Degumming

Degumming is the step designed to remove PL from the oil, where about 2.5% of
water is added to the heated oil and mixed vigorously for about 30 min, the hydrated
PL is then separated as gum from the oil by centrifugation.

From: Encyclopedia of Food Chemistry, 2019

Related terms:

Phospholipid, Oils, Enzymes, Vegetable Oil, Deodorization, Free Fatty Acids, Soy-
bean Oil, Wills

View all Topics

Learn more about Degumming

Degumming
Monoj K. Gupta, in Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing (Second Edition),
2017

4.4.5.4 Concluding Remarks on Enzymatic Degumming

Process
Enzymatic degumming of vegetable oil offers numerous benefits. However, it comes
with an added cost. Therefore, the refiner must evaluate the cost and benefit of the
process and determine the overall economic advantage. Following are some of the
key points to consider in enzymatic degumming process:

1. Enzymatic degumming reduces the NHP in the crude soybean oil essentially
to the same level as water degumming.
2. It does not reduce the level of NHP to a level low enough to be ready for
physical refining.
3. However, the NHP in the oil can be reduced to a very low level through
combined enzyme degumming and deep degumming as described before.
4. Enzymatic degumming can significantly increase the total oil yield by in-
creased DAG and reducing neutral oil loss in the gum.
5. PLA treatment increases the FFA in the oil that requires additional fatty acid
stripping and handling system, depending on the phospholipid content of the
oil. There is also a small amount of oil loss through entrainment in the FFA
removal process.
6. Use of a mixture of PLC and PLA improves the process yield, NHP reduction
and the oil yield.
7. The process requires a Reaction tank that must have 2–6 h of residence time,
depending on the quality of the incoming oil.

> Read full chapter

Bioprocessing Technology of Rice Bran

Oil
Yuanrong Jiang, in Rice Bran and Rice Bran Oil, 2019

3.1 Introduction
Traditional degumming processes like water degumming, acid degumming, and
alkaline degumming have either high oil losses or high residue phospholipids.
Enzymatic degumming is a relatively new technology that emerged in the past
20 years. In comparison with water/acid degumming or alkali treatment, the benefit
of using enzymes as auxiliary agents in degumming vegetable oils is that it reduces
total oil loss and waste water, as well as operating costs, yet enabling physical refining
by lowering the residue phosphorus (P) to < 10 mg/kg (Fig. 1) (List, 2009). There
are already several review articles elaborating all aspect of enzymatic degumming
(De Maria et al., 2007; Dijkstra, 2010, 2011), meanwhile the key advantage for the
enzymatic degumming process is that the process converts almost all the gums to
their hydratable form, therefore enzymatic degumming has the lowest yield loss
amongst all the different degumming methods.
Fig. 1. Flow chart comparing chemical refining to physical refining, including en-
zymatic degumming. RBD, refined, bleached, deodorized; FFA, free fatty acid (List,
2009).

> Read full chapter

Penicillium Enzymes for the Textile In-

dustry
Shalini Singh, Robinka Khajuria, in New and Future Developments in Microbial
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 2018

11.3.1.5 Degumming of Silk

Degumming of silk involves the cleavage of peptide bonds of sericin, a proteina-
ceous substance that covers the fiber either by hydrolytic or enzymatic methods
and the subsequent removal of sericin from the silk fibroin. Hydrolysis of sericin
can be carried out under neutral, alkaline, or acidic conditions to give four frac-
tions, each having different properties. Degumming is typically performed in an
alkaline solution containing soap, a harsh treatment that also attacks fibrin structure
(Gulrajani, 1992). Enzymatic desizing of silk is generally a two-stage process. In the
predegumming stage, the cloth is treated with a solution containing soda ash for
a specific period of time, while in the second stage, further degumming is carried
out by treatment in a solution containing protease enzyme and nonionic detergent
(Karmakar, 1999).

Several alkaline, acidic, and neutral proteases have been studied as degumming
agents since they can dissolve sericin without affecting the silk fiber protein. A
number of proteases, specifically alkaline proteases, have been reported to remove
sericin and improve silk surface properties like handle, shine, and smoothness
(Araujo et al., 2008). The majority of the commercial proteases used for degum-
ming of silk have been isolated from Bacillus spp. (Satyanarayana and Johri, 2005).
However, the use of fungal proteases for silk degumming has also been reported in
various studies. Sarma (2015) reported the use of alkaline proteases isolated form
Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus tamari, Aspergillus fumigatus, and
Penicillium pinophilum for degumming of muga cocoon. Degumming of Chinese
bivoltine silk with alkaline proteases isolated from Conidiobolus brefeldianus was
reported to exhibit weight loss similar to conventional methods with low enzyme
concentrations, and in shorter time periods (More et al., 2013).

> Read full chapter

Processing Technology of Rice Bran Oil

Pradosh Prasad Chakrabarti, Ram Chandra Reddy Jala, in Rice Bran and Rice Bran
Oil, 2019

8.3 Super Degumming

Super degumming process was promoted by Unilever (Segers, 1982). In this process,
oil is heated to 70°C with citric acid and for some specific cases with modified
lecithin, reacted for 5–15 min, cooled to 25°C, mixed with water, and held in a vessel
for 3 h for formation of liquid crystals of phosphatides. The oil is then again heated
to 65°C, and gums are separated by centrifugation. In another variation, Cambrian
Engineering Group carried out the acid treatment at below 40°C (Kaji, 1988). The
super-degumming process leads to lower residual phosphorous than standard acid
degumming, but these levels are quite dependent on crude oil quality (Segers and
Van de Sande, 1992). In the case of RBO, no report is available on industrial scale
application of super degumming. Similarly, other variations of degumming such as
uni degumming, special degumming, etc. may be used by the industry. However,
no data is available.

> Read full chapter

Enzymatic Degumming
Christopher Loren Gene Dayton, Flavio Galhardo, in Green Vegetable Oil Process-
ing, 2014
Dry Degumming
Dry degumming was developed for palm, palm kernel, and coconut type oils
containing small amounts of phospholipids. The degumming process combines
the acid degumming step with the bleaching process, thus eliminating the water
addition and centrifugation of the gums. A 75 to 85% phosphoric acid is added at
a rate of 500 to 10,000 ppm weight percent to the oil at 80 to 100°C. Following the
acid reaction, 1 to 3% bleaching earth or a combination of bleaching earth and silica
is added to oil in the bleaching process. The oil is then filtered using a conventional
filtration system. No centrifuges are used in the dry degumming process. Brooks
and Hollis (2011), disclosed that leaving 0.2% moisture in the oil after the vacuum
bleaching and filtration reduced the residual phosphorus in the oil by approximately
50%, 4 to 2 ppm.

Data presented at the 102nd AOCS (American Oil Chemists’ Society) meeting held
in Cincinnati, Ohio, linked high levels of phosphoric acid in the dry degumming
process to increased levels of 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) esters in
fully processed palm oils (Ramli et al., 2011a). Crude palm oil was physically refined
in a 200 kg batch pilot refining plant to determine the role of drying degumming
on 3-MCPD esters in the physical refining process. It was reported that the level of
3-MCPD esters was lowered from a high of 3.89 ppm in a dry degumming process
using an acid-activated clay to a low 0.25 ppm in a water degumming followed by
a neutral bleaching clay process (Ramli, et al., 2011b). It may be assumed that if the
link is confirmed, the industrial process of dry degumming with large amounts of
phosphoric acid and acid-activated clays may be eliminated in the future in favor of
a water or enzymatic degumming process.

> Read full chapter

Physical Refining of Vegetable Oils

Walter E. Farr, in Green Vegetable Oil Processing, 2014

Enzymatic Degumming and Refining

Enzymatic degumming and refining technology is covered in more detail in Chapter
6, “Enzymatic Degumming.” As mentioned earlier, a good physical refining system
must be able to handle crude oils of all quality, that is, oil from field-damaged
beans, mishandled, or multiple-handled beans. The three plants built for enzymatic
degumming by a large international company are (1) in Indiana (built several years
ago); (2) Alabama (under construction; and (3) Argentina. (This very large plant was
in the final stages of start-up and optimization in 2011.)

> Read full chapter

Production and Composition of Frying

Fats
David R. Erickson, in Deep Frying (Second Edition), 2007

Degumming
Degumming is the process of hydrating phosphatides present in an oil by adding
water followed by centrifugation. There are only three reasons to degum oil: to
produce lecithin (phosphatides), to provide degummed oil for long-term storage or
transport, and to prepare for physical refining. Degumming is optional when an oil
will be caustic-refined since gums are removed in that step. Phosphatides are present
in either a hydratable or nonhydratable form (NHP). Nonhydratable phosphatides
are particularly troublesome and require either pretreatment with phosphoric acid
or use of a long-mix caustic refining system. Phosphatides in soybean oil are of
particular importance since they can be present in high quantities (2–4%) in crude
oil. Other vegetable oils are lower in quantity (see Table 1.7).

TABLE 1.7. Average Compositions for Crude and Refined Soybean Oila

Average composition (%) Crude oil Refined oil

Triglycerides 95–97 99+
Phosphatides 1.5–2.5 0.0–0.003
Unsaponifiable matter 1.6
Plant sterols 0.33 0.13
Tocopherols 0.15–0.21 0.11–0.18
Hydrocarbons (squalene) 0.014 0.01
Free fatty acids 0.3–0.7 0.02–0.03
Trace metals (ppm)
Iron 1–3 0.1–0.3
Copper 0.03–0.05 0.02–0.06

a Source: Erickson, D.R. and L.H. Wiedermann, (3).

> Read full chapter

Soybean Oil Purification
Richard D. O'Brien, in Soybeans, 2008

Degumming
Degumming is a process for removal of phosphatides from crude soybean and other
vegetable oils to improve physical stability and facilitate further processing. The
phosphatides are also called gums and lecithin. Lecithin is the common name for
phosphatidylcholine, but common usage refers to all of the phosphatides present
in vegetable oils. Soybean oil is the major source of commercial lecithin because it
contains the highest level of gums and is the world's leading vegetable oil (Erickson,
1995a). It is preferable to degum soybean oil before caustic refining and mandatory
with physical refining due the high levels of impurities, including phosphatides, pro-
teinaceous and mucilaginous materials. These substances can be removed simulta-
neously with the free fatty acids (FFA) during chemical refining, but the operating
efficiency, yield, and quality are enhanced when degumming is performed as a
separate process. The decision to perform the degumming process or forego it to
remove the gums during chemical refining is based on energy conservation and
capital savings. However, separate degumming offers several potential advantages
(O'Brien, 2004):

• It is necessary for lecithin production—the hydrated gums are the raw mate-
rials for lecithin production.
• It is necessary for export oil requirements that the oil be free of impurities
that could settle out during shipment—sludges form when the hygroscopic
phosphatides become hydrated by moisture from the air.
• It reduces chemical refining oil loss—phosphates can act as emulsifiers to
increase neutral oil retention in soapstock.
• It reduces refinery wastewater load due to the lower oil losses and the reduction
of gums discharged.
• It improves acidulation performance—soapstock from degummed oil has a
lower emulsifier content, and the lower acid level required has less impact on
the wastewater treatment system.
• It prepares the oil for physical or steam refining—degumming significantly
reduces the nonvolatile phosphatides and metallic prooxidants.

Water Degumming
Degumming of oils intended for use in edible products is traditionally accomplished
by hydrating the gums and similar materials to make them insoluble in oil. Hydrated
phosphatides become more dense than the triglycerides and precipitate, or settle
out of the oil. Water degumming reduces the phosphorus content to less than
50 ppm with good quality crude soybean oil. The usual relation between phos-
phorus and phosphatide content is that phosphatides are 30 times phosphorus.
The water degumming process is simple, but the crude soybean oil quality has a
significant influence on the efficiency of the process. The phosphatides in crude
soybean oil exist in either hydratable or nonhydratable forms. The hydratable form
is readily removed by the addition of water, but the nonhydratable phosphatides
are unaffected and remain in the oil phase. The nonhydratable phosphatides are
generally identified as the calcium and magnesium salts of phosphatidic acids that
are produced by an enzymatic action of phospholipases released by damage to the
soybean cellular structure (Hvolby, 1971). This damage may occur with handling,
extraction practices, or both. Johnson reviewed these problems and remedies in the
Chapter: Oil Recovery from Soybeans. The nonhydratable phosphatides in the oil can
be reduced significantly by inactivating the phospholipases early in the extraction
process with the use of the expander or the ALCON process, used in Europe, which
cooks the soybeans to inactivate the enzymes harmful to oil quality. Soybean oil
extracted with the use of an expander has high phosphatide levels of 2.5–4.0%, and
the ALCON process levels are 4.0–6.0% (Erickson, 1995d), but the phosphatides are
more hydratable and more easily removed by water degumming. Normally, soybean
oil from conventional solvent extraction has about 90% hydratable phosphatides and
10% nonhydratable phosphatides, and the total phosphatide content ranges from
1.1 to 3.2%. The FFA of good quality crude soybean oil ranges from 0.5 to 1.0%,
which is reduced by 20–40% in water- degummed oil. Poor quality soybean oil is
identified by a high FFA (>1.0%), also indicating a higher than normal nonhydratable
phosphatide content. Recognition of the function of calcium and magnesium led to
the use of demineralized water for degumming and the use of citric or phosphoric
acids to transform the nonhydratable to hydratable gums. The use of acids is
not recommended for gums intended for lecithin production because they cause
darkening of the lecithin (Erickson, 1995).

Batch and continuous water degumming systems are similar; the major differences
are continuous flow versus batching. For the batch systems, the oil to be degummed
is heated to 150 ± 10°F (65 ± 5°C), water added, and mixed for 30 min. The
amount of water added should be 75% of the phosphate content of the oil. Too
little water produces dark viscous gums and a hazy oil, while too much water causes
excess oil losses through hydrolysis. The hydration temperature is important because
degumming is temperature- sensitive; it is less complete at higher temperatures due
to the increased solubility of the phosphatides, and the increased viscosity at lower
temperatures makes separation of the phosphatides more difficult. After hydration,
the oil and gums are separated with a centrifuge (Carr, 1978). For continuous
systems, oil preheated to 65°C (150°F) is treated with water and mixed in a hydration
vessel sized for a 45-min retention time. This retention time can be reduced to 1
min with the use of in-line agitators. Treat the hydrated oil very gently to avoid
developing an emulsion. After hydration, centrifuge the oil to separate the gums
from the neutral oil. The gums pass to a wiped-film evaporator to become soybean
oil lecithin or may be added to animal feed. The degummed oil is vacuum-dried, or
if close-coupled to the refining process, drying is not necessary (Farr, 2000).

Acid-degumming
The acid-degumming process is a variant of the water-degumming process in
that it uses a combination of acid and water. Acid degumming leads to a lower
residual phosphorus content than water degumming. The nonhydratable gums can
be conditioned into hydratable forms with a degumming acid. Phosphoric and citric
acids are used because they are food-grade and sufficiently strong, and they chelate
divalent metal ions. Citric acid is usually preferable because it does not increase
the phosphoric content of the oil. Dispersion of the acids is critical for maximal
contact with the nonhydratable phosphatide complexes. The gums isolated with acid
degumming are not suitable for standard lecithin because the phosphatides have a
higher phosphatidic acid, and the degumming acid is present. Several acid-degum-
ming processes can be developed to attain a phosphorus value lower than 5 ppm
that is required for good quality physically refined oils. Unilever's super-degummed
process uses mild temperatures with a complicated multiple-holding-steps process.
The oil is heated to 70°C (158°F), modified lecithin is optionally mixed into the oil,
and then a strong solution of citric acid is added as a degumming acid to decompose
the nonhydratable phosphatides. After the reaction, the mixture is cooled to below
40°C (104°F), and water is added to promote the dissociation of the liberated free
phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylethanolamine. A further 3-h holding time is
provided to form liquid phosphatide crystals at this reduced temperature, which are
removed by a centrifuge (Dijkstra, 1992).

Modified Acid-degumming
Modified acid-degumming is a physical refining pretreatment that incorporates the
benefits of caustic soda neutralization. This physical refining preparatory process
treats the oil with a degumming acid and then partially neutralizes it with NaOH
in solution. The amount of NaOH used is limited to prevent soap formation. The
metal–phospholipid complexes are dissociated by the acid into insoluble metal salts
and phospholipids in their acid form, which are still soluble in oil. The NaOH
addition raises the pH and converts the phospholipids into sodium salts that are
hydratable. The hydrated salts can be centrifuged for separation or dried to form
agglomerates for adsorption on silica for removal with filtration.
The acid-degumming treatment generally reduces phosphorus to between 25 and
35 ppm. Neutralization with NaOH after the acid treatment should reduce the phos-
phorus content to 15–25 ppm. These treatments, followed by either a water wash or
the use of a silica adsorbent, further reduce the phosphorus to the 5-ppm maximum
required for physical refining. Silica adsorbents are added with a separate mixing
step before bleaching, and can be removed with a separate filtration or with the
spent bleaching earth. Some consider modified acid-degumming an intermediate
between acid degumming and chemical refining. This process should be applicable
to all types of oils, either crude or previously degummed (Carlson, 1993; Dijkstra,
1992; Grace).

Enzymatic Degumming
Enzymatic degumming is a relatively new process. An enzyme, phospholipase, con-
verts phospholipids into lysophospholipids that can be removed by centrifugation.
Crude oil, pretreated with a combination of sodium hydroxide and citric acid, is
mixed with water and enzymes by a high shear mixer, creating a stable emulsion. The
emulsion allows the enzyme to react with the phospholipids, transforming them into
water-soluble lysophospholipids. The emulsion is broken by centrifugation, separat-
ing the gums and phospholipids from the oil (ISEO, 2006). Enzymatic degumming
advantages are (O'Brien, 2004):

• Generates a better oil yield than traditional degumming

• Reactions usually carried out under mild conditions

• Enzymes are highly specific

• Acceptable reaction rates

• Small quantities of enzyme required for the reaction

• Degummed oils with low phosphorus and iron contents produced even with
poor-quality oils

Membrane Filter Degumming

Membrane processing has been applied to remove phospholipids from crude
oil/hexane mixtures as well as from crude oil itself without the addition of an organic
solvent. Pagliero and co-workers (2001) showed that membranes were suitable for
removing phospholipids from the miscella of crude oil and hexane. Subramanian
and co-workers (1999) reduced phospholipids in soybean oil in the range of 85.8 to
92.8% with surfactant-aided membrane degumming. The phosphorus content of
the degummed oil was 20–58 ppm. The high membrane reduction level indicates
that hydratable and nonhydratable phospholipids were removed from the soybean
oil. Commercialization of a membrane filtering process to simultaneous degum
and refine in a single step is reportedly in progress (Carlson, 2006). This system is
expected to produce a membrane-separated oil with a phosphorous level of <2.0
ppm and reduction of the chlorophyll content by more than half (Farr, 2000).

> Read full chapter

Degumming and Lecithin Processing

and Utilization
David R. Erickson, in Practical Handbook of Soybean Processing and Utilization,
1995

Publisher Summary
Degumming is the process for removal of phosphatides from crude soybean and
other vegetable oils. The phosphatides are also called gums and lecithin. The latter
term is also the common name for phosphatidyl choline, but common usage
refers to the array of phosphatides present in all crude vegetable oils. Although
all crude vegetable oils contain gums, soybean oil is currently the major source of
commercial lecithin because it contains the largest amount of gums and is also
the world's leading vegetable oil. In conventional solvent extraction, only half of
the phosphatides present in soybeans are extracted. Use of preparation processes
such as the Alcon process or expanders will change the array of phosphatides in the
crude oil by increasing the phosphatidyl choline content by about 30% to 40% and
will increase the total extracted phosphatides. Some plants use steam condensates
for degumming rather than deionized water; however, the absence of iron in the
condensate should be ensured. Some plants also use excess stripping steam in the
last stages of miscella desolventizing as a means for hydration of phosphatides, but
this is more difficult to control than simple water addition. This chapter illustrates
the flowsheet for degumming soybean oil and crude lecithin production. Lecithin
has unique release properties and as such has been used in pan frying formulations
and in pan greases for baking. In addition, it is also used industrially as a release
agent for ready removal of both wooden and metal concrete casting forms.

> Read full chapter

Camellia Oil and Tea Oil

Kevin Robards, ... Haiyan Zhong, in Gourmet and Health-Promoting Specialty Oils,
2009

Refining
Degumming: Degumming is the removal of impurities, especially phospholipids,
in the crude oil. The presence of phospholipids can darken the color of the oil and
cause the oil to bubble if it is used for frying. Zhong et al. (2004) compared various
degumming methods to show their effects for camellia oil (Table 11.6).

Table 11.6. The Results of Different Degumming Methods for Camellia Oil

Methods Acid value (KOH, PV (meq/kg) Phospholipids Heating test

mg/g) (ppm) (280°C)
1 1.60 18.7 31.24 No precipitate
2 1.62 16.3 25.73 No precipitate
3 1.60 21.7 12.35 No precipitate
4 1.68 21.1 26.12 No precipitate

Method 1, conventional hydrated degumming: the crude oil was heated to 80°C and
mixed with 3% soft water that was heated to 80°C, and then stirred for 30 min. Water
and oil were separated by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 20 min.Method 2, dried
degumming: the crude oil was heated to 65°C and mixed with 0.05% of 85% H3PO4,
and then stirred for 20 min. Centrifugation conditions as for Method 1.Method 3,
wet degumming: the crude oil was heated to 80°C and mixed with 0.1% of 85%
H3PO4, and 3% soft water that was heated to 80°C, and then stirred for 30 min.
Centrifugation conditions as for Method 1.Method 4, Unilever super-degumming:
the crude oil was heated to 75°C and mixed with 0.3% of 85% H3PO4, and then
stirred for 20 min. The mixture was cooled to 25°C and 3% soft water was added,
then it was stirred for 1 h. Centrifugation conditions as for Method 1.

Membrane separation was applied in camellia oil processing to increase the relative
content of oleic acid. This separating technique is conducted at a lower temperature,
and the polymerization of unsaturated fatty acid under high temperature is avoided.
Pan et al. (2006) reported the selection of membrane materials and their effects on
degumming (Table 11.7).

Table 11.7. Results of Degumming by Different Organic Membranes

Membrane materials Membrane flux (m3/m2•h) Degumming rate (%) (as phos-
pholipids)
Polypropylene 1.85 99.6
Polysulfone 1.6 96.7
Polyvinylidene fluoride 1.2 97.6
Source: (Pan et al., 2006)

Copyright © 2006

Alkali refining and washing: Sodium hydroxide is used in refining to remove free fatty
acids (FFAs). The FFA content must be determined, and the mass of NaOH added is
calculated according to the formula (Lu et al., 2003):

GNaOH = 7.73 × 10−4 Go VA

where:

GNaOH is the amount of added NaOH, kg;

Go is the oil weight, kg;
VA is the acid value, KOH mg/g.

The crude oil is stirred at 60–70 rpm, while NaOH of 12–16°Be (Degree Baum e) is
added for about 20 min. Then the temperature is increased at 1°C/min. The stirring
rate is reduced to 30–40 rpm for 10–15 min until the temperature reaches 55–65°C.
The oil is left to stand for 8 hours and is then heated to 78–80°C and mixed with
6–10% wt/wt soft water that is heated to 83–85°C. The mixture is cooled and left to
stand for 1 hour to allow the separation of oil and water. The procedure is repeated
three to six times until the separated water is clear (Pang & Mao, 2004).

Bleaching: The alkali refined oil is pumped into a bleaching kettle and heated to
90–100°C at 2°C/min. Activated clay (2–4%) is added, and the oil is sequentially
heated to 105°C and left to stand at 105°C for 20–30 min (Pang & Mao, 2004). The
activated earth bleaching conditions also affect the quality of refined oil. Zhong et
al. (2000) used an orthogonal design [L1645] to optimize the bleaching conditions of
activated earth amount, temperature, and time. Table 11.8 shows that the acid value
(FFA content) increased with the increase of activated earth amount, temperature,
and time. Peroxide value and phospholipids exhibited an inverse trend, compared
with that of acid value. The carbonyl value (CV) increased with the increase of time
and temperature. CV also increased with 2–4% of activated earth, but decreased
when the clay was over 4%.

Table 11.8. The Bleaching Orthogonal Experiment Results

No. clay (%) Temp.(°C) Time Ab- AV PV CV Phos-

(min) sorbance (A(mg/kg)
5cm535nm)(meq/kg) (meq/kg) pho-lipids (ppm)

1 2 80 5 2.250 0.63 4.62 2.10 1149

2 2 100 10 0.225 0.73 2.52 2.68 563
3 2 120 15 0.150 0.80 2.69 2.81 301
4 2 140 20 0.155 0.95 1.67 2.56 304
5 4 80 10 0.325 0.66 2.55 3.24 549
6 4 100 5 0.175 0.84 3.02 4.02 282
7 4 120 15 0.080 1.10 2.32 5.82 314
 8 4 140 20 0.130 1.08 1.51 4.66 329
9 6 80 15 0.175 0.72 2.50 2.97 490
10 6 100 20 0.090 0.89 2.41 3.34 273
11 6 120 5 0.110 0.82 2.74 3.47 280
12 6 140 10 0.100 1.09 1.72 3.12 293
13 8 80 20 0.200 0.70 2.33 2.23 510
14 8 100 15 0.080 0.86 2.48 2.66 250
15 8 120 10 0.085 0.94 2.54 2.87 259
16 8 140 5 0.095 1.12 1.50 2.20 264

AV= anisidine value, PV = peroxide value, CV = carbonyl value.

Deodorization and Winterization: Deodorization is a high-temperature, high-vacu-

um steam-distillation process that is used for removal of volatiles. Tests showed that
camellia oil was completely deodorized at 260 Pa and 200°C with 3–8% steam (Lu et
al., 2003). Winterization is the process that allows the solid portion of the oil under
chilling conditions to crystallize, which is necessary to meet the requirement of the
cold test. Lu et al. (2003) reported that the oleic acid content of camellia oil was
enhanced by 5–12% after the oil was chilled at –5 to 5°C. However, Zhang (2003)
found no significant increase in the oleic acid content after camellia oil was cooled
at 0, 3, 7°C for up to 72 hours, but the cold stability of the oil was more than 200
hours at 0°C.

> Read full chapter

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