lubrication effect that would release water entrapped between
small particles and therefore, increases flowability [52]. A decrease in
flowability was observed with the increase of more than 22% silica
fume content; this could be due to its fine particle size as much amount
of water would be absorbed on the surface [53]. Superplasticizers are
generally used to balance the high water demand of silica fume [54],
the addition of superplasticizer contributes to the dispersion action of
flocculated cement particles as ultra-fine particles, which could release
more free water [55]. Moreover, the spherical shape of silica fume also
induces water-reducing effect; interparticle friction is reduced as the
particles act as small bearings due to spherical shape. While using silica
fume, the water-reducing admixture is generally used so that silica
fume can pack with cement grains and act as an effective lubricant
[56,57]. Literature studied showed that for production of ordinary
concretes, silica fume content was generally taken less than 10% but for
high strength concretes, superplasticizer was used to maintain slump
with 10% silica fume [58]. Less than 15% of silica fume was usually

Table 3
Physical properties of waste glass powder.
Properties Soliman and Tagnit- Omran et al. Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad [62] Ramakrishnan et al. [90] Sales et al. Sales et al.
Hamou [63] [79] [91] [91]∗

Specific Gravity 2.60 2.54 2.5 2.89 2.54 2.6

Blaine surface area (m2/kg) 380 382 – – 366.3 371.8
Mean particle size (μm) 12 12 8.4 – 8.93 10.61
Particle size (Cumulative %) – – – 70 – –
Maximum particle size (μm) 100 40 – – – –

c
Amber glass

4
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Table 4
Chemical properties of waste glass powder.
Compound (wt %) Islam et al. Aliabdo et al. Madandoust and Soliman and Lu and Vaitkevičius et al. Omran and Du and Tuan et al.
[60] [61] Ghavidel [92] Tagnit-Hamou Poon [93] [94] Tagnit-Hamou Tan [87] [83]
[63] [70]

SiO2 68 71.40 73.1 73 73.5 72.76 74.07 72.08 74.00

Al2O3 7 2.54 1.36 1.50 0.73 1.67 1.97 2.19 6.00
Fe2O3 <1 0.37 0.67 0.40 0.38 0.79 0.44 0.22 0.3
CaO 11 11.2 9.79 11.30 10.48 9.74 13.56 10.45 9.7
MgO <1 1.60 3.45 1.20 1.25 2.09 1.26 0.72 –
K2O <1 0.36 – 0.5 0.69 0.76 0.62 0.16 0.8
Na2O 12 12.25 – 13 12.74 12.56 7.19 13.71 8.2
SO3 – 0.16 – – 0.10 0.20 – 0.2
Loss on Ignition – 0.82 – 0.60 – 1.00 0.47 – –

taken for high-performance concretes [59].
Islam et al. [60] conducted a flow test on waste glass powder mortar
samples. A constant water-binder ratio of 0.5 for preparing samples was
used. The results in Fig. 8 observed that as percentage replacement of
waste glass increases flow diameter also increased. Flow diameter of
controlled mortar sample was around ~132.5 mm and mortar samples
having 25% cement replacement with glass was observed 135 mm.
Thus, a minor increase in flow results was found.
Aliabdo et al. [61] conducted a slump test to evaluate the work-
ability of glass powder modified concrete. From Fig. 8, it was noticed
that the slump flow of concrete having glass powder as replacement of
cement increased with the increase in glass powder content. The glassy
surface and low water absorption behavior of glass powder could be
responsible for an increase of slump. Moreover, glass powder has coarse
particles as compared to cement; this could have attributed in the in-
crease of slump.
Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou [63] illustrated that flowability of
concrete increased with the incorporation of glass powder as a re-
placement of cement. Low water absorption and smooth texture of glass
powder as compared to cement particles are responsible for this in-
crease of workability. Another reason for this increase in workability is
cement dilution. The above reasons are responsible for the reduced
formation of cement hydration products in the early minutes. So, there
are insufficient products available to combine various particles. The
lower specific surface area of glass powder as compared to cement re-
sults in decreasing the total surface area of the cement and glass powder
mixture. As a result, the slump flow increased because of the decrease
of water requirement for lubrication of particle surfaces.
5. Strength properties of concrete incorporating silica fume and
waste glass
5.1. Compressive strength
The structural performance of concrete and its behavior in the uti-
lity phase is called compressive strength. It is the most important test to
evaluate many properties of concrete. The factors that affect strength
development are 1) properties of an additive such as fineness, chemical
properties of the material and pozzolanic reactivity 2) percentage re-
placement of cement with additive 3) cement type 4) curing environ-
ment 5) temperature. Silica fume and waste glass powder in replace-
ment to cement enhance the microstructure of the transition zone
between aggregate and binder matrix and quality of cement paste.
Mastali and Dalvand [51] conducted a cube compressive strength
test on concrete specimens of self-compacting concrete. The investiga-
tions showed that compressive strength could be increased with the
partial replacement of cement by silica fume. Addition of silica fume
improved the bond between aggregate and paste, which resulted in the
enhancement of bond at the interface between matrix. As compared to
controlled mixture, the maximum increase of ~21% was observed in
compressive strength on the addition of silica fume up to 14% as a
replacement to cement presented in Fig. 9.
Hasan-Nattaj and Nematzadeh [49] reported that concrete having
silica fume had enhanced compressive strength in reference to control
concrete without silica fume having 0.5% Forta-Ferro fiber for all
concrete samples. Incorporation of silica fume by 8%, 10%, and 12% as
a cement replacement gave maximum improvement by 15.8%, 25.5,
and 20.6%, respectively, as presented in Fig. 9. Similar results for
compressive strength were reported for concrete samples having silica
fume as compared to concrete without silica fume having 1% steel fiber
for all concrete samples, as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 4. XRD pattern of glass powder (Fig. 4 in Ref. [48]).

5
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 5. SEM micrograph of glass powder under study (a) and (b) (Fig. 2 in Ref. [48]).
Fig. 6. Effect of the silica fume content on slump value.
Fig. 7. Effect of the silica fume content on slump flow.
Karthikeyan and Dhinakaran [64] conducted compressive strength
test on concrete samples having silica fume in replacement to cement
up to 15%. Compressive strength was increased by ~10.7%, ~20.6%
and ~14.9% on replacement of cement in the ratios of 5%, 10%, and
15% with silica fume, respectively. Addition of silica fume increased
compressive strength up to 10% replacement, at 15% replacement a
sudden decrease in strength can be noticed. Increase in strength up to
10% could be due to the addition of ultra-fine particles that reduced the
6
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
total specific pore volume resulting in the increased strength. As the
replacement percentage increased, decrease in strength was observed,
which could be due to lack of proper particle density and desired
binding action.
Rostami and Behfarnia [65] conducted a compressive strength test
on alkali-activated slag concrete. Incorporation of silica fume increased
the compressive strength of concrete samples at 28 and 90 days than
that of the samples without silica fume. Compressive strength increased
by 12.8%, 24.3% and 27.9% on addition of silica fume by 5%, 10% and
15%, respectively, in replacement of cement for 28 days curing ages as
depicted in Fig. 9. It was also revealed from the study that strength
increased by 23% between the curing ages 28 days and 90 days,
strength development was 34.3%, 27.1% and 27.8% for concrete con-
taining 5%, 10% and 15% of silica fume, respectively, significant in-
crease at 5% replacement percentage can be noticed. Pedro et al. [66]
discussed that formation of hydrated calcium silicates obtained from
reactions of silica fume and calcium hydroxide was delayed slightly.
Increase of 10–17% in compressive strength can be noticed between 28
and 91 days of curing ages having 5–10% silica fume, respectively [66].
Wu et al. [52] reported a noticeable increase in compressive
strength results at early ages for ultra-high strength concrete having
silica fume. Significant results of compressive strength can be noticed at
early ages, strength increased by 11% after only 7 days. Silica fume
replacement level from 0 to 20% provided a significant increase in
compressive strength at 28 days of curing. Strength was increased by
18%, 16%, 28%, and 25% approximately when silica fume replacement
level was 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, respectively.
The physical and chemical effects of silica fume could be responsible
for a significant increase in compressive strength. The micro-fine par-
ticles of silica fume increase the packing of solid materials by filling
spaces between cement grains and can be considered as a physical effect
that contributes towards the increase of compressive strength [67]. The
pozzolanic reactions between amorphous silica and CH produced from
cement hydration to form calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) can be ex-
plained as a chemical effect [57]. Moreover, the addition of silica fume
induces several nucleation sites for precipitation of the hydration pro-
ducts that accelerates the reactions and form smaller CH crystals [68].
Another factor is that with the addition of silica fume, most of the
continuous pores available in concrete are transformed into dis-
continuous ones as large pores are reduced. All these factors make the
microstructure homogeneous and dense [67].
Some of the properties of silica fume are also valid in the aggregate-
paste transition zone. The porosity of transition zone is reduced due to
the filler effect of silica fume that results in denser microstructure and
increased strength. Calcium hydroxide in the transition zone is elimi-
nated with the pozzolanic effect and accelerates the formation of the
bond between particles through pozzolanic reactions that form an extra
binding between C-S-H, thus, increases the strength of concrete [57].
Islam et al. [60] conducted a compressive strength test on recycled
glass in mortar specimens. It was found that recycled glass mortar
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 8. Effect of the waste glass content on workability.

Fig. 10. Effect of the waste glass content on compressive strength at 28 days of
curing.

significant increase in strength on the addition of glass powder (GP1)

up to 20% in replacement to cement at 28 days of curing. However, for
concrete having the second type of glass (GP2), a decrease in strength
can be observed with the increase in replacement percentage of glass up
to 28 days of curing. The results for both types of glass concrete having
cement replacement up to 20% with glass powder showed increased
compressive strength at 91 days of curing. The reason behind the in-
crease could be improved interfacial bonding between the cement paste
matrix and aggregates that formed more densified microstructure. The
other reason for the increase could be the amount of silica, alumina and
iron oxide present in different types of glass powders. Glass powders
having more silica and less alumina and iron oxide will decrease
compressive strength at early ages. Also, the higher compressive
strength of mortar at 28 days and 91 days of curing compared to con-
trolled mortar was obtained for both types of glasses. Mortar having
20% glass powder in replacement to cement showed the maximum
increase in compressive strength.
Fig. 9. Effect of the silica fume content on compressive strength at 28 days of
curing. Ez-zaki et al. [69] conducted a compressive strength test on mortar
containing glass powder. It was concluded from the results that com-
pressive strength was doubled on replacement of 40% cement with
specimens have more compressive strength than that of controlled
glass powder by weight of sand. Replacement of 60% cement by glass
mortar specimens except for 25% glass addition at 90 days. The com-
powder increased strength by 66.4% with reference to control concrete.
pressive strength of recycled glass mortar has a lower value at 7, 14, 28,
Omran and Tagnit-Hamou [70] reported that the addition of glass
and 56 days age, as compared to controlled mortar specimen. Highest
powder yielded high compressive strength at early ages and at later
compressive strength was found with 10% cement replacement at 90
ages (at the age of two years) as compared to reference concrete. At
days. Similarly, 15% cement replacement at the age of 180 days and
later ages, continued strength gain can be observed due to pozzolanic
20% cement replacement at the age of 365 days showed maximum
activity induced by glass powder. According to the test results, glass
compressive strength. The study reported the behavior of recycled glass
powder concrete gained 32% strength, whereas, reference concrete
powder concrete the same as of the mortar.
gained only 24% strength between 28 and 91 days. It was also observed
Aliabdo et al. [61] reported an increase of 5.1% in compressive
that glass powder concrete exhibited slightly lower strength as com-
strength for 33 MPa concrete having 5% glass powder as a replacement
pared to reference concrete at 28 days,. At 91 days, more than target
to cement with reference to control concrete. Whereas, compressive
strength was achieved by glass powder concrete.
strength decreased by 4.5% on addition of 10% glass powder in re-
Hama [81] studied the compressive strength test of lightweight
placement to cement for 33 MPa concrete mix at different curing ages,
Porcelanite aggregate concrete containing glass powder. Fig. 10 shows
as shown in Fig. 10. Concrete mix grade 45 MPa also showed an in-
that with increasing content of glass powder in concrete, value for
crease of 2.5% for 5% replacement and 10% replacement showed a
compressive strength also increased. The percentage increase in com-
slight increase of 4.8% in compressive strength with reference to con-
pressive strength value for 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% glass powder were
trol concrete. A decrease in compressive strength can be noticed for
4.1%, 9.7%, 17.4%, and 25.6%, respectively, as compared to reference
more than 10% replacement, increased percentage of cement replace-
concrete.
ment could be the reason for this decrease.
Various researchers conducted compressive strength tests on con-
Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad [62] conducted a compressive
crete mixtures incorporating glass powder in place of cement. An ap-
strength test on variant glass powder concretes at various curing ages.
parent decrease in strength can be noticed with the increase in re-
Fig. 10 presents the compressive strength results, which shows a
placement level of glass powder. One reason behind the decrease could

7
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
be smooth surface of glass powder that restricts the adhesion to cement
paste [71–75]. The other reason could be the slow formation of hy-
dration products with an increased percentage of glass powder [76]. As
suggested by Shao et al. [77] detrimental effects of glass powder can be
avoided by using small size waste glass that will have a relatively minor
influence on compressive strength property [77]. Using coarse glass
particles can result in more and big sized cracks that will impart high-
silica reactivity [78].
5.2. Splitting tensile strength
The low tensile strength of concrete does not allow it to withstand
direct tension; it is due to the brittle nature of concrete. The tensile
strength is determined to know the load which concrete can resist
without a crack. Splitting tensile strength mainly depends upon the
paste quality; however, paste quality and interfacial transition zone are
generally affected by the properties of fine aggregates.
Mastali and Dalvand [51] conducted splitting tensile strength test
on concrete specimens of self-compacting concrete. The investigation
showed that tensile strength could be increased by using silica fume as a
replacement to cement. The bond between aggregate and paste can be
improved with the addition of silica fume, which results in the en-
hancement of bond at the interface between the matrix. As compared to
a controlled mixture, splitting tensile strength increased by ~8.6% for
the concrete samples having 7% silica fume in place of cement. The
increase of ~14.3% in splitting tensile strength was observed on ad-
dition of silica fume up to 14% as a replacement to cement as presented
in Fig. 11.
Hasan-Nattaj and Nematzadeh [49] reported that concrete having
silica fume have enhanced splitting tensile strength in comparison to
reference concrete that is without silica fume having 0.5% Forta-Ferro
fiber for all concrete samples presented in Fig. 11. Incorporation of
silica fume by 8%, 10%, and 12% as a cement replacement gave max-
imum splitting tensile strength improvement by 11.0%, 12.0, and 6.6%,
respectively, where 0.5% Forta-Ferro was constant. Similar results for
the concrete samples having 8%, 10%, and 12% silica fume in re-
placement to cement were observed that gave maximum splitting ten-
sile strength improvement by 11.7%, 11.0%, and 4.6%, respectively,
where 1% steel fiber was constant for all concrete samples.
Karthikeyan and Dhinakaran [64] conducted splitting tensile
strength on concrete samples having silica fume in replacement to ce-
ment up to 15%. Splitting tensile strength was increased by ~10.5%,
Fig. 11. Effect of the silica fume content on split tensile strength at 28 days of
curing.
8
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
~36.8%, and ~31.6% on replacement of cement by 5%, 10%, and 15%
with silica fume, respectively. Increase in splitting tensile strength can
be observed on the incorporation of silica fume up to 10%, at 15%
replacement a slight decrease in strength can be noticed. Increase in
strength up to 10% could be due to the addition of ultra-fine particles
that reduced the total specific pore volume resulting in the increased
strength.
Pedro et al. [66] conducted splitting tensile strength test on concrete
samples having silica fume in replacement to cement up to 10%.
Splitting tensile strength was decreased by 15.1%, and 22.6% on re-
placement of 5% and 10% cement with silica fume, respectively, as
presented in Fig. 11. According to the study, adding silica fume caused
poor dispersion of particles that formed agglomerates of higher sizes
and developed hydration products around the surface, thus isolating the
nucleus and preventing it from reacting with the surrounding water. As
a result, additional binder produced from the reaction of silica fume
and calcium hydroxide was not sufficient to compensate the amount of
cement replaced and thus produced a lower amount of C-S-H.
Aliabdo et al. [61] reported an increase of 16.6%, 19.4%, and 5.9%
in compressive strength for 33 MPa concrete having 5%, 10%, and 15%
glass powder as a replacement to cement with reference to control
concrete. Whereas, compressive strength decreased by 10.0% and
13.8% on addition of 20% and glass powder in replacement to cement
for 33 MPa concrete mix at different curing ages, as shown in Fig. 12.
Concrete mix grade 45 MPa also showed an increase of 11.7%, 13.0%,
and 18.1% for 5%, 10%, and 15% replacement, respectively. Whereas,
for 20% replacement, a slight decrease of 1.0% in splitting tensile
strength was noticed. A decrease in compressive strength can be ob-
served for more than 20% replacement of cement with silica fume,
increased percentage of cement replacement could be the reason for
this decrease.
Omran et al. [79] conducted splitting tensile strength test on various
indoor and outdoor concrete samples having 20% glass powder. With
reference to indoor samples, comparison between the core samples that
is samples taken from site and laboratory samples at curing ages of 28
and 91 days was conducted. The comparison between the glass powder
concrete and control concrete showed a decrease in split tensile
strength for glass powder concrete. Concrete samples cured in the la-
boratory at 28 and 91 days showed an increase of ~7.3% and ~4.5% in
split tensile strength. The core samples showed a decrease of ~1.9% for
glass powder concrete at the age of 2.8–2.9 years. With reference to
outdoor samples, comparison between the core samples that is samples
Fig. 12. Effect of the waste glass content on split tensile strength at 28 days of
curing.
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

taken from site and laboratory samples at curing ages of 28 and 91 days
was conducted. Concrete samples cured in the laboratory at 28 days
curing ages showed an increase of ~34.6% in splitting tensile strength.
Whereas, for 91 days curing ages insignificant decrease of ~1.1% in
split tensile strength was noticed. The core samples showed a decrease
of ~31.7% for glass powder concrete at the age of 2.6–2.9 years. For
indoor samples, it is clear from the results that splitting tensile strength
of laboratory samples were better in comparison to core samples due to
drop in temperature of −10 ℃ indoors. For outdoor samples, results of
splitting tensile strength was better for core samples as compared to
laboratory samples; this could be due to sufficient curing water avail-
able from rain for core samples.
Omran and Tagnit-Hamou [70] reported that the addition of glass
powder yielded high splitting tensile strength between 28 and 91days
as compare to reference concrete. At later ages, continued strength gain
can be observed due to pozzolanic activity induced by glass powder.
According to the test results, glass powder concrete gained 25.2%
strength, whereas, reference concrete gained only ~20.5% strength
between 28 and 91 days. The concrete containing glass powder ex-
hibited slightly lower strength at 28 days curing, compared to reference
concrete. At 91 days, more than target strength was achieved by glass Fig. 13. Effect of the silica fume content on flexural strength at 28 days of
powder concrete. curing.
Kushartomo et al. [80] conducted split tensile strength test on the
samples of reactive powder concrete having glass powder content up to increase in strength can be noticed from 1 to 3 days. Silica fume re-
30%. Average splitting tensile strength was recorded 17.8 MPa for re- placement level from 0 to 20% provided a significant increase in flex-
active powder concrete having 20% glass powder content for 14 days ural strength. Flexural strength was increased by 11%, 15%, 29%, and
curing ages. The study shows a significant decrease in strength as the 18% approximately, at 28 days of curing when silica fume replacement
replacement percentage of glass powder increases. level was 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, respectively, as depicted in Fig. 13.
The behavior of splitting tensile strength is generally the same as the Omran and Tagnit-Hamou [70] conducted a flexure strength test on
compressive strength. Reasons responsible for the increase of splitting various concrete mixtures containing glass powder at different ages. For
tensile strength are similar to compressive strength. Increase in tensile designing of unreinforced pavement slab, determination of flexural
strength could be due to the enhancement of transition zone properties. strength is important. It was observed that glass powder concrete
Other reasons responsible for the increase of strength may be attributed mixtures had more value of flexural strength than that of control con-
to pozzolanic, filling and hydraulic effect of glass powder. crete samples. An increase of 15% in flexural strength was observed for
concrete samples having 20% glass powder between 28 and 91 days.
5.3. Flexural strength With 30% glass powder content in concrete, increase up to 21% was
found. Whereas, this increase was 9% in the case of a controlled mix-
This property of concrete is defined as the stress in concrete just ture.
before it yields in a flexure test also called as bend strength or modulus Hama [81] studied the flexural strength test of lightweight Porce-
of rupture. Tensile strength of concrete beams and slabs are measured lanite aggregate concrete containing glass powder. Fig. 14 shows that
using flexural strength. It is generally used to design pavements, mod- with increasing content of glass powder in concrete, value for flexural
ulus of rupture is also used for acceptance of pavements and field strength also increased. The percentage increase in flexural strength
control. Some designers use the modulus of rupture for structural
concrete also.
Karthikeyan and Dhinakaran [64] conducted flexural strength on
concrete samples having silica fume up to 15% in replacement to ce-
ment. Splitting tensile strength was increased by 30%, 80%, and 50%
on replacement of cement by 5%, 10%, and 15% with silica fume, re-
spectively, with reference to control concrete. Increase in flexural
strength can be observed on the incorporation of silica fume up to 10%,
at 15% replacement a slight decrease in strength can be noticed. In-
crease in strength up to 10% could be due to the addition of ultra-fine
particles that reduced the total specific pore volume resulting in the
increased strength.
Mastali and Dalvand [51] conducted a flexural strength test on
concrete specimens of self-compacting concrete. The investigation
showed that flexural strength could be increased by using silica fume as
a replacement to cement. The bond between aggregate and paste can be
improved with the addition of silica fume, which results in the en-
hancement of bond at the interface between matrix. As compared to a
controlled mixture, flexural strength increased by ~11% for the con-
crete samples having 14% silica fume in place of cement as presented in
Fig. 13.
Wu et al. [52] suggested that influence of silica fume on flexural
strength of ultra-high strength concrete is significant at early ages up to Fig. 14. Effect of the waste glass content on flexural strength at 28 days of
7 days, increase in strength was 11% after only 7 days. Noticeable curing.

9
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 15. SEM images of reactive powder concretes with different silica fume (SF) contents before and after high-temperature exposure (Fig. 8 in Ref. [82]).
value for 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% glass powder were 3.5%, 8.8%,
15.4%, and 18.1%, respectively, as compared to reference concrete.
The behavior of flexural strength is generally the same as the
compressive strength for both silica fume as well as glass powder.
Reasons responsible for the increase of flexural strength are similar to
compressive strength for both the materials. Other reasons responsible
for the behavior of strength may be attributed to pozzolanic, filling, and
hydraulic effect of glass powder or silica fume.
10
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
5.4. Microstructural analysis
Ju et al. [82] investigated the scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
images of reactive powder concrete having silica fume in varying ratios
at room temperature and after exposure to the high temperature of
500 ℃, as shown in Fig. 15. The elemental compositions of reactive
powder concrete were investigated at room temperature using energy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). It is clear from SEM images that mi-
crostructure of reactive powder concrete having silica fume is much
tighter as compared to reactive powder concrete without silica fume
content, at room temperature. However, damage to reactive powder
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 16. Sample without silica fume: A) 20 μm scale, B) 5 μm scale (Fig. 10 in Ref. [65]).
concrete specimens can be observed on exposure to temperatures
reaching 500 ℃, concrete specimen without silica fume that is concrete
mix SF0 showed few fractures whereas, samples having silica fume in
varying ratios 8%, 16%, and 22% for concrete mix SF8, SF16, and SF22,
respectively, showed increase in number of fractures. For instance, re-
active powder concrete having 16% and above silica fume showed
noticeable fractures on the paste near aggregates and at the interfacial
transition zone between binder paste and aggregates. EDS analysis was
performed at four locations to calculate elemental composition that
mainly includes Ca/Si ratio of reactive powder concrete pastes, speci-
fically regarding CSH formation that is the main source of strength for
reactive powder concrete. A linear relation developed to determine Ca/
Si ratio is Ca/Si = −3.64SF + 1.33.
Where average atomic Ca/Si ratio is the ratio of CSH and SF is silica
fume content of reactive powder concrete. According to the relation
developed Ca/Si ratio decreases with the increase in silica fume con-
tent.
Rostami and Behfarnia [65] performed SEM analysis on alkali-ac-
tivated slag concrete sample without silica fume as presented in Fig. 16
and samples having 10% silica fume presented in Fig. 17. The com-
parison between the two shows that concrete samples without silica
fume indicated more empty spaces between slag grains and pores.
Whereas, specimens having silica fume filled pores in the concrete
pastes. It was observed that permeability of specimens having silica
fume reduced, moreover, CSH gel was formed that fills the spaces be-
tween particles in the concrete matrix. The results of microstructure
showed that the addition of silica fume could lead to increased dur-
ability and mechanical properties of alkali-activated slag concrete.
Tuan et al. [83] performed SEM to analyze microstructures of
lightweight aggregates containing 30% waste glass addition. The study
observed a larger number of pores at the higher sintering temperature.
It is clear from Fig. 18 that condensed microstructures were obtained
Fig. 17. Sample containing 10% silica fume: A) 20 μm scale; B) 5 μm scale (Fig. 11 in Ref. [65]).
11
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
and some pores began to be condensed as sintering temperature reaches
the dehydration stage. A vitrified layer gets formed, and the pores be-
came isolated as the sintering temperature reaches the bloating stage at
900–970 ℃ as shown in Fig. 18b. As the temperature increases above
970 ℃, pore diameter gets enlarged melting vitrified coating, gas
bubbles gets blown off from the interior of samples as shown in
Fig. 18c.
Kong et al. [84] investigated the influence of glass powder at
varying curing conditions. As depicted in Fig. 19, glass powder acts as a
filler at 1 day to compact the microstructure. Glass particles were ob-
served smooth at 28 days, under standard curing. Whereas, glass par-
ticles were eroded under microwave and steam curing at 80 ℃. The
study shows that glass powder has strong pozzolanic reactions under
microwave and steam curing conditions as compare to standard curing
conditions. Fig. 19f shows the relic of glass powder under microwave
curing at 28 days, a large amount of columnar CSH-like gel deposited
with nano-sized particles can be seen in the relic.
Omran et al. [85] performed SEM analysis on three types of roller-
compacted concrete (RCC) samples having glass powder, namely In-
t.Ref., Int.GP and Ext.GP. The Int.GP and Ext.GP are the interior and
exterior slabs having 20% glass powder (GP), moreover, Int.Ref. are
slabs without GP serving as a reference. Fig. 20, Fig. 21, and Fig. 22
show the SEM micrographs cores taken from Int.Ref, Int.GP, and
Ext.GP, respectively. The investigations were made between ×50
and ×2.0k magnifications. The observations made through ×50 mag-
nification focus on voids, whereas, ×2.0k magnifications focus on the
microstructure of concrete. The investigations clearly show the differ-
ence between the three RCC's compaction operations. Large and irre-
gular shape voids can be observed in both the glass powder RCC's with
the size of up to millimeter. The observations show connected as well as
disconnected voids reaching sub-millimeter size. The Int.GP and Ext.GP
concretes shows dense CSH, dense C-S-H bonds the glass powder
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 18. SEM photographs of lightweight aggregates with 30% waste glass addition sintered at various temperatures: (a) 880 ℃; (b) 930 ℃; (c) 1000 ℃ (Fig. 6 in Ref.
[83]).
particles, and some of the anhydrous cement particles present in In-
t.Ref. mixture.
6. Durability properties of concrete incorporating silica fume and
waste glass
6.1. Chloride permeability
Pedro et al. [66] conducted a rapid chloride penetration test on
concrete samples having silica fume up to 10% in replacement to ce-
ment. Incorporation of silica fume negatively affected the chloride
diffusivity, the chloride diffusivity values were increased by 45.9% and
102.7% on replacement of 5% and 10% cement with silica fume, re-
spectively, as presented in Fig. 23. It is clear from the results that as the
replacement ratio of cement by silica fume increases, it leads to a de-
crease in resistance-to-chloride penetration. The low reactivity of silica
fume resulted in difficulty in dispersing its particles and thereby de-
creasing resistance-to-chloride penetration.
Motahari Karein et al. [86] observed that addition of silica fume to
the cement matrix produces a large amount of C-S-H on the reaction of
silicon dioxide (SiO2) with Ca(OH)2 that resulted in the dense micro-
structure of concrete. As depicted in Fig. 23, the results of rapid
chloride migration test for silica fume concrete were decreased by
61.2–80.7% for different concrete mix having water-to-binder ratio
0.35/0.45 and cementitious material content 350/400 kg as compared
to control concrete. The amount of silica fume that has not been fully
disintegrated and introduced in hydration reaction could cause im-
provement in the microstructure of concrete at later ages. As observed
from results, lower migration coefficient for all the mixtures was stu-
died. However, the lowest migration coefficient can be observed at 90
days curing.
Motahari Karein et al. [86] studied decrease in permeability of
concrete against chloride ions with the incorporation of silica fume due
to decrease in electrical charge passed in the samples. In accordance
with ASTM C1202 standards, the permeability against the chloride ions
fell in the range of ‘very low’ for all samples having silica fume as
shown in the results of rapid chloride penetration test in Fig. 24. Re-
duction in charged passed reduction could be due to many reasons. One
of the important reason is the partial replacement of cement with silica
fume, reduction of cement reduced the alkalinity of pore solution that
leads to a decrease in passing charge. As observed from results addition
of silica fume reduces the permeability of concrete, and the reduction
increases with the increase in age.
Omran and Tagnit-Hamou [70] studied the durability of concrete
using resistance to chloride ion penetration. From the test results, it was
concluded that with an increase in the substitution level of glass powder
resistance to chloride ion penetration increase. An additional increase
in this resistance was found with time due to the filling of pores and
hydration of cement and glass powder. Glass powder concrete showed
lower permeability as compared to controlled concrete. The perme-
ability of controlled concrete observed was 5900, 2800, and
1300 coulombs at 28, 91, and 365 days, respectively, while the
12
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
permeability of concrete having 20% glass powder was 2150, 950, and
500 coulombs. So, it can be concluded that glass powder concrete has
reduced permeability by 64% compared to controlled concrete. Con-
sidering early age permeability, reference concrete has high perme-
ability at early ages, but the low value was observed after one year with
w/cm 0.68. Whereas, concrete having glass powder showed 2150
coulombs at 28 days that is moderate permeability, at 91 days perme-
ability dropped into the low zone, thereby decreasing to 500 coulombs
at one year.
Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad [62] carried the rapid chloride
permeability test on glass powder modified concrete at different ages of
curing. It was found that concrete specimens having waste glass powder
with 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% have a low value of chloride permeability
as compared to control specimens at all ages. As the replacement level
of glass powder increased, the reduction in chloride permeability values
also increased. The difference in chloride permeability values reduced
at later ages, that is, chloride permeability values of concrete were
slightly similar at 56 days and 91 days of curing. Chloride permeability
of concrete is directly related to the electrical conductivity of concrete
and depends on the pore solution conductivity and pore structure
characteristics. This reduction in chloride permeability was achieved
due to the improved microstructure of concrete that leads to the in-
creased hydration and pozzolanic reaction with addition of glass
powder. It is generally expected that addition of glass powder could
increase the conductivity of pore solution due to the high concentration
of alkalis in glass powder. However, the effect of pore structure on
concrete conductivity is more dominant as compared to increased pore
solution conductivity in concrete having glass powder.
6.2. Water absorption
Motahari Karein et al. [86] suggested that water absorption test
relates mostly to the inconsistent surficial pores of the concrete, and less
to the capillary holes. The study shows that water absorption of con-
crete having silica fume decreases with the increase in the age of con-
crete specimens, the reason behind the decrease of water absorption
could be the pozzolanic reactions in silica fume that reduces the surfi-
cial pores of the concrete. As depicted in Fig. 25, the results of water
absorption test for silica fume concrete were decreased by 7.5–17.7%
for different concrete mix having water-to-binder ratio 0.35/0.45 and
cementitious material content 350/400 kg as compared to control
concrete. The amount of silica fume that has not been fully disin-
tegrated and introduced in hydration reaction could cause improve-
ment in the microstructure of concrete at later ages. As observed from
results, migration coefficient can be observed lower for all the mixtures.
However, the lowest migration coefficient can be observed at the age of
90 days. It is clear from the figure that the volume of voids decreases for
all mixtures having silica fume. Water absorption of concrete is im-
proved with the incorporation of silica fume due to the high specific
area of silica fume. Moreover, an increase in the hydration reaction rate
was also observed due to the presence of silica fume.
Rostami and Behfarnia [65] reported that with the increase in the
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 19. Fracture morphology of mortar or paste under different curing regimes (Fig. 19 in Ref. [84]).
percentage of silica fume, the rates of water absorption have decreased.
From Fig. 25, the study shows that with the addition of 5%, 10%, and
15% silica fume to the concrete mix, reduction in water absorption rate
by 5.97%, 9.70%, and 13.06% was found, respectively, as compared to
concrete without silica fume.
Hasan-Nattaj and Nematzadeh [49] suggested that inclusion of si-
lica fume to fiber reinforced concrete resulted in reduction of water
absorption. It could be due to very fine particle size of silica fume that
fills the pores in concrete. A noticeable decrease in water absorption
can be observed with the incorporation of silica fume to fiber-reinforced
concrete as compared to control concrete as depicted in Fig. 26. Con-
sidering the concrete having 1% steel fiber, water absorption level
13
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
decreased by ~42%, ~47%, and ~47%, respectively, with the addition
of 8%, 10%, and 12% silica fume. Using Forta-Ferro fibers in concrete
resulted in a decrease in water absorption level by ~32%, ~44%, and
~43%, respectively, with the addition of 8%, 10% and 12% silica fume.
Pedro et al. [66] reported that incorporation of silica fume to the
concrete shown lower performances as compared to control concrete.
Replacement of 5% and 10% cement with silica fume increased the
water absorption by 14% and 28%, respectively, as compared to sam-
ples of controlled concrete as presented in Fig. 26. Considering me-
chanical properties of concrete, the study shows that replacement of
cement with silica fume does not sufficiently contribute either in filling
pores or formation of hydrated calcium silicates, thus cannot overcome
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 20. SEM micrographs of Int.Ref RCC slab: a) millimeter scale interconnected voids; b) anhydrous cement and ITZ (Fig. 11 in Ref. [85]).
the amount of cement replaced. It will increase the porosity of concrete,
which will increase the existing voids.
Aliabdo et al. [61] conducted the durability of glass powder mod-
ified concrete in terms of water absorption for concrete mixtures grade
33 MPa and 45 MPa, as presented in Fig. 27. A decrease of 14.4%,
20.0%, 24.0%, and 25.6% was observed for 33 MPa concrete having
5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% glass powder as cement replacement, re-
spectively. Similar results were observed for concrete mix grade 45 MPa
which showed a decrease of 13.7%, 16.8%, 10.5%, and 13.7% for 5%,
10%, 15%, and 20%, replacement, respectively, with reference to
control concrete. The study showed a decrease in water absorption of
concrete having glass powder up to 20% in replacement of cement.
Thus, reduction in water absorption resulted in improvement of dur-
ability and mechanical properties in concrete.
Hama [81] studied the lightweight Porcelanite aggregate concrete
containing glass powder. The study showed that value of absorption
decreased with the increasing content of glass powder. The percentage
reduction in water absorption for 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% glass powder
were 6.7%, 19.9%, 27.2%, and 33.8%, respectively, as depicted in
Fig. 27. The decrease in water absorption could be due to high silica
content present in glass powder that leads to the structure of light-
weight concrete more denser and resulted in less void content, thus
reduces absorption ability in concrete.
6.3. Porosity
Du and Tan [87] conducted porosity on different concrete samples
having glass powder at variant ratios in replacement of cement. Water
accessible porosity can be defined as a reflection of the total volume of
open pores larger than 100 nm. Open pores present in concrete provides
the path to water and ions to permeate the concrete. The study clearly
shows that the presence of glass powder increases porosity in concrete
with the increase in the amount of glass powder. The results show
porosity for control concrete as 14.3% that increases to 16.6% for glass
powder concrete having 60% glass powder. Other reason for the in-
crease in porosity could be an increase in the volume fraction of paste
Fig. 21. SEM micrographs of Int.GP RCC slabs: a) sub-millimeter scale disconnected voids; b) GP particles bonded by dense C-S-H (Fig. 12 in Ref. [85]).
14
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
for glass powder concrete rather than control concrete.
Omran and Tagnit-Hamou [70] studied the porosity in terms of
relative pore volume concerning the diameter of concrete mixtures with
and without glass powder at 28 and 91 days. Increase in the age of
curing showed a significant effect of glass powder in concrete mixtures.
As observed from results, the pore volume of glass powder concrete was
0.79 at 28 days of curing while this value has been reduced to 0.70 at 91
days of curing. The study showed an increase in pore volume from 28
days to 91 days, which indicates the positive effects of glass powder on
the permeability of concrete.
Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad [62] presented a porosity test on
controlled cement paste and cement paste having 20% glass powder.
Similar results of porosity for cement pastes was observed at 28 days
and 91 days, variation of 25–30% was noticed. On addition of 20%
glass powder to the cement paste, lowest porosity at 91 days was ob-
served, this could be due to the higher pozzolanic activity of glass
powder.
6.4. Water permeability
Du and Tan [87] determined water penetration depth into concrete
under the constant pressure. Water permeability mainly depends on
porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity. For the con-
trolled concrete mixture, an average depth of water penetration ob-
served was 31.8 mm whereas, glass powder concrete mixes showed the
reduced ~75%. Depth of penetration As the glass powder replacement
increases above 15%, no improvement in permeability was observed.
The study shows that improvement in results of water permeability
could be due to the pozzolanic reaction of glass powder that partially
blocked the pathways for water ingress.
Omran et al. [85] conducted a permeability test on core samples of
glass powder concrete mixtures. The permeable void content was found
in the range of 14.8–16.5%, which indicates lower mechanical strength.
Replacement of 20% glass powder with cement was observed with the
lowest value of permeability.
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 22. SEM micrographs of Ext.GP RCC slabs: a) millimeter scale interconnected voids; b) GP particles bonded by dense C-S-H (Fig. 13 in Ref. [85]).

Fig. 23. Effect of the silica fume content on chloride diffusion/migration

coefficient of concrete samples at 90/91 days of curing. Fig. 25. Effect of the silica fume content on water absorption/volume of
permeable voids of concrete samples.

Fig. 24. Effect of the silica fume content on rapid chloride ion penetration
results of concrete samples at 91 days of curing. Fig. 26. Effect of the silica fume content on water absorption of concrete
samples.

7. Summary and concluding remarks

improves slump flow in concrete due to ball bearing effect of silica
fume particles, but as the replacement percentage of silica fume
The present paper summarizes the utilization of silica-based waste
increases, workability of the concrete mixture decreases due to the
materials such as silica fume and waste glass for the production of
increased surface area of silica fume. From this study, it can be
sustainable concrete. On the basis of results obtained in the present
concluded that the amount of silica fume may vary depending on the
study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
amount of binder and water in the concrete mixture. However, ad-

• Addition of silica fume in concrete as a replacement of cement dition of superplasticizer can improve the workability by balancing

15
A. Mehta and D.K. Ashish
Fig. 27. Effect of the waste glass content on water absorption of concrete
samples.
high water demand of silica fume.
• Silica fume improves the mechanical properties of concrete, in-
cluding compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strength of con-
crete due to accelerated hydration of cement. The strength proper-
ties of concrete mainly depend on the variation of water/
cementitious materials ratio than on the replacement ratio of silica
fume. Increase in strength can be observed on the replacement of
cement with silica fume up to 20%, 10–15% of silica fume provides
maximum result. Moreover, the strength of silica fume concrete
increases with the increase in curing ages in comparison to control
concrete. The reason behind the delay in strength is the formation of
hydrated calcium silicates obtained from reactions of silica fume,
and calcium hydroxide was delayed slightly. Addition of silica fume
above 20% decreased strength of concrete due to decrease in cal-
cium hydroxide content with the increase in silica fume content.
• The observations of SEM and EDS shows that as the amount of silica
fume increases, denser matrices are formed. After the hydration of
cement in concrete, pozzolanic reaction of CH and SiO2 contributes
in the formation of denser structures. Thus, lime-rich C-S-H gel is
transferred to silica-rich C-S-H gel having low permeability and high
strength.
• Incorporation of silica fume up to 25% enhanced durability prop-
erties of concrete. Optimum results were observed on replacement
of up to 15% cement with silica fume at 56 and/or 91 days of curing;
durability properties were affected if silica fume content surpasses
25%. Past studies show an increase in durability properties with the
increase in the age of concrete specimens due to pozzolanic reac-
tions in silica fume that reduces the porosity of concrete. The
amount of silica fume that has not been fully disintegrated and in-
troduced in hydration reaction could cause improvement in the
microstructure of concrete at later ages. The durability properties of
concrete are improved with the incorporation of silica fume due to
the high specific area of silica fume. Moreover, an increase in the
hydration reaction rate was also observed due to the presence of
silica fume.
• The literature reviewed reported that use of waste glass in cement
can avoid intensive use of natural resources and provide an en-
vironment friendly solution. However, cement and concrete con-
taining waste glass are vulnerable to alkali-silica reaction expan-
sions due to variant particle sizes of waste glass, different color of
glasses, glass content and microcracks present in glass are re-
sponsible for alkali–silica reaction expansions in concrete.
Performance of concrete and alkali-silica reaction expansions are
mostly dependent on the size of the glass. Alkali-silica reaction ex-
pansions in concrete can be reduced with the addition of silica fume,
16
Journal of Building Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
ground-granulated blast-furnace slag, fly ash, metakaolin or lithium.
• The slump flow of concrete containing glass powder as replacement
of cement increased with the increase in glass powder content. The
reasons responsible for the increase in flowability were smooth
texture and low water absorption, moreover, lower specific surface
area of glass powder as compared to cement. This resulted in in-
crease in slump flow with the decrease of water required for lu-
brication of particle surfaces.
• Addition of glass powder up to 20% can be used as the replacement
of cement to improve the hardened, and long-term properties of
concrete including compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural
strength of concrete. According to the literature reviewed, the op-
timum replacement percentage of cement with glass powder is 10%
that can result in a noticeable improvement in the performance of
concrete. Strength of concrete decreases with the increase in re-
placement percentage of glass powder, this is due to the smooth
surface of glass powder that impedes the adhesion of cement paste
and slow formation of hydration products due to increasing per-
centage of glass powder. Addition of glass powder ranging from 0 to
75 μm can be used as a replacement of cement to avoid detrimental
effects of glass powder on strength properties of concrete.
• The SEM analysis shows that the addition of glass powder can form
denser matrices. The shape of glass powder was observed irregular
with varying sizes up to millimeter level. Glass powder acted as a
filler at early ages, and the smooth surface was observed at later
ages. The microstructure of concrete was improved with the addi-
tion of glass powder that leads to an increase in hydration and
pozzolanic reaction.
• The durability properties of concrete were improved with the ad-
dition of glass powder; glass powder concrete showed lower per-
meability as compared to control concrete. Reduction in perme-
ability was achieved with the improved microstructure of concrete
that leads to the increased hydration, and pozzolanic reaction. Glass
powder concrete has high permeability at early ages but low value
was observed at later ages, this could be due to slow pozzolanic
reactions of glass powder that partially blocked the pathways for
liquid and/or gas ingress.
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