Designation: F 23 – 90 (Reapproved 1995)e1

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS

100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Reprinted from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Copyright ASTM

Standard Guide for

Selecting Methods of Temperature Measurement of
Thermionic Emitters 1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 23; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

e1 NOTE—Keywords were added editorially in October 1995.

INTRODUCTION

The temperature of a thermionic emitter is very important to the life and performance of an electron
tube. Of all the measurable tube parameters, cathode temperature is often determined with the least
accuracy. This is unfortunate since emission, interface resistance, coating resistance, and coating
evaporation are dependent upon the temperature of the emitter. Even in the determination of the
thermionic constants, wherein it is necessary to make a simultaneous measurement of cathode
emission density and cathode temperature, the accuracy of the cathode temperature measurement
should be known within a few percent in order that the work function can be determined with
comparable accuracy. The accuracy of measurement depends on several factors: (1) the physical shape
of the emitter, (2) the operating temperature range, (3) the desired accuracy of the determination, and
(4) the relative convenience.

1. Scope heated surface with an optical pyrometer. The popularity of this

1.1 This guide describes methods for temperature measure- method stems from several advantages, as follows:
ment of thermionic emitters. 2.1.1 No need for physical contact of the instrument with
the element being measured,
NOTE 1—There are several comprehensive works (1, 2, 3) 2 on general 2.1.2 Wide effect range of the instrument (900 to 3500 K),
temperature measurements.
2.1.3 Applicable to any shape structure provided it is
1.2 The methods of temperature measurement appear in the visible, and
following order: 2.1.4 Adaptable to small emitters without appreciably up-
Method Sections setting the thermal equilibrium.
Optical and Infrared Techniques
Optical Pyrometry 2
2.2 The radiation emerging from a small hole in a uni-
Spectral Emittance 3 formly heated enclosure is considered to be black-body radia-
Infrared Photography 4 tion. By multiple reflections from the walls of the enclosure,
Thermocouple Techniques 5 to 8
Direct Current Methods 9 to 12
equilibrium is established between it and the radiation; this
black-body radiation is characterized by a particular
1.3 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded distribution of intensity as a function of wavelength. The
as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for radiation theory of Planck (4) has been found to agree with the
information only. experimental observations of the distribution of black-body
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT BY OPTICAL radiation. According to this theory, the energy density, in ergs
AND INFRARED TECHNIQUES per cubic centimeter, within the wavelength range l to l + dl
centimeters, is as follows:
2. Optical Pyrometry Eldl 5 ~8 p hc / l5! 3 @dl / ~e hc/lkT 2 1!#
2.1 A widely used method of measuring the temperature of (1)
an emitting cathode is the detection of light radiated from the
where:
El 5 energy density, ergs/cm 3,
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F-1 on Electronics and dl 5 change in wavelength (increment),
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F01.03 on Metallic Materials. l 5 wavelength of radiation, cm,
Current edition approved May 4, 1990. Published July 1990. Originally h 5 Planck’s constant 5 6.62 3 10 −27erg·s,
published as F 23 – 62 T. Last previous edition F 23 – 64 (1987).
2
c 5 speed of light 5 3 3 1010cm/s,
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the references listed at the end of
this guide.
e 5 base of Naperian logarithm,

1
 F 23
k 5 gas constant per molecule 5 1.38 3 10 −16 ergs/K,
and
T 5 absolute temperature, K.
For wavelengths in the visible region of the spectrum, the
exponential term is large compared with unity and the radiation
equation reduces to
Eldl 5 ~8 p hc / l5!e 2hc/lkT dl (2)
Thus it can be seen that an increase in temperature causes an
increase in radiation density, and that at any one temperature
the radiation density rises to a maximum and falls as the
wavelength increases. The maximum value of radiation density
shifts toward the shorter wavelengths with an increase of
temperature. This shift is expressed by the Wien displacement
law and can be equated as follows:
l m in centimetres 5 0.2897/T
2.3 The pyrometer contains a low pass filter placed in the
path of incident radiation. This device and the fact that the
sensitivity of the eye lessens rapidly as the wavelength
increases toward the infrared, produces a bandpass effect
which, for the normal eye has a maximum of transmission at
0.665 µm. The light of this wavelength from a standard
black-body source is compared with light of the same
wavelength radiated from an incandescent filament within the
instrument. The filament brightness can be adjusted to match
the light intensity from the standard source held at a known
temperature. Thus a temperature scale is established in terms of
the filament current. Commercial optical pyrometers are
calibrated directly in temperature degrees. Their range can be
extended by using neutral filters. This use of filters ensures
greater accuracy and longer life of the incandescent filament
since it is operated at a fairly low temperature at all times.
2.4 Since the optical pyrometer is calibrated in terms of
black-body radiation, its temperature scale is accurate only for
measuring the temperature of black-body sources. Few, if any,
structures that are of interest in electronics emit blackbody
radiation, hence it is necessary to correct the optical pyrometer
readings on such structures. The ratio of the energy density
radiated by a body at a given temperature and at a specified
wavelength to that emitted by a black-body source at the same
temperature and wavelength is known as the spectral emittance
(5), el. Its value ranges between 0 and 1, the spectral emittance
of a black body being unity.
2.5 Eq 2 may be rewritten to include the spectral emittancee
l at wavelength l as follows:
Eldl 5 ~8phc /l 5!ele 2hc/lkT dl
(3)
If the brightness or apparent temperature Sl is used instead
of the true temperature T, Eq 3 becomes:
Eldl 5 ~8phc / l 5!e 2hc/lkSl dl (4)
From Eq 3 and Eq 4 the true temperature, K, may be
expressed as follows:
T 5 Sl/@1 1 ~lkSl/hc!ln el#
(5)
where:
2
T 5 true temperature, K,
Sl 5 brightness or apparent temperature, K,
l 5 wavelength of brightness radiation,
el 5 spectral emittance at wavelength l, and
hc/k 5 radiation constant 5 1.438 cm·K.
2.6 The spectral emittances for various materials frequently
used in cathodes are given in Table 1.
2.7 Tables of emissivity values and corrections from optical
to true temperatures are given in the references (1, 6). Sample
data computed from Eq 5 are shown in Table 2. Fig. 1
graphically presents the spectral emittance versus the observed
temperature with the corrections necessary to obtain the true
temperature. Also included are the spectral emittances of a
number of materials used in electron tubes.
2.8 With a typical instrument, it is possible to obtain
repeatable readings of the temperatures of wires down to 0.001
in. (0.025 mm) in diameter within 610 K at a temperature level
of approximately 1075 K (brightness). With larger objects, the
precision may be only 65 K. The accuracy of the true
temperature depends upon the experience of the operator, the
calibration of the instrument, and the proper correction for the
spectral emittance of the object observed.
3. Determination of Spectral Emittance
3.1 To determine with an optical pyrometer the
temperatures of materials that are not true black bodies it is
necessary to know their spectral emittances. An excellent
approximation to the spectral emittance of a cathode material
may be obtained by comparing the apparent temperature with
that observed from a hole in the material itself or with the true
temperature as measured by an attached thermocouple.
Pyrometer data, corrected for glass absorption (7), taken from
an emitting surface and the thermocouple temperature data
may be introduced into Eq 5 to determine the spectral
emittance. If a calculation of the spectral emittance of a
cathode material is made by reference to a true black-body
temperature, no correction of the optical temperatures for glass
absorption need be applied. However, if the calculation is to be
made by reference to a thermocouple temperature, then the
optical surface temperature must be corrected for glass
absorption.
3.2 The spectral emittance of a cathode material may be
determined indirectly by use of a diffuse reflectometer method
similar to one described by Prescott and Morrison (8). The
design of a calibrated reflectometer is shown in Fig. 2. It has an
inside diameter of 3.4 in. (86 mm) and is 16.5 in. (42 cm) long.
A20-W bulb is positioned at each end of the cylinder. The
entire inside wall of the reflectometer is lined with white cotton
velvet to provide a diffused light. A tube containing an open
cathode assembly is mounted on a movable socket. One hinged
TABLE 1 Spectral Emittances of Common Emitters
Material Emittance at
0.665 µm
Tungsten 0.43
Tantalum 0.46
Nickel 0.38
Molybdenum 0.35
Platinum 0.31
(BaSr)O 0.15 to 0.25
 F 23
TABLE 2 True Temperatures Corresponding to Various Emittance and Various Brightness Temperatures Observed with an Optical
Pyrometer A
Observed
Tempera- 973 1073 1173 1273 1373 1473 1573 1673 1873 2073 2273
tures, K
Spectral
True Temperatures, K
Emittance
0.05 1121 1256 1396 1539 1688 1842 2001 2122 2513 2887 3290
0.10 1083 1208 1337 1468 1603 1741 1882 2027 2329 2646 2981
0.15 1062 1182 1305 1430 1557 1687 1819 1955 2233 2523 2825
0.20 1047 1164 1283 1403 1526 1651 1777 1906 2170 2443 2726
0.25 1036 1151 1266 1384 1503 1623 1746 1870 2123 2384 2652
0.30 1028 1140 1253 1368 1484 1602 1721 1841 2087 2338 2595
0.35 1020 1131 1242 1355 1469 1584 1700 1818 2056 2300 2549
0.40 1014 1123 1233 1344 1456 1569 1683 1798 2031 2269 2510
0.45 1009 1116 1225 1335 1445 1556 1668 1781 2009 2241 2477
0.50 1004 1110 1218 1326 1435 1545 1655 1766 1990 2218 2448
0.55 999 1105 1212 1319 1426 1534 1643 1753 1973 2196 2422
0.60 995 1100 1206 1312 1418 1525 1633 1740 1958 2178 2399
0.65 992 1096 1200 1305 1411 1517 1623 1730 1944 2161 2379
0.70 989 1092 1196 1300 1404 1509 1614 1720 1932 2145 2360
0.75 985 1088 1190 1294 1398 1502 1606 1710 1920 2131 2342
0.80 983 1085 1187 1290 1392 1495 1598 1702 1909 2117 2327
0.85 980 1082 1183 1285 1387 1489 1591 1694 1899 2105 2312
0.90 977 1078 1180 1281 1382 1483 1585 1686 1890 2094 2298
0.95 975 1076 1176 1277 1377 1478 1579 1680 1881 2083 2285
1.00 973 1073 1173 1273 1373 1473 1573 1673 1873 2073 2273
A
Temperatures are in kelvins and are for l 5 0.65 µm and hc/k 5 1.438 cm·K (see Eq 5).

wall of the reflectometer provides easy access for introducing
a tube. The porthole shown provides a means for sighting on a
cathode surface with an optical pyrometer.
3.3 In the operation of the reflectometer with a cathode,
either hot or at room temperature, the apparent temperature of
the diffuse background light on the reflectometer wall and the
apparent temperature of the diffused reflected light from a
cathode surface are measured with the optical pyrometer.
These apparent temperatures are introduced into the equation
derived from Wien’s radiation law and used by Prescott and
Morrison (8):
2C2 1 1
ln rl 5 l S DC2 1 1
S2T 1 l D2T S D
where:
rl 5 reflectance (1 minus the emittance),
T 5 apparent temperature, of the background, K,
S 5 apparent temperature of an illuminated cathode with
heat applied, K,
D 5 brightness temperature, K, of the cathode with heat
applied and no illumination, and
C2 5 radiation constant.
The spectral emittance is then calculated as follows:
el 1 r l 5 1
3.4 If the reflectance measurements are made only when a
cathode is at room temperature, the second term of Eq 6 may
be ignored. In this case S in Eq 6 becomes the apparent
temperature, in kelvins, of an illuminated cathode at room
temperature.
3.5 The measured emittance of the surface also depends on
the viewing angle. With oxide cathodes, the surface roughness
is generally such that the effect of the viewing angle is small.
However, measurements should be made as nearly as possible
normal to the surface. The glasses commonly used in electron-
tube bulbs are relatively transparent at wavelengths below 2.5
µm, and the correction is quite small. However, sublimation of
material onto the bulb is often significant when temperature
measurements are made with tubes that have been operated for
some time. The problem is often more complicated with
infrared methods, since few emittances are measured at the
longer wavelengths. With these methods, empirical calibrations
for specific materials in terms of true temperatures are
generally made by means of a suitable test vehicle.
4. Temperature Measurements by Infrared Photography
4.1 Since, as shown in Section 3, optical pyrometry depends
(6)
upon a visual matching of brightness, it is limited by the
sensitivity of the human eye. The infrared method of
temperature measurement utilizes the effect on photographic
film of exposures to the near infrared radiation of the object.
By the use of appropriate optical filters, the film is limited to
the radiation energy emitted in the spectral region of 0.75 to
0.88 µm. This is illustrated in Fig. 3. The control of the
exposure time and the subsequent processing of the film
according to normal sensitometric practice gives a means of
calibrating the film response in terms of blackness or
photographic density versus temperature. As with customary
optical pyrometry, the emittance of the source and the
(7) transmission through the intervening space must be known or
constant. With the photographic method, the variables
associated with the photographic process, such as exposure,
processing, and constancy of film response are added to those
of the optical pyrometer. However, due to its response in the
near infrared spectral region and the cumulative nature of a
photographic exposure, the method can be used at temperatures
well below those measurable with optical pyrometry.
Approximate exposure for high-speed film at various
temperatures are shown in Fig. 4. The infrared method shares
with optical pyrometry the requirement of seeing the object or
that part of the object that is being measured. The method is
3
 F 23

Materials Used in Electron Tubes

a—window glass (tr) l —barium-strontium-calcium carbonate (triple carbonate)
b—carbon m —copper
c—chromium oxide (Cr2O3) n —palladium
d—nickel o —zirconium
e—platinum p —molybdenum
f—alluminum oxide (Al2O) r —rhenium
g—gold s —tantalum
h—copper oxide (Cu2O) t —carbonized nickel-carbonized nickel-plated steel
i—titanium u —Al-clad steel
j—iron v —ferrosoferric oxide (Fe3O4)
k—silver

NOTE 1—Readings at l 5 0.65 µm are indicated by the family of numbered curves. Values of emittance for different materials are indicated by the
lettered lines: for window glass the curve marked“ a” indicates the transmission coefficient.
FIG. 1 Spectral Emittance versus Observed Temperature with the Temperature Corrections to Be Added to Optical
Pyrometer Readings
particularly valuable in the study of temperature distributions 4.2 The photographic method has been tested for the
over surfaces, the sizes of which are limited only by the optical measurement of cathode temperatures of miniature electron
system used. After a calibration of photographic density versus tubes, and has given results in the temperature range of 900 to
temperature, the density gradients give a quantitative measure 1300 K that are comparable for accuracy and reproducibility
of the temperature gradients on the surface. Over the with measurements made by optical pyrometry. A paper by
wavelengths used most glasses are still highly transparent. As Whitcomb (9) reported accuracies of 615 K with small areas
most emissivities are given for a wavelength of 0.665 µm, it is of less than 1 mm2, and 65 K with areas of 5 mm2 or larger.
necessary to measure or compute the emissivity of a nonblack The method is rapid, does not require a trained operator, gives
body for the photographic method. Alternatively, a calibration a permanent record of the measurement, and uses standard
device incorporating a thermocouple can be used to avoid the photographic equipment available at moderate cost.
emissivity and glass corrections. 4.3 The infrared temperature measurement technique can
4
 F 23
FIG. 2 Reflectometer and Experimental Tube
FIG. 3 The Effect of an Optical Filter and Photographic Film
Sensitivity in Yielding an Effective Radiation Band Over a Portion
of the Near Infrared Region
conveniently be instrumented with semiconductor infrared
detectors. Of particular interest in electron tube studies is the
recent work of Almer and van Zanten (10).
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT WITH
THERMOCOUPLES
5. Application of Thermocouple
5.1 Thermocouples are frequently used for the measurement
of cathode temperatures, especially in laboratory or
experimental-type tubes. Cathode structures of any shape may
be measured with a thermocouple and it is only necessary that
its temperature characteristics be known. The usual practices of
thermoelectric thermometry (1) should be followed. Some care
must be taken that the thermocouple leads do not lower the
cathode temperature by conduction cooling. This effect can
usually be avoided by using thermocouple wires of small
diameter, for example, 0.001 to 0.002 in. (0.025 to 0.05 mm).
Thermocouple leads have sometimes been attached to the inner
surface of a heated structure rather than to the outer surface, to
minimize this type of cooling.
6. Cold Junction Temperature
6.1 One important aspect of thermoelectric thermometry is
the temperature of the cold junction. This must be known in
5
order to apply the proper correction to the temperature
measured, since most thermocouples are calibrated in terms of
the reference junction being at 273 K. Various methods have
been used to keep the cold junction at a known temperature.
These usually require that the junction be brought outside of
the tube where it can be placed in an ice bath, or located within
the tube structure so that it remains at some fixed temperature
and is shielded from the radiation of the cathode.
7. Thermocouple Materials
7.1 The choice of thermocouple materials depends upon the
temperature range to be covered and to some extent on the
possibility of alloying or chemical reaction with the cathode
itself. The molybdenum-nickel (11) and tungsten-nickel (12)
thermocouples have characteristics (Fig. 5) which make them
applicable to oxide-coated cathodes. Evaporation and alloying
of nickel limits the useful upper temperature range of these
thermocouples to about 1300 K. In practice, frequently only
one wire (tungsten or molybdenum) is attached to the cathode,
if it is of the equipotential type, and the nickel base and support
lead act as the return thermocouple wire. Since the temperature
of the cold junction must be known, it is convenient to place
this junction within the tube but at a considerable distance from
the cathode structure. It should be recognized that the usual
emitter structure may contain a particular nickel alloy or
combination of nickel alloys in which the variation of minor
impurities may affect the thermocouple characteristic, and
possibly result in errors of several percent (12).
7.2 For measuring higher temperatures, the platinum-plat-
inum rhodium thermocouple may be used. Several
platinumrhodium alloys are available commercially, Pt-10 %
Rh being one frequently used. Temperatures up to 1990 K may
be determined, although small errors may be encountered
resulting from interdiffusion at the hot junction (13). Tables of
thermal emf for couples of these materials are readily available
(14, 15). For still higher temperatures, thermocouples of the
refractory metals may be used. Tantalum-molybdenum and
tantalum-tungsten thermocouples have been used at
temperatures up to 2600 K (16).
8. Calibration
8.1 Accurate temperature measurements require that each
roll of thermocouple wire be calibrated against a thermocouple
of known characteristics or by the National Bureau of
Standards. Various precautions must be observed for testing
thermocouples and thermocouple materials (17) in order to
attain the necessary degree of accuracy.
DIRECT CURRENT METHODS
9. Theory of Electron Energy Distributions from Plane
Emitters
9.1 The energy distribution of the electrons emitted from a
cathode of uniform temperature can serve as a means of
determining its temperature. In an idealized plane-parallel
structure, the electron current emitted by the cathode follows
the Boltzmann law if the applied potential is sufficiently great
in the negative direction to maintain at all times a retarding
field between the cathode and the collector. This law is
expressed as follows:
 F 23

NOTE 1—Effective Aperture, F, 5 indicated F 3 lens to film distance / lens focal length
FIG. 4 Approximate Exposure Guide for High-Speed Infrared Film

FIG. 5 Thermocouple Characteristics for Molybdenum-Nickel and Tungsten-Nickel Systems

i 5 ioe2V / VT 9.2 With a plane-parallel structure of spacing, w, and an

(8) emitter temperature VT, there is an upper limit to the current
density from the emitter to the collector without its being
where:
i 5 observed current, inhibited by the presence of space charge. This maximum
io 5 an empirical constant, current density may be calculated as follows:
e 5 base of Naperian logarithm, Im 5 7.729 3 10212 3 ~T 3/2/w 2! 5 9.664 3 10 26 ~VT 3/2/w 2!
V 5 applied voltage, and (10)
VT 5 electron-volt equivalent of the temperature.
The electron volt equivalent of the temperature, VT is defined where:
as follows: Im 5 current density, A/m2,
T 5 temperature, K,
VT 5 ~k/q! 3 T 5 T/11,600 (9) w 5 spacing, m, and
VT 5 electron-volt equivalent of the temperature.
where:
k 5 Boltzmann’s constant, For current densities less than this critical value Im, the
q 5 electron charge, and Boltzmann equation applies unless the temperature-limited
T 5 temperature, K. saturation emission also falls below this value. In that case the
Values of constants k and q and others are given in Table 3. Boltzmann equation applies over the range of voltage for
6
 F 23
TABLE 3 Table of Constants
Constant Meter-Kilogram-Second
(mks) System
Boltzmann’s constant, k 1.3804 3 10 −23 J/K
Electron charge, q 1.6021 3 10 −19 C
Electron mass, m 9.1083 3 10 −31 kg
Planck’s constant, h 6.6252 3 10 −34J·s
Temperature equivalent of 1.1606 3 10 4
1 electron volt,q/k
Temperature of melting ice 273.16 K
which the electric field between the surface of the emitter and
the surface of the collector is retarding for electrons. As the
electric field at the surface of the emitter approaches zero, the
current no longer rises according to Eq 8. Within a very small
range in the applied voltage, the current becomes practically
constant, and space charge is of little or no significance over
the entire applied voltage range when the saturation value is
less than Im.
9.3 In a practical diode, the current measured on the meter
generally includes two components that interfere with the
direct interpretation of the meter reading as being electron-
emission current from the cathode. With the applied potential
approximately 6 V negative, the true emission current is so
small as to be completely negligible. Under this condition, the
observed current is the sum of the leakage current over the
structural surfaces both inside and outside of the tube under
test, and the photoelectric emission current from the collector.
The tube under test should be shielded electrostatically, and
also shielded from all sources of light other than that from the
hot cathode. For oxide-coated cathodes it is generally true that
the true electron emission is negligible over the applied voltage
range of − 2.5 to − 6 V and up. Within this range, the leakage
current and the photoelectric current can be measured with
sufficient accuracy so that as the electron current takes on a
value of only 10 % of the background current, the electronic
contribution can be determined. As the electron current
increases in accordance with Eq 8, it generally becomes so
large that the background current correction may be neglected.
These points are illustrated in Fig. 6.
9.4 In order to determine the electron temperature it is not
necessary to evaluate the empirical constant, io, of Eq 8. It is
only necessary to observe the true electron current over as
many orders of magnitude (factors of ten) as possible below the
current density value Im that can be calculated from Eq 10. It
is best to plot the observed data on suitably chosen
NOTE 1—Heater at 12.6 V, temperature 1125 K, leakage resistance
1.3 3 10 11V, photoelectric current 7.6 3 10 −11 A.
FIG. 6 Example of Currents Observed with High Negative
Potentials
7
Centimeter-Gram-Second (cgs)
System
1.3804 3 10 −16 erg/K
4.8029 3 10 −10 statcoulomb
9.1083 3 10 −28 g
6.6252 3 10 −27 erg·s
3.479 3 10 6 statcoulomb·K/erg
273.16 K
semilogarithmic paper to establish the fact that Eq 8 is an
accurate representation over the entire range of observation
(see Fig. 7). Having chosen the best straight line to represent
the data, its intercept on the voltage scale at two widely
separated orders of magnitude of current serves to determine
the electron temperature. The arithmetical procedure is
illustrated by Eq 11, Eq 12, and Eq 13 as follows:
log i2 / i1 5 n 5 ~V1 2 V2! / 2.3 VT (11)
VT 5 ~V1 2 V2! / 2.3 n 5 T / 11,600 (12)
T 5 ~5040 / n!~V1 2 V2! (13)
where:
i1, i2 5 observed current readings,
n 5 log i2/i1,
V1, V2 5 applied voltages,
VT 5 electron-volt equivalent of the temperature, and
T 5 electron temperature, K.
NOTE 2—Example—The following typical numerical example may
serve to clarify these equations:
The intercept of the straight line at a current value of 10 −10 A occurs at
a value of V1 of 1.990 V. The second intercept V2 occurs at 1.351 V for a
current of 10 −7 A. Thus the value of n in Eq 11, Eq 12, and Eq 13 is three
and the calculated value of VT is 0.0925 V or the temperature T is 1075 K.
10. General Circuit Description
10.1 A generalized circuit diagram for measuring the
retarding field characteristic is shown in Fig. 8. Note that this
figure does not include the precision potentiometer that can be
connected by means of a selector switch to measure potentials
P1, P2, P3, and P4. As shown in Fig. 8, the heater supply is an
18-V battery with a suitably variable resistance RH that will
permit a very fine control of the heating current to obtain
precisely the desired voltage drop at P1. Although not
absolutely necessary, it is desirable to have a standard
resistance in series with this heating circuit so that the precise
value of the heating current can be determined. This standard
resistance is shown as Rs and should be chosen to permit a four
figure determination of the IR drop over the resistance by
connecting the potentiometer to P4. During the time required
for a single run, it is necessary to have sufficient stability of the
heater power source such that the power input to the heater is
maintained constant to four figure accuracy. The potential of
the tube grids shown is determined by the potential divider Vg.
An isolated 6-V battery may serve to establish this potential. As
shown in Fig. 8, a coarse and a fine control are available. The
current to the two grids, which are connected together through
a 30-V resistance, is measured on a multimeter that has a
sensitivity range from 100 µA to 1 A full scale. The potential
used to establish a fixed current value, Ig, is measured by
 F 23

NOTE 1—Heater voltages and corresponding temperatures shown on each line.

FIG. 7 Electron Current to Plate as a Function of Applied Plate Potential

switching the potentiometer to P2.
10.2 The entire system is maintained at a suitable voltage
with respect to the ground connection by the potential divider
identified as VP. Under these circumstances the switch S1 is
closed and the actual value of the potential can be measured
with a potentiometer by connecting it to P3. It is often con-
venient to use the potentiometer itself as this bias control.
When this is done, the potentiometer is connected directly to
P3 and maintained in operation while switch S1 is open. In this
manner the precise value of voltage required to bias the
cathode with respect to the electron collecting plate may be
read directly from the potentiometer. The vacuum tube
electrometer has a feedback loop such that at full-scale
operation the deviation of the plate potential with respect to
ground is significantly less than 1 mV. The circuit is arranged
so that the output current can be measured on a meter that
measures a voltage drop within the feedback circuit. This
voltage drop is 1 V when it corresponds to full-scale output.
For example, if the current being measured is 10 −10 A, an input
resistance of 1010V is used. With this resistance, as much as
20 % high or low with respect to its nominal value, the
feedback circuit can be adjusted so that the output meter will
8
nevertheless read precisely full scale when precisely 10 −10 A is
flowing in the input circuit. There are several types of
commercially available equipment that meet these
requirements.
11. Application of Theory to Practical Structures
11.1 Although the above theory applies to a very specialized
structure, the electron-temperature method of determining
cathode temperatures may be applied to practical tube
structures that contain many elements and bear little or no
relation to a plane-parallel configuration. Data presented in Fig.
5 apply to the receiving tube of Type 12V6GT. These results
were first reported to the Seventeenth Annual Conference on
Physical Electronics in 1957 (18). Since then others (19, 20)
have reported the successful application of this technique to a
variety of tube structures. The tube under test was mounted in
a socket so that a strong magnetic field of about 3000 G (0.3 T)
could be oriented with its field lines along the direction of the
short axis of the internal tube structure. The exact orientation of
this field is not critical and the strength of the field was such
that an electron with a velocity component perpendicular to the
field sufficient to correspond to 1 eV of kinetic energy would
 F 23
NOTE 1—Adaptation specifically for tube Type 12V6GT.
FIG. 8 Circuit for Measurement of the Electron-Energy Distribution
have a spiral trajectory along a line of force with a radius about
this line of force of 16 µm. The general equation for calculating
the radius, in meters, in terms of the electron volt equivalent V1
of the energy associated with the transverse component of
velocity and the magnetic induction, B expressed in webers per
square meter is as follows:
r 5 4.77 3 10 26 3 V1 1/2/B
(14)
The equivalent equation, if the magnetic induction is
expressed in gauss and the radius expressed in centimeters, is
as follows:
r 5 4.77 V1 1/2/BG
(15)
where:
r 5 radius of trajectory,
V1 5 electron-volt equivalent,
BG 5 magnetic induction in gauss.
Since the thermal energy is of the order of 0.1 eV, a field as
weak as 3000 G (0.03T) gives a radius of approximately
5 3 10 −3 cm. These figures permit an estimate of the size of
this circle in comparison with the apertures of the particular
tube structure under test. It is generally not difficult to obtain
magnetic fields within practical tubes, even of the electron gun
type of structure, in the range between 300 and 3000 G (0.03
and 0.3 T). Under these circumstances the electrons leave the
cathode and spiral along the lines of magnetic field toward the
collector. If they do not have sufficient initial kinetic energy
associated with the velocity component along the direction of
the magnetic field to travel all the way to the collector, they
return to the cathode and are readsorbed there. Thus, in the
presence of a moderate magnetic field, the electron current to
the collector follows Eq 8 if not inhibited by space charge.
12. Usefulness of the Positive Grid
12.1 In tube structures that contain one or more grids, it is
9
generally advisable to connect the available grids together and
operate them at a suitably chosen positive potential of not more
than 1 or 2 V applied with respect to the cathode. The purpose
of this positive potential is to minimize the influence of space
charge in the immediate neighborhood of the cathode. In most
examples, the electron current collected on the grid system
may be varied from 50 µA to 2 mA without influencing the
current measured at the collecting plate more than 1 or 2 %. If
the grid is made too positive, however, and an observation is
made with a high retarding potential, that is, a small current
received at the plate, it is not unusual to find the observed plate
current to be extremely dependent on the grid voltage, and the
current may be 100 to 1000 times greater than expected.
Analysis shows that under these circumstances electrons are
oscillating back and forth near the grid space and are
exchanging energy with each other, thus producing some
abnormally high electron energies that are in no way
characteristic of the cathode temperature. For a given tube
type, a skilled observer should determine the maximum grid
voltage that can be used without the generation of these
oscillations. At any lower voltage, the oscillations do not occur.
A second cause of oscillations in multigrid tubes results from
a capacity-inductance relation between the grids themselves if
they are simply connected together at the socket. It is best to
connect a small resistance in the order of 20 to 30 V directly
in series with each individual grid connection before the grids
are tied together. This resistance dissipates energy and lowers
the probability that an internal oscillation will develop.
12.2 To summarize, the cathode temperature in a practical
tube may be determined by operating the tube in the presence
of a strong magnetic field with the current flowing to the grid
system held at a suitable constant value, while the current to
the collector is measured as a function of the applied potential
difference between the cathode and the collector itself.
Corrections must be made for leakage current and photoelectric
current before the true electron current to the collector is
 F 23
plotted on semilogarithmic paper as a function of the applied 13. Keywords
voltage. The temperature is determined in accordance with Eq 13.1 emitter materials; reflectometer; temperature
13. measurement

REFERENCES

(1) Temperature: Its Measurement in Science and Industry, Vol 1,
American Institute of Physics, Reinhold Publishing Co., New York,
NY.
(2) Temperature: Its Measurement in Science and Industry, Vol 2,
American Institute of Physics, Reinhold Publishing Co., New York,
NY.
(3) Worthing, A. G., and Halliday, D., Heat, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY.
(4) Harnwell, G. P., and Livingood, J. J.,Experimental Atomic Physics,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
(5) “Emissivity and Emittance—What are They,”Memorandum No. 72,
Battelle Memorial Institute.
(6) Larrabee, R. D., Journal, Optical Society of America, Vol 49, 1959,
pp. 619–625.
(7) “Pyrometric Practice,” Technical Paper No. 170, National Bureau
Standards, 1921, p. 117.
(8) Prescott, C. H., Jr., and Morrison, J., Review of Scientific Instruments,
Vol 10, 1939, p. 36.
(9) Whitcomb, D. L., “Cathode Temperature Measurements by Infrared
Photography,” Fourth National Conference on Tube Techniques, 1962.
(10) Almer, F. H. R., and van Zanten, P. G., Philips Technical Review, Vol
20, No. 4, 1958, 1959.
(11) Potter, R. D., Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 25, 1954, p. 1383.
(12) “Evaluation of Tungsten and Nickel as Thermocouple Elements,”
Report 3496, National Bureau Standards, August, 1954.
(13) Mortlock, A. J., Journal of Scientific Instruments, Vol 25, 1958, pp.
283–284.
(14) Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Chemical Rubber Publishing
Co., Cleveland, OH.
(15) International Critical Tables, Vol 1, 1926, p. 57.
(16) Morgan, F. H., and Danforth, W. E., Journal of Applied Physics, Vol
21, 1950, p. 112.
(17) Roeser, W. F., and Lonberger, S. T., “Methods of Testing
Thermocouple Materials,” Circular 590, National Bureau Standards.
(18) Nottingham, W. B., Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference on
Physical Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1957, p.
43.
(19) Affleck, J. H., “Methods of Cathode Temperature Measurement in
Commercial Tubes,” Electrochemical Society Meeting, May 1959.
(20) Coppola, P. P., Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol 31, 1960, pp.
137–143.

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