Thermoelectric Generators

A novel self-powered wireless temperature sensor has been designed and presented for solving the
power supply problem of temperature sensors. This sensor can autonomously measure temperature
under positive temperature fluctuation situations. The self-powered characteristic, realized by
using four thermoelectric generators, enables the sensor to operate without any batteries or other
power sources. In order to obtain these features, attentions are not only focused on the method to
combine signal sensing and power generating together, but also on the method to improve
measurement accuracy. Experimental results confirm that this novel sensor has excellent
measurement accuracy. The measured performance is consistent with the calculated
characteristics. For typical application, this self-powered temperature sensor can detect fire before
it develops to flashover state. And the maximum detection distance grows with the growth of
burning rate. All the results indicate this innovative sensor is a promising self-powered
device which can be used to measure temperature value in positive temperature fluctuation
situations [1].
Annular thermoelectric generators can eliminate the thermal contact resistance formed due to
geometry mismatch when flat-plate thermoelectric generators are used with round shaped heat
source or heat sink. Therefore, in this study, the numerical simulation of a segmented annular
thermoelectric generator (SATEG) is investigated using three-dimensional finite element analysis.
The thermoelectric and mechanical performance of the segmented annular thermoelectric
generator is studied by considering temperature dependent thermoelectric material properties and
elastoplastic behaviour of copper and the welding layer (solder). The influence of segmented pin
geometry on the performance of the segmented annular thermoelectric generator is investigated
and comparison is made with non-segmented annular thermoelectric generators. COMSOL 5.3
Multiphysics software is used to investigate the effects of heat source temperature, thermoelectric
leg length and leg angle on the electrical and mechanical performance of the segmented and non-
segmented annular thermoelectric generators. Results show that the segmented annular
thermoelectric generator has a greater efficiency compared to the annular thermoelectric generator
(ATEG) with Bismuth telluride material when the temperature difference is
greater than 100 K. In addition, the efficiency of the SATEG is found to be 21.7% and 82.9%
greater than that of the Bismuth telluride ATEG and Skutterudite ATEG respectively at 200 K
temperature difference. Finally, the results show that increase in thermoelectric leg length can
reduce the thermal stress and electrical performance of the segmented and non-segmented
thermoelectric generators. Results obtained from this study would influence the design and
optimization of segmented annular thermoelectric generators [2].

Thermoelectric and piezoelectric generators have drawn considerable attention for generating
electrical energy from heat and mechanical vibrations for replacing the commercially available
rechargeable batteries. In this report, we have fabricated flexible hybrid device by combining of
the piezoelectric nanogenerator (PVDF-ZnO) and thermoelectric generator (n-leg and p-leg made
of Bi2Te3-RGO (Reduced Graphene Oxide) and Sb2Te3-RGO, respectively) by simple chemical
solution method. The focus of this research is to integrate thermoelectric and piezoelectric in a
small flexible device to harvest electrical energy from both thermal and mechanical energies.
The output power of thermoelectric generator is ∼1.8 nW at a temperature difference of 4 K and
the output power of piezoelectric generator is ∼1.2 µW [3].
The Internet of Things (IoT), coupled with advanced analytics, is poised to revolutionize
manufacturing maintenance and efficiency. However, a practical route to powering these many
IoT devices remains unclear. In this work, flexible thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are fabricated
from low cost, screen printed silver and nickel inks before being integrated into a novel form factor
device based on commercial steam pipe insulation. Through optimization of internal resistances
and total device design, this 420-junction TEG device produces 308 µW of power at a temperature
difference of 127 K. This is sufficient to power a temperature sensing circuit with wireless
communication capabilities. In this report we demonstrate that, after an initial 4 h of charging, this
TEG can power a standard RFduino microcontroller for 10 min while sending temperature
readings every 30 s via Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) to a cell phone. Additional optimization and
scaling could further increase system efficiency and provide a viable route to powering an
industrial wireless sensing network (WSN) [4].
Internet of Things (IoT) and wearable sensing paradigm assume the sensing devices are available
24/7 and can be accessed from anywhere. This vision implies strict requirements to the power
supply and energy harvesting which are expected to guarantee ‘perpetual’ operation of IoT
devices. This paper reports on modelling and experimental verifcation of low temperature gradient
thermoelectric generator. Obtained under the conditions of low gradient temperature
approximation, the model accounts for the key physical phenomena and enables the
accurate output power calculations using a closed-form expression. We perform a comparative
study on the state-of-the-art models against the obtained solution and show the simplicity and
performance of the proposed approach. For demonstrating practical feasibility of the model, we
develop an experimental testbed consisting of the power generator, temperature control and data
acquisition units. Experimental results demonstrate the average error 5.5% which improves the
state-of-the-art results [5].
Global demand for battery-free metrics and health monitoring devices has urged leading research
agencies and their subordinate centers to set human energy harvesting and self-powered wearable
technologies as one of their primary research objectives. After an overview of wearables market
trends, different active and passive methods of body energy harvesting for powering low-
consumption electronic devices are introduced, and challenges of device fabrication are discussed.
The discussion continues with the primary emphasis on thermoelectric generators for body heat
harvesting. The physiological aspects of the human body involved in heat generation are
elaborated. System requirements and the influence of different parameters on the performance of
thermoelectric generators are studied at the material, device, and system levels. Finally, the
advancements in the development of rigid and flexible thermoelectric generators for wearable and
textile integration are presented [6].
As industrial environments expand and become more automated, wireless sensor networks are
attracting attention as an essential technology for efficient operation and safety. A wireless sensor
node (WSN), self-powered by an energy harvester, can significantly reduce maintenance costs as
well as the manpower costs associated with the replacement of batteries. Among the many studies
on energy harvesting technologies for self-powered WSNs, however, the harvested power has been
too low to be practically used in industrial environments. In this work, we demonstrate a self-
powered WSN driven by a flexible thermoelectric generator (f-TEG) with a significantly improved
degree of practicality. We developed a large-area f-TEG which can be wrapped around heat pipes
with various diameters, improving their usability and scalability. A study was conducted to
optimize the performance of the fTEG for a particular WSN application, and an f-TEG fabricated
with an area of 140 x 113 mm2 harvested 272 mW of energy from a heat pipe at a temperature of
70 0C. We also tested a complete self-powered WSN system capable of the remote monitoring of
the heat pipe temperature, ambient temperature, humidity, CO2 and volatile organic compound
concentrations via LoRa communication. The fabricated self-powered WSN system can wirelessly
transmit the data at distances as long as 500 m [7].
The large use of portable devices imposes a new interest in the development of power backup
systems with constraints in terms of compactness and safety. Such systems have to match the use
as battery backups as well as a self-standing operating. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) allow
access to new ways of power supply thanks to their long lifetimes, their competitive efficiencies
at low powers and their capability of providing multiple outputs. In this work, a TEG based on
catalytic combustor has been proposed aiming to approach electrical output and dimension of the
commonly used AA batteries. Catalytic combustion provides the possibility to profit from the high
power densities of hydrocarbon in limited space and low burning temperatures meeting the needs
of the TEGs as a heat engine. The system has been characterized for different fuel flow rates. The
measured TEG efficiency is 3.4% with the electrical power output of 5.3 W. The system thermal
behavior has been experimentally investigated according to literature models, by evaluating the
effectiveness of the design and of the chosen practical solutions. The system produced reached the
electrical output target, matching the characteristics proper of most of the common commercial
AA batteries in a similar device volume [8].
This paper presents the development of a numerical model for a thermoelectric generator
integrated with a novel microcombustor to predict the thermoelectric performance of the system.
The novelty of the work lies in the development of a numerical model to predict and analyze the
system’s thermal characteristics and thermoelectric performance with numerical simulations. The
system consists of a microscale combustor and two Bi2Te3 thermoelectric modules mounted on
the combustor. The combustor has backward facing steps and a recirculating cup to enhance its
flame stability and thermal characteristics over other combustors. Following the thermal analysis
of the microcombustor, the model for predicting the power output from the thermoelectric modules
is validated and then integrated by using separate sub-routine. A maximum open-circuit voltage of
8 V was reported for the integrated system. For a load resistance of 2.8 U, a power output of 5.6
W was obtained at a conversion efficiency of 6.8%. It can be concluded that the successful
integration of a thermoelectric model into CFD software will provide great impetus to future
studies on thermoelectric generators, while the optimized combustor, with a volume comparable
to that of a dry cell, can serve as a viable replacement for electrochemical batteries [9].

Small-molecule organic metals are interesting not only due to the intriguing thermoelectric
properties but also as promising thermoelectric materials. In this study, single-junction
thermoelectric generators are investigated combining p-type materials such as (BTBT)2PF6,
(BTBT)2AsF6, and (TMTSF)2PF6 (BTBT: [1] benzothieno[3,2-b] [1]benzothiophene, and
TMTSF: tetramethyl tetraselenafulvalene) with n-type materials such as Cu(DMDCNQI)2 and
(TTM-TTP)(I3)5/3 (DMDCNQI: 2,5-dimethyl N,N’-dicyanoquinonediimine, and TTM-TTP: 2,5-
bis[4,5-bis (methylthio)-1,3-dithiol-2-ylidene]-1,3,4,6-tetrathiapentalene). These complexes
exhibit high and metallic conductivity exceeding 250 S cm-1 at room temperature, and result in
large power factors from 26 to 116 μW m-1 K-2. Power output of a
(TMTSF)2PF6/Cu(DMDCNQI)2 thermoelectric generator achieves 36 μW cm-1 at room
temperature with a temperature difference of 10 K. In the actual thermoelectric generator with
contact resistance, large Seebeck coefficient is more important than the power factor, and energy
level matching between the thermoelectric and electrode materials is desirable [10].
Thermoelectric generators play an important role in energizing the electronic gadgets with
improved functionality, which will be an alternative technology for battery-based devices in the
near future. This work presents a simple design for the enhanced performance of the thermoelectric
generator for such kind of applications. This design is based on dual side power generation from
the heat produced by the human body and generated from the gadget, simultaneously. Initially, we
simulated the design in COMSOL Multiphysics 4.2 environment to obtain optimum design
parameters for fabrication. The fabrication was done using the dispensing planar technology and
assembled the thermoelectric generators. The assembled thermoelectric generators of the
electronic gadget tested in a laboratory environment. Simulation and fabrication results exhibit
that the proposed thermoelectric generator is best suited for electronic devices for converting the
heat generated from human palm and electronic gadget, simultaneously and can be easily
implemented [11] .
A large-area thermoelectric generator (TEG) utilizing a folded thin-film concept is implemented
and the performance evaluated for near room temperature applications having modest temperature
gradients (<50 K). The TEGs with the area of ~0.33 m2 are shown capable of powering a wireless
sensor node of multiple sensors suitable e.g. for monitoring environmental variables in buildings.
The TEGs are based on a transparent, non-toxic and abundant thermoelectric material, i.e.
aluminium-doped zinc oxide (AZO), deposited on flexible substrates. After folding, both the
electrical current and heat flux are in the plane of the thermoelectric thin-film. Heat leakage in the
folded TEG is shown to be minimal (close to that of air), enabling sufficient temperature gradients
without efficient heat sinks, contrary to the conventional TEGs having the thermal flux and
electrical current perpendicular to the plane of the thermoelectric films. The
long-term stability studies reveal that there are no significant changes in the electrical or
thermoelectric properties of AZO over several months, while the contact resistance between AZO
and silver ink is an issue exhibiting a continuous increase over time. The performance of the TEGs
and technological implications in relation to a state-of-the-art thermoelectric material are further
assessed via a computational study [12] .

Low exhaust gas temperatures of internal combustion engines, resulting from cold-starts, low loads
or low temperature ambient conditions, can compromise the performance of the automotive after
treatment system. In this situation, the engine is running far from its design point, with a very low
performance of the catalytic converter since it has not reached its optimal temperature. This effect
can result in more than 20% of the total emissions for nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC)
and carbon monoxide (CO) during a driving cycle. This study presents a new approach for
vehicular thermoelectric generators to reduce NOx, HC and CO emissions and solve the cold-start
issue. Authors propose the use of a thermoelectric generator coupled to an exhaust gas heater. This
system, that operates autonomously, is designed to transform the waste heat into electric heat that
can quickly raise the exhaust gas temperature to the optimal level. Results show that an
improvement up to 94% of the mean catalyst’s efficiency can be achieved. In addition, the system
could reduce up to 94%, 91%, and 97% the pollutant emissions of NOx, HC and CO, respectively,
in a WLTC driving cycle with a threshold exhaust gas temperature of 350 °C [13].

Significant research efforts are considered in the automotive industry on the use of low carbon
alternative fuels in order to reduce carbon emissions of future vehicles, some of which are only
compatible with external combustion machines. These machines are only suitable for electrified
powertrains relying on electric propulsion, particularly in range extenders, where the energy
converter operates steadily at a constant power at its optimal efficiency. The fuel consumption of
these powertrains strongly relies on the performance of the energy converter in terms of efficiency.
This paper presents the first study in literature that investigates the potential of fuel savings
of an extended range hybrid electric vehicle using a thermoelectric generator system as energy
converter substitute to the conventional internal combustion engine. An exergo-technological
explicit analysis is conducted to identify the different thermodynamic configurations. An extended
range vehicle model is considered and the different configurations are integrated as auxiliary
power unit. Fuel consumption simulations are performed on the worldwide-harmonized light
vehicles test cycle. Results are compared to the reference internal combustion engine operating as
auxiliary power unit. The recuperative reheat two-stage thermoelectric generator is selected among
numerous identified thermodynamic configurations, offering high efficiency and net specific
work, and consequently lower fuel consumption compared to other configurations. This innovative
thermodynamic configuration identified through the methodology proposed in this paper has been
patented. Also, this study highlights the importance of increasing the thermoelectric generator’s
module merit factor in order to achieve system efficiency comparable to the internal combustion
engine, which makes this energy converter a potential for the implementation in future powertrains
with zero carbon alternative fuels [14].
Effective thermal management of photovoltaic cells is essential for improving its conversion
efficiency and increasing its life span. Solar cell temperature and efficiency have an inverse
relationship therefore, cooling of solar cells is a critical research objective which numerous
researchers have paid attention to. Among the widely adopted thermal management techniques is
the use of thermoelectric generators to enhance the performance of
photovoltaics. Photovoltaic cells can convert the ultra-violent and visible regions of the solar
spectrum into electrical energy directly while thermoelectric modules utilize the infrared region to
generate electrical energy. Consequently, the combination of photovoltaic and thermoelectric
generators would enable the utilization of a wider solar spectrum. In addition, the combination of
both systems has the potential to provide enhanced performance due to the compensating effects
of both systems. The waste heat produced from the photovoltaic can be used by the thermoelectric
generator to produce additional energy thereby increasing the overall power
output and efficiency of the hybrid system. However, the integration of both systems is complex
because of their opposing characteristics thus, effective coupling of both systems is essential. This
review presents the concepts of photovoltaics and thermoelectric energy conversion, research
focus areas in the hybrid systems, applications of such systems, discussion of the most recent
research accomplishments and recommendations for future research. All the essential elements
and research areas in hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator are discussed in detailed
therefore, this review would serve as a valuable reference literature [15].
Generating electricity in present there is a shortage of fossil fuel, oil, gas, etc. burning of these
fuels causes environmental problem like radio activity pollution, global warming etc. So that these
(coal, oil, gas) are the limiting resources hence resulting new technology is needed for electricity
generation, by using thermoelectric generators to generate power as a most promising technology
and environmental free and several advantages in production. Thermoelectric generator can
convert directly thermal (heat) energy into electrical energy. In this TEG there are no moving parts
and it cannot be produce any waste during power production hence it is consider as a green
technology. Thermoelectric power generator convert direct waste heat in to generate electricity By
this it eliminated emission so we can believe this green technology. Thermoelectric power
generation offer a potential application in the direct exchange of waste-heat energy into electrical
power where it is unnecessary to believe the cost of the thermal energy input. This method will
have an maximum outcome. The application of this option green technology in converting waste-
heat energy directly into electrical power can too improve the overall efficiencies of energy
conversion systems. Heat source which is need for this conversion is less when contrast to
conventional methods. By using this, energy is used to charge the mobile electronics [16].
In this work we proposed design, fabrication and functional characterization of a very low cost
energy autonomous, maintenance free, flexible and wearable micro thermoelectric generator
(TEG), finalized to power very low consumption electronics ambient assisted living (AAL)
applications. The prototype, integrating an array of 100 thin films thermocouples of Sb2Te3 and
Bi2Te3, generates, at 40 ◦C, an open circuit output voltage of 430 mV and an electrical output
power up to 32 nW with matched load. In real operation conditions of prototype, which are
believed to be very close to a thermal gradient of 15 ◦C, the device generates an open circuit output
voltage of about 160 mV, with an electrical output power up to 4.18 nW. In the first part of work,
deposition investigation Sb2Te3 and Bi2Te3 thin films alloys on Kapton HN polyimide foil by RF
magnetron co-sputtering technique is discussed. Deposition parameters have been
optimized to gain perfect stoichiometric ratio and high thermoelectric power factor; fabricated
thermogenerator has been tested at low gradient conditioned to evaluate applications like human
skin wearable power generator for ambient assisted living applications [17].
Microfabricated thermoelectric generators (mTEGs) can harvest modest temperature differences
to provide reliable solid-state electricity for low-power electronics, sensors in distributed networks,
and biomedical devices. While past work on mTEGs has focused on fabrication and demonstration,
here we derive and explore comprehensive design guidelines for optimizing power output. A new
closed-form thermoelectric device model agrees well with the traditional iterative approach. When
thermoelectric leg length is limited by thin-film fabrication techniques, a very low (<10%) active
thermoelectric fill fraction is required to optimize device power output, requiring careful selection
of filler material. Parasitic resistance due to electrical interconnects is significant when a small
number of thermocouples is used, and this loss can be reduced by increasing the number of
thermocouples while decreasing the cross-sectional area of the legs to maintain the same fill
fraction. Finally, a discussion of the “incompleteness of ZT” shows that different combinations of
thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and Seebeck coefficient resulting in the same ZT will
result in different device performance and optimization decisions. For mTEGs, we show it is best
to increase Seebeck coefficient, followed by decreasing thermal conductivity for short leg lengths
and increasing electrical conductivity for long leg lengths [18].
This paper discusses and presents the implementation of a boost converter as power electronic
interface to be used with the thermoelectric generator (TEG). The common application for such
system is the battery charger. The boundary conditions for battery chargers include the charging
current and battery voltage limits which have to be respected throughout the charging process,
while the maximization of the power generated from the TEG is a global target that is desired to
be met as much as possible. Coordinated control algorithm that collectively combines these
constraints is the main focus of this work. Novel global control algorithm is proposed and verified
in this paper with detailed analysis that shows the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. Dual
control loops for the voltage and current of the boost converter will be designed and analyzed to
satisfy the source and load demands. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) mode, power
matching mode and voltage stabilization mode will be integrated in the control algorithm of the
battery charger. This paper puts a schematic design for a system that harvests energy from a
thermoelectric generator bank of a TEG1-12611-6.0 TEG modules in order to charge a battery
bank of Samsung ICR18650 Batteries using constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV)
charging profiles [19].
Energy conversion using waste heat recovering techniques especially thermo electric generator
(TEG) technologies has developed during recent years. It’s utilization in the alternative energy
industry is attempted from many aspects. Previous research shows that TEG as a waste heat
harvesting method is feasible. The study for the search of renewable sources of energy has
been a major concern worldwide as a replacement to the high demand for fossil fuels. The
researcher ventured in harvesting heat energy and converting it into electric energy.
This was made possible with the use of Seebeck effect. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are
semiconductor-based devices that harvest heat to produce electricity. The researchers devised a
generator which uses alternative source of energy that can be used to harness and store electricity.
The energy that will be stored can be used in different applications such as to power and
recharge mobile devices. The basic model of this study (prototype) as a Thermoelectric generator
will consist of an aluminum heat sink and a thermo-electric cooler IC (Peltier device) that will be
used as a generator. The two sides of the Peltier device is cold and hot side that will give the
temperature difference which are used to generate electricity [20].

References
1. Shi, Y., et al., A novel self-powered wireless temperature sensor based on thermoelectric
generators. 2014. 80: p. 110-116.
2. Shittu, S., et al., High performance and thermal stress analysis of a segmented annular
thermoelectric generator. 2019. 184: p. 180-193.
3. Kumar, S., et al., Flexible hybrid piezoelectric-thermoelectric generator for harnessing
electrical energy from mechanical and thermal energy. 2019. 198: p. 111783.
4. Iezzi, B., et al., Printed, metallic thermoelectric generators integrated with pipe insulation
for powering wireless sensors. 2017. 208: p. 758-765.
5. Vostrikov, S., A. Somov, and P.J.A.E. Gotovtsev, Low temperature gradient
thermoelectric generator: Modelling and experimental verification. 2019. 255: p. 113786.
6. Nozariasbmarz, A., et al., Review of wearable thermoelectric energy harvesting: From
body temperature to electronic systems. 2019: p. 114069.
7. Kim, Y.J., et al., High-performance self-powered wireless sensor node driven by a flexible
thermoelectric generator. 2018. 162: p. 526-533.
8. Abedi, H., et al., Small size thermoelectric power supply for battery backup. 2019. 188: p.
116061.
9. Hiranandani, K., et al., Development of a numerical model for performance prediction of
an integrated microcombustor-thermoelectric power generator. 2020. 192: p. 116624.
10. Kiyota, Y., T. Kawamoto, and T.J.S.M. Mori, Low-temperature properties of
thermoelectric generators using molecular conductors. 2020. 259: p. 116217.
11. Addanki, S., D.J.M.S. Nedumaran, and E. B, Simulation and fabrication of thermoelectric
generators for hand held electronic gadgets. 2019. 251: p. 114453.
12. Tappura, K., et al., Large-area implementation and critical evaluation of the material and
fabrication aspects of a thin-film thermoelectric generator based on aluminum-doped zinc
oxide. 2020. 147: p. 1292-1298.
13. Massaguer, A., et al., Feasibility study on a vehicular thermoelectric generator coupled to
an exhaust gas heater to improve aftertreatment’s efficiency in cold-starts. 2019: p.
114702.
14. Nader, W.B.J.A.T.E., ThermoElectric Generator Optimization for Hybrid Electric
Vehicles. 2019: p. 114761.
15. Shittu, S., et al., Advancements in thermoelectric generators for enhanced hybrid
photovoltaic system performance. 2019. 109: p. 24-54.
16. Prashantha, K. and S. Wango, Smart power generation from waste heat by thermo electric
generator, in Int. J. Mech. Prod. Eng. 2016. p. 45-49.
17. Francioso, L., et al., Flexible thermoelectric generator for ambient assisted living wearable
biometric sensors. 2011. 196(6): p. 3239-3243.
18. Dunham, M.T., et al., Power density optimization for micro thermoelectric generators.
2015. 93: p. 2006-2017.
19. Dalala, Z.M., et al., Battery Charging Application with Thermoelectric Generators as
Energy Harvesters. 2019. 3(1): p. 248-259.
20. Birkeland, B.E., F.E. SÅghus, and E. Rosness, Thermoelectric generator for battery
charging and power supply. 2013, Google Patents.