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Zoo302
Histology
Lecture IIa
Cytoplasm and Nucleus
Bismark Oliver C. Lemana, M.Sc.

Biological Sciences Department, College of Science
University of Santo Tomas, Manila
Modified by: Marilyn G. Rimando
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The Cell
• The smallest living structure of life
• Eukaryotic cells
– True nucleus
– Organelles are prominent
– eg. Animal and plant cells

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Eukaryotic Cell
• Major Components:
– Nucleus
– Cytoplasm
– Plasmalemma (cell membrane)

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The Cell

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MUSCLE CELLS

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EPITHELIAL
CELLS

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FIBROBLASTS, BONE,
CARTILAGE

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NEURONS AND SENSORY
CELLS

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SECRETORY CELLS

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OVARY AND TESTIS

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MACROPHAGES AND WHITE BLOOD
CELLS

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ADIPOCYTES

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Eukaryotic Cell
• Other cellular components:
– Plasmalemma-associated components
• Integrins
– Cytoplasm-associated components
• Organelles (membranous and non-membranous)
• cytosol
• Inclusions (deposits of carbs, pigments, etc.)
– Cytoskeleton
• To be discussed further on the next lecture…

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Plasmalemma
LIPID BILAYER

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Plasmalemma

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Eukaryotic Cell
Integrins cell adhesion receptors
- are transmembrane receptors that are the bridges for
cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM)
interactions
Living environment of the cell

-connective tissue
cell adhesion receptors that bind to extracellular matrix ligands, cell-surface
ligands, and soluble ligands. They are transmembrane αβ heterodimers and at least
18 α and eight β subunits are known in humans, generating 24 heterodimers.

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The ECM - aids in structuring and maintaining homeostasis
- include several collagens and laminins, as well as
proteoglycans.
- wounding, hemostasis and tissue remodeling.

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Eukaryotic Cell

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Fibronectin - glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix that
binds to membrane-spanning receptor proteins called
integrins.

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Eukaryotic Cell
Integrins
cell adhesion receptors that bind to extracellular
matrix ligands, cell-surface ligands, and soluble
ligands. They are transmembrane αβ heterodimers
and at least 18 α and eight β subunits are known in
humans, generating 24 heterodimers.

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Transmembrane Proteins
Autoradiographic tests show that these proteins can migrate

through the plasmalemma but with limited movement.

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Major mechanisms by which molecules
cross membranes.
Figure 2-5 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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Major types of membrane
receptors
bind ligands such as neurotransmitters

usually protein kinases that are activated to phosphorylate
ion channels

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Endocytosis
- a form of active transport in which a cell transports
molecules (such as proteins) into the cell (endo- + cytosis)
- require the expenditure of energy (ATP)
the material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of plasma membrane, which then

buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material.

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Pinocytosis

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Pinocytosis

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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Phagocytosis
cells engulf large particles such as bacteria, cell debris, or even intact
cells. Binding of the particle to receptors on the surface of the phagocytic
cell triggers the extension of pseudopodia—an actin-based movement of
the cell surface

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Both macrophages and neutrophils
- play critical roles in the body's defense

systems by eliminating microorganisms
from infected tissues.
- - eliminate aged or dead cells from tissues

throughout the body.

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Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
– Fluid part of the cell
• Membranous organelles
– Mitochondria
– Golgi apparatus
– ER
– Lysosomes
• Non-membranous organelles
– Ribosomes
– proteosomes

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Ribosomes
- small electron-dense particles, about 20 x 30 nm in
size.
- found in the cytosol
- participate in protein synthesis
- All ribosomes are composed of two
different-sized subunits
- RNA molecules of both subunits are synthesized
within the nucleus…enter the nucleus and associate
with rRNAs…The assembled large and small
subunits then leave the nucleus and enter the
cytoplasm to participate in protein synthesis

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Ribosomes
The large and small ribosomal subunits come
together by binding an mRNA strand and typically
numerous ribosomes are present on an mRNA as
polyribosomes (or polysomes).

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Ribosomes
determines the amino

acid sequence of the
protein synthesized,
assembling the polypeptide from
amino acids ferried in by transfer
RNA (tRNA)
- provide structural support

- also position tRNAs in the correct "reading frame" and as ribozymes
- catalyze the formation of the covalent peptide bonds.

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Polyribosomes: free or bound to the
endoplasmic reticulum.

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Endoplasmic reticulum
- an anastomosing network of intercommunicating
channels and sacs formed by a continuous
membrane which encloses a space / channels
called a cisterna
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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Rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
endothelial cell, both ER (green) and

mitochondria (orange)
cisternae of RER are flattened

Figure 2-10 SER are frequently tubular

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Movement of polypeptides into the
RER

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Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
RER is the site for synthesis of
most membrane-bound proteins
- segregate proteins not destined
for the cytosol.
Additional functions include the -

- initial (core) glycosylation of
glycoproteins
- the synthesis of phospholipids
- the assembly of multichain
proteins
- certain posttranslational
modifications of newly formed
polypeptides

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Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
three diverse activities are

associated with smooth ER:
(1) lipid biosynthesis
(2) detoxification of potentially
harmful compounds
(3) sequestration of Ca++ ions.
Specific cell types with well-
developed SER are usually
specialized for one of these
functions.

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Golgi apparatus
- highly dynamic
- completes posttranslational
modifications and then packages
and addresses proteins synthesized
in the RER.
- named for histologist Camillo

Golgi who discovered it in 1898
- is composed of smooth
membranous saccules in which
these functions occur

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Golgi
apparatus
cis face (CF), or receiving

face transport vesicles
secretory
(TV) vesicles (SV)

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Summary of functions within the Golgi apparatus

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Secretory granules
- Originating in the Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles

- found in those cells that store a product until its
release by exocytosis is signaled by a metabolic,
hormonal, or neural message (regulated secretion).
- These vesicles are surrounded by a membrane and
contain a concentrated form of the secretory product
- Secretory vesicles with dense contents of digestive
enzymes are referred to as zymogen granules.

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Secretory
granules
TEM of one area of a pancreatic acinar cell shows numerous mature, electron-
dense secretory granules (S) in association with condensing vacuoles (C) of the
Golgi apparatus
Copyright (G).
© McGraw-Hill Companies

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Protein localization and cell
morphology
have distinct
Cells that make Cells that extensive RER and a polarity, with RER
few or no synthesize well-developed Golgi abundant at their
proteins for secretory apparatus basal ends and
secretion have granules or mature secretory
very little RER vesicles proteins undergo exocytosis granules at the
always have immediately apical poles
RER

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Lysosomes
- spherical membrane-enclosed
vesicles
- function as sites of
intracellular digestion
particularly numerous in cells
active after the various types of
endocytosis.
- Lysosomes are not well shown on
H&E-stained cells but can be
visualized by light microscopy after
staining with toluidine blue.

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Lysosome
s
characteristic very electron-

dense appearance
kidney tubule Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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Lysosomal secondary lysosomes=
functions Phagocytic vacuoles (or

phagosomes) fuse with primary
lysosomes
Autophagosome
snonfunctional or surplus
organelles
packaging in the Golgi apparatus
Synthesis of lysosomal enzymes

occurs in the RER

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Autophag
y
- a process in
which the cell
uses lysosomes
to dispose of
excess or
nonfunctioning
organelles or
residual body membranes
(RB).

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Mitochondria
Gr. mitos, thread, + chondros,

granule
membrane-enclosed organelles
with enzyme arrays specialized for
aerobic respiration and production
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
- The outer membrane is smooth

- the inner membrane has many sharp
folds called cristae which increase its
surface area greatly

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The inner membrane is
folded to form a series
of long infoldings called
cristae, which project
into the matrix and
greatly increase the
membrane's surface
area.
The number of cristae in

mitochondria also corresponds
to the energy needs of the cell.

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inner membrane
surface in contact with
the matrix:
- studded with many
multimeric protein
complexes resembling
globular units on short
stalks. These contain
the ATP synthase
complexes that
generate most of the
cell's ATP.

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Mitochondrial structure and ATP
formation

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Mitochondria in the light
H&microscope endothelial cells
numerous eosinophilic structures usually arrayed in parallel along microtubules

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Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes or
Microbodies
- (peroxide + soma) are spherical membrane-limited
organelles approximately 0.5 µm in diameter
- containing enzymes that use O2 to remove

hydrogen atoms from substrates, typically fatty
acids, in a reaction that produces hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) which must be broken down
to water and O2 by another enzyme, catalase.

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Peroxisomes
- contain enzymes involved in lipid metabolism

- Certain reactions leading to the formation of bile
acids and cholesterol also have been localized in
highly purified peroxisomal fractions

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Peroxisome
s
matrix of moderate
electron density Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
– Fluid part of the cell
• Membranous organelles
– Mitochondria
– Golgi apparatus
– ER
– Lysosomes
• Non-membranous organelles
– Ribosomes
– proteosomes

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Zoo302
Histology
Lecture IIb
Cytoskeleton
Bismark Oliver C. Lemana, M.Sc.
Biological Sciences Department, College of Science
University of Santo Tomas, Manila
Modified by: Marilyn G. Rimando

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Cytoskeleton
• Complex network of protein structures:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments (actin filaments)
– Intermediate filaments
• Functions:
– Determine cell shape
– Movement of organelles and particles in and
out of the cell
– Movement of the entire cell

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Microtubules
• Found in:
– Cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
– Cilia and flagella
– centrosomes
• α and β tubulin
– 13 units in a complete spiral
– Polymerization controlled by Ca2+ and microtubule-associated
proteins (MAPs).

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Microtubules and actin filaments in
cytoplasm
Actin filaments
(red) are most
concentrated at the
cell periphery
Microtubules
(green/yellow) are
oriented in arrays

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Microtubules
• Polymerization of microtubules
– Microtubule growth
– Occurs at the extremities (+ and – ends)
- directed by microtubule organizing centers
(MTOCs), which contain -tubulin ring complexes that
act as nucleating sites for polymerization.
- MTOCs include centrosomes and the basal bodies
of cilia
- show dynamic
instability
tubulin polymerization, occurs more rapidly at one end of existing microtubules end is
referred to as the plus (+) end, and the other is the minus (–) end

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Microtubule

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Microtubules
• Polymerization of microtubules
– Microtubule growth
– Occurs at the extremities (+ and – ends)
• Colchicine
– Blocks the (+) extremity from adding more tubulin
units
– Depolarization at (-) end
– Arrests mitosis at metaphase stage
• Vincristine, vinblastine and taxol
– Prevention of cancer cell proliferation

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Dynamic instability of
microtubules
- At stable tubulin concentrations
some microtubules grow while
others shrink
tubulin concentration is high: tubulin GTP is
added at a microtubule’s (+) end faster
“GTP cap” stabilizes that end of the

microtubule and promotes further rapid growth
free tubulin concentrations decrease: the rate

of growth also decreases, thereby allowing GTP
hydrolysis to catch up
The resulting “GDP cap” at the

microtubule end is unstable and favors rapid
depolymerization

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Microtubules
• Cilia and flagella
– Movement of materials
– Cell locomotion

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Centrosom
e
exist at right angles to each other
Each centriole consists of nine microtubular

triplets
The centrosome is the microtubule-organizing center for the mitotic spindle

and consists of paired centrioles

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Spindle Fibers

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Actin Filaments
microfilaments are helical two-stranded polymers
assembled from globular actin subunits
Actin is usually found in cells as polymerized
filaments of F-actin mingled with free globular
G-actin subunits.

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Actin Filaments
• Function:
– Contractile activity (actin and myosin)
– Present in muscle tissues
• Organization
1. Skeletal muscles
• Paracrystalline array integrated with myosin filaments
2. Most cells
• Formation of cell cortex in plasmalemma
• Associated with endo- and exocytosis, and cell
migratory activity

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Actin Filaments
1. Association with organelles
• Shifting and moving of cytoplasmic
components
• Cytoplasmic streaming
2. None-muscle myosin
• “purse-string” ring of filaments
• Cleavage of mitotic cells
3. Scattered in unorganized fashion in
cytoplasm

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Actin Filaments

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Actin filament
treadmilling
- Assembly of actin filaments (F-
actin) is polarized
- G-actin subunits added to the plus

(+) end and removed at the minus
(–) end.
highly dynamic structures,

balancing G-actin assembly and
disassembly at the opposite ends
net movement or flow along the

polymer known as treadmilling.

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Intermediate Filaments
- intermediate in size between the other two

cytoskeletal components and with a more variable
diameter averaging 10–12 nm
- much more stable and vary in their protein subunit

structure in different cell types
- All are essentially rod-like rather than globular

proteins that form coiled tetramers

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Intermediate Filaments
• Proteins associated with IF
– Keratins
• Found in epithelia
• Epidermis, nails, hooves, horns, feathers, scales
• Protection from abrasion, dehydration and heat
– Vimentin
• Mesenchymal in origin
– Desmin (skeletin)
• Smooth muscles and the Z-disks of skeletal and cardiac muscles
– Glial filaments
• Characteristic of astrocytes
– Neurofilaments
• Restricted to neurons
– Lamins
• Structural network of the nuclear envelope

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Intermediate filaments of
keratin
provide mechanical strength or stability to
cells
Bundles of keratin filaments called
tonofibrils associate with certain
classes of intercellular junctions (J)
common in epithelial cells

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Cellular
cytoplasmic inclusions
structures or deposits filled with stored
macromolecules and are not present in all cells
Lipid glycogen Pigment

droplets granules deposits (PD)

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Nucleus
• Contains the blueprint of all cells
• Components:
– Nuclear envelope
– Chromatin
– nucleolus
Liver section (hepatocytes)

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Relationship of nuclear envelope to
the rough ER (RER)

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Liver cells have large,
central nuclei
highly -basophilic
nucleoli are visible
within each nucleus
chromatin is light staining or

euchromatic
darkly stained heterochromatin
. Pararosaniline–toluidine
Figure 3-1 blue

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Ultrastructure of a
nucleus An active nucleus typically has
much diffuse, light-staining
euchromatin
nucleolus (N), the site of rRNA

synthesis and ribosomal -subunit
assembly

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The nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina, and
nuclear pore complexes
nuclear lamina, a meshwork assembled from lamins (class V intermediate

filament proteins)

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Nuclear
pores

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Cryofracture of nuclear envelope
showing nuclear pores

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Chromosome territories of a human fibroblast nucleus
Fluorescence in
situ
hybridization
(FISH) can be used
with a combination of
labeled probes, each
specific for sequences on
different chromosomes

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Components of a nucleosome
structure that produces the initial organization of

free double-strandedCopyright
DNA into chromatin
© McGraw-Hill Companies

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From DNA to
chromatin

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Human
karyotype

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Stages of
mitosis in
cultured cells

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Stem
cells

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Apoptotic
cells

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Late apoptosis—apoptotic
bodies
radical changes in
cell shape, with
membrane blebbing
and the formation
of many
membrane-bound
cytoplasmic regions

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Zoo302

Cytoplasm and Nucleus

Bismark Oliver C. Lemana, M.Sc.

Modified by: Marilyn G. Rimando

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Living environment of the cell

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Autoradiographic tests show that these proteins can migrate

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Figure 2-5 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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bind ligands such as neurotransmitters

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the material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of plasma membrane, which then

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- play critical roles in the body's defense

- - eliminate aged or dead cells from tissues

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determines the amino

- provide structural support

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Figure 2-9 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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endothelial cell, both ER (green) and

cisternae of RER are flattened

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Figure 2-11 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies

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Additional functions include the -

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three diverse activities are

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